water resource management with reference...
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WATER RESOURCE MANAGEMENT WITH
REFERENCE TO SHIVAPURI WATERSHED AREA,
KATHMANDU, NEPAL
Dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Degree of
Bachelor of Science (Environmental Science)
Sarbajit Gurung
DEPARTMENT OF ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE
ST. XAVIER'S COLLEGE
(AFFILIATED TO KATHMANDU UNIVERSITY)
KATHMANDU, NEPAL
JUNE, 2001
Acknowledgement
This dissertation is bolstered by some patronage, guidance, perspiration and lot of inspiration. It
is time to offer my high regards to my patrons and peers. I would like to appreciate
Fr.T.M.Joseph,S.J (campus chief), Fr. Larry Brooks,S.J (Associate Campus chief and Head of
department of Environmental Science), Mr. K.B. Thapa (Professor), Mr. Ranjan Dahal (lecturer)
and Miss Soni Mulmi (lecturer) for being a constant source of inspiration. The Department of
Environmental Science needs special acknowledgement.
I acknowledge my respected supervisor Mr. Prabhakar Pant for his unparalleled guidance and
meticulous support all through the research work, especially in compiling this report.
I would like to commemorate SWWR for letting me undertake research inside the protected area.
I express my in-depth gratitude to Mr. Prakash Mathema (chief technologist, DSCWM),Hari
Prakash Dhakal (Deputy Manager, Mahankalchour, NWSC), Mr. Dipak Gyawli (water
specialist) and Chandra Lal Nakarmi (Deputy Manager, Tripureshwor, NWSC) for their valuable
suggestion and immense help. I would also like to thank the library staffs of ICIMOD, IUCN,
MOF and DSCWM.
I offer my sincere regards to all the teaching and non-teaching staff of St. Xavier's college. My
special appreciation goes to my parents, sisters, friends, and seniors who assisted me with my
dissertation and without whom the project would have been a mess.
Sarbajit Gurung
Table of Contents 1.0 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Introduction
1.2 General background
1.3 Description of the project area
1.4 Objective of the study
1.5 Scope
1.6 Limitations of the study
2.0 REVIEW OF LITERATURE
3.0 METHODOLOGY
4.0 OVERVIEW OF PRESENT SOCIO-ECONOMIC STATUS OF SHIVAPURI
WATERSHED AREA
4.1 Population
4.2 Literacy status
4.3 Land use Pattern
4.4 Area, Production and yield of major crops
5.0 WATER RESOURCE ACT, 2049-AN ACT MADE
FOR SUSTAINABLE WATER RESOURCE MANAGEMENT
6.0 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS:
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Socio-economic study of Approached Sites
6.3 Water resource from Shivapuri Watershed and Wildlife reserve
6.4 Utilization of water resource inside the valley
6.5 Nepal Water Supply Corporation (NWSC) - an overview
6.6 Conservation of water resource
6.6.1 Water Harvesting
6.6.2 Grey Water Treatment: an option for water recycling
6.6.3 Creating Pubic awareness for conservation of water
6.7 Melamchi: an alternative water source to Kathmandu valley
6.8 Integrated water resource management
7.0 SUMMARY
8.0 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Abstract
The Shivapuri watershed situated at the north end of the Kathmandu valley is an important
catchment supplying most of the water demand in the Kathmandu valley. Due to intense
vegetation cover, there are many springs, streams, tributaries and rivers in this area. Water
supply is adequate during monsoon and scarce during the driest month. Water conservation
practice in this area is poor. NWSC is an organization, which was set up to serve the people with
potable drinking water and well managed sewerage system. NWSC is able to fulfill 29.5 million
liter of water per day, while the demand in the valley is 140 million liter per day and there are
many problems faced by NWSC. The study revealed that water harvesting and Greywater
treatment technology could serve as major alternatives for integrated water resource
management, which has been found feasible in case of Kathmandu valley. Further; 'Melamchi' is
also an alternative to supply water to the valley people, however, several problems are associated
with it. Although sustainability of water resource is becoming more and more difficult goal to
achieve, integrated water resource management is increasingly seen as an answer to this
challenge.
List of Acronyms and Abbreviations
DSCWM: Department of Soil Conservation and Watershed Management
ha : hector (1 ha = 20 ropanies)
HMG: His Majesty's Government
ICIMOD: International Center for Integrated Mountaineering Development
Khola: stream
MOF: Ministry of Forestry
NGO: Non-Government organization
NWSC: Nepal Water Supply Corporation
NWSSC: Nepal Water Supply and Sanitation Corporation
SWWR: Shivapuri Watershed and Wildlife Reserve
SIWDP: Shivapuri Integrated Watershed Development Project
VDC: Village Development Committee
CHAPTER-1: INTRODUCTION
1.1 INTRODUCTION
Water is one of the most important resources available to living beings in their daily life. Water
is life and we can't imagine our life without water. Proper utilization of water and its
conservation is imperative to meet all the demands of the population as well as for environmental
protection.
Traditionally, water resource management has been based upon the recognition that relationship
exists between the quality and quantity of water flowing from a watershed. Water resource
management is a term-of-art used to describe the ways in which environmental elements of a
watershed may be manipulated to maintain a reliable flow of high-quality water. By identifying
specific relationship between water and environmental elements, water resource management
seeks either to modify or maintain the timing, volume, location or quality of water supplies
(Alford 1989).
This report is based on field study conducted in Shivapuri watershed area, as it is the most
important catchment for drinking water supply in Kathmandu. At present there is a huge scarcity
of water inside the Kathmandu valley. This study is based on the socio-economic study of the
Shivapuri watershed area via western, mid and eastern approach. The study also includes
acquisition, collection, distribution, conservation and alternatives of water resource to the valley
people.
1.2 GENERAL BACKGROUND
Mountain watershed in Nepal occupies a permanent place in the geographical and economic
setting of the country. They account for 68% of the total area and serve as homeland for 60% of
the total population. Natural resource provided by the watershed ecosystem is the main sources
of livelihood of the majority of the rural population. Watershed area comprises the entire land
and water surface with the confines of a drainage divided more and more therefore, this had
become recognized at the dividing line between so called small watershed and large areas that
are approximately termed river basins. The utilization of watershed is beyond its carrying
capacity to provide food, fiber and shelter for the exploiting population has resulted in its
deterioration in most part of the world (FAO 1985). The Shivapuri watershed area was declared
as a watershed and wildlife reserve in 1976 due to the problem of soil erosion caused by
deforestation, overgrazing & cultivation on step slopes. The project area excels in biodiversity
and scenic beauty. The vegetation varies from tropical sal forest in the north near Likhu khola
and the sub-tropical vegetation in the southern foothills of the Shivapuri with species like Alnus
schima, castanopsis & Pinus sps to the temperate forest of Quercus semicarpifolia on the top of
the watershed within a small area of 2.16 km.
1.3. DESCRIPTION OF PROJECT AREA
1.3.1. SHIVAPURI WATRSHED AND WILDLIFE RESERVE
Covering an area of 144 sq. km., Shivapuri watershed & wildlife reserve is the major watershed
catchment area that provides drinking water to Kathmandu valley. Out of this area, 122 sq km. is
a reserve area. It was declared as a protected area for wildlife and water production purpose in
1985. The development activities in the reserve area are conducted by the Shivapuri watershed
and wildlife reserve, and are directly handled by Ministry of Forest and Soil Conservation. Water
tapped from Bagmati, Bishnumati, Nagmati, Shyalmati and many several other streams is
channeled through pipelines from reserves situated at Sundarijal, Panimuhan, Tokha, Alle,
Dhakel chaur and Paanch Mane. Water from different streams is also used for irrigation purpose
in the surrounding villages. Shivapuri watershed fulfils approximately 21% to 22% of the total
drinking water demand of the Kathmandu valley (NWSSC, 1997).
1.3.2. LOCATION
The Shivapuri watershed situated at the north end of the Kathmandu valley is an important water
catchment supplying most of the water demand of the Kathmandu valley. The watershed is
situated at the congruence of three districts of Nepal's Central Development (CDR). It is cradled
by the northern part of Kathmandu district, the southern part of Nuwakot district and the western
part of Shindupalchowk district. At an altitudinal climb of 1600 and 2500 meters above the sea
level, it lies between 27°45' to 27°52' N latitude and 85°15' to 85°30' S longitude. With the
coverage of about 215 sq km., the watershed area stretches between 8 and 10 km from the north
to south and about 20 to 24 km from east to west. A peripheral wall surrounding its reaches
demarcates the protected area of 97.36 sq. km.
1.3.3. ADMINISTRATION
The study area covering part of Kathmandu, Nuwakot and Sindhupalchowk districts of the
Central Development Region has 216.01 sq.km. The Shivapuri watershed and wildlife reserve
contains 25-village development committee (VDCs); 14 VDCs of Kathmandu, 9 VDCs of
Nuwakot and 2 VDCs of Sindhupalchowk districts.
1.3.4. CLIMATE
The climate is sub-tropical and warm temperature. The maximum and minimum temperature
recorded at Kakani (2,066 m) are 22.7°c in May and 0.3°c in December / January (1972 to 1990).
The mean annual precipitation for the same period is 2,727 mm, mostly occurring between June
and September (Shivapuri Management Plan, 1995).
1.3.5. TOPOGRAPHY
Shivapuri area has a steep mountainous topography where more than half of the land has 30 %
slope or even more. The altitude ranges from 1,400m to 2,732m above the mean sea level. The
width of terraces varies from place to place, even within the parcel, depending on geology and
forms of terrain. The slope categories in SWWR are shown in the following table below:
Slope class in degree Area in
hectares
(ha)
Percentage
0 to 3 1,063 5
3 to 15 1,315 7.2
15 to 30 3,252 15.3
30 to 60 12,887 60.8
More than 60 2,483 11.7
Source: Natural Resource Management Plan, SWWR (1994)
1.3.6. VEGETATION:
According to Amatya (1993), Shivapuri watershed area has broadly six types of forests.
a) Sal forest,
b) Terai hardwood forest
c) Lower slope mixed hard wood forest,
d) Chirpine forest,
e) Oak forest,
f) Upper slopes mixed hardwood forest.
Due to substantial difference in altitude with a short distance, a great diversity of vegetation
exists in the Shivapuri watershed and wildlife reserve area. Out of the total forest area of 8,434
ha, about 82% comprises of Upper slopes Mixed Hardwood type and Chirpine is the second
largest species (Natural Resource Management Plan, SWWR, 1994). Only 1,741.6 ha is in the
Buffer Zone and 6,692 ha. is the protected area by the forest type.
1.3.7. LANDUSE TYPE
The present status of land use in the Shivapuri Wateshed and Wildlife Reserve area is given
below:
Landuse Type Area covered (%)
Forest 39.1
Agriculture 32.7
Shrub 18.9
Grassland / Shrub 2.6
Grass 3.3
Abandoned 1.9
Other 1.5
Source: Tamrakar, 1993
1.3.8. POPULATION
The entire population of 25 Village Development Committee is estimated to be 90,381 and about
44,108 live inside the watershed area. Out of them 1,590 people are living inside the protected
area and 42,518 people in the buffer zone of the Shivapuri watershed and Wildlife reserve
(Shivapuri Management Plan, 1995). The average household size is 7.1 person in the project area
which is higher than the average household size of other part of rural village of Nepal (Natural
Resource Management Plan SWWR, 1994). The population broadly comprises mainly three
ethnic groups: Tamang, Brahmin / Chhetri and Magar / Gurung. In the same study the average
household size is found highest (8.9 person / hh) for Gurung / Magar / Newar ethnic group where
as the lowest (6.8 person / hh) is for the Tamang ethnic group in 1994.
According to Khatri (1993), 21 percent of the population is below 10 year and 10 percent above
the 59 years age group and age dependency ratio is estimated to be 70. The literacy rate in the
area is estimated to be 49.3 percent. The people of this area mainly grow paddy, wheat, maize
and millet, of which maize occupies highest crop practices.
1.3.9. ROADS AND INFRASTRUCTURES
The road network system is poor and is 104.5 kilometers in length. There is a ring road of 81
kilometer around the watershed, which was built in 1975. There is also a road network system of
foot trails and trekking routes of 81 kilometer and used by the villagers tourists and trekkers.
These roads are only motor able in the dry season. Twenty-security posts and 111 kilometers
long boundary wall have been constructed for protecting the watershed reserve.
1.3.10. BUFFER ZONE
A zone, usually covering all part of the area adjacent to a protected area, that is managed to avoid
negative consequences of the protected area on local people and vice-versa. In Nepal, legally
buffer zone defined by the 1993 amendment to the National Park and Wildlife Reserves in order
to provide facility for use and regular supply of forest products to the local people.
The SWWR area is divided into protected area of 9,373 ha. inside the boundary wall and 11,864
ha. outside as a buffer zone. The area inside the boundary wall is legally protected. The patch
forest area outside the wall is declared for the community forestry. According to Amatya (1993),
only 1,741.6 is covered by different type of vegetation within the buffer zone. Upper slopes
Mixed Hardwood type occupies the maximum area in the protected area. There are clearly
spatially defined zone called, protected area, southern buffer zone and northern buffer zone.
1.3 OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY
As water is indispensable to human lives, the main objective of the study is to know the
management of water resource inside the kathmandu valley. SWWR is the main source of water
supply of water to the Kathmandu valley. Thus, study is carried out in Shivapuri watershed as
well as in Kathmandu too and the main objectives identified are:
·to know the water resource acquisition, utilization, management and conservation of water
resource at Shivapuri as well as to study the problems arising thereof,
·to know the socio-economic status of Shivapuri watershed area,
· to know the present status of water at different sites of the hill viz. western, mid and the eastern
part,
·to know how the streams, springs, rivers and tributaries are being used and managed by the local
people,
· to formulate techniques so as to enhance the present utilization of water towards sustainability,
·to ensure environmental protection and sustainable management of the natural resources in the
Shivapuri watershed area with emphasis on safeguarding the water supply to the Kathmandu
valley,
·to know how the water is being supplied, utilized and managed inside the valley,
· to know how can the water supply to the valley people be increased,
·to identify the steps to be taken by the people for the sustainable water resource management or
integrated water resource management.
1.4 SCOPE
The study area covers SWWR and Kathmandu valley. The major focus on analysis is the water
resource management. Excessive pressure on water resources and its misuse results in declining
water quality, water scarcity, yield acceleration of soil erosion process, loss of aesthetic values
and overall degradation of natural resources. This study seeks to understand how water resource
can be best managed. Water resource is relatively scarce in case of Kathmandu; moreover, the
need to supply water to the ever-increasing population is a major problem. The study aims at
recommending proper utilization and conservation of water resources both in uplands and the
valley, and to ensure environmental protection and sustainable management of the natural
resources in the Shivapuri area with the emphasis on safeguarding the water supply to the
Kathmandu valley. The study also aims at formulating techniques so as to enhance the present
utilization of water resource towards sustainability.
1.5. LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY
Water resource management aims at acquisition, distribution, utilization and conservation of
water as well as the legitimate ways of controlling it at the community level. The present study
mainly focuses on the present status of water at different sites of Shivapuri hill, to ensure
environmental protection and sustainable management of the natural resource in the Shivapuri
area and to formulate techniques so as to enhance the present utilization of water towards
sustainability. During a short span of time, many studies about water resource management are
carried out and detail study can still be carried out in future.
CHAPTER-2: REVIEW OF LITERATURE
2.1 WATERSHED
Watershed is a hydrological area, which has common drainage point (Erickson 1995). Its
boundary being user defined, it may be of various sizes. The starting point of a watershed
is a ridge, which ends up at the lowest point draining all water in a stream or pond. The
term watershed has been understood many people as some areas on high elevation that
could produce large amount of water to lowland and area mostly covered by natural
forest. According to CHUNKAO in 1981, watershed is the land area dealing with water
resource management and rational use of natural resources. Its boundary encompassed by
the individual objectives as well as physical topography of mountain ridge. The process
of runoff and sediment transport controls it.
According to Kelly (1983), a watershed is an area of land that drains into a single
waterway or body of water. Thus a small watershed of few hectares, that drains into a
single point, forms a part of a large watershed may become a major river basin draining
millions of hectares of land. Kelly (1993), Murty et al (1991) and Gardiner and Cole
(1992) have defined watershed is an area of land that drains into a single water way or
body of water, an area from which runoff, resulting from precipitation flows past a single
point into a large stream, river, lake or ocean. The department of soils conservation and
watershed management of Nepal (DSCWM 1987) defines watershed as an area with a
fixed drainage (water) divided as boundary and drained to a common place. It further
says that watershed is an ideal nature unit over which hydrological process are integrated
and for which water balance may be constructed to show the disposal of precipitation into
a number of subsequent form e.g. interception of soil moisture, ground storage, eva-
transpiration and runoff.
A watershed is a land-based ecosystem with defined area with its own climate and water
resources sustaining a given population of flora, fauna and people. Its rehabilitation often
includes reforestation.
2.2 WATERSHED MANAGEMENT
FAO (1980) has published a field manual of watershed management and planning to provide
basic knowledge and practical approaches to watershed managers and planners. It has mentioned
four level of watershed management planning-national level, regional level, watershed or sub-
watershed level and farmer or community level. The socio-economic (improper land use, shifting
cultivation, over grazing, deforestation), physical (soil erosion, landslide, deposition of sediment
down stream) and technical (poorly planned development activities) are the major problems of
any watershed.
FAO (1980) has emphasized on identification and measurement of down stream benefits. The
watershed management is mainly emphasized on rehabilitation, protection and enhancement of
productivity of watershed area. The watershed rehabilitation aims to stabilize soil and water flow
and to reduce the down stream impact. The watershed protection activities aim to protect upland
watershed to reduce erosion and sedimentation.
The other objective of watershed management is to raise the productivity, which emphasizes on
developing land use practice that improve upland productivity and protect down stream area.
FAO (1980) has stated that the watershed condition of many third world countries is in bad
condition, which constrains the ability to develop a healthy agricultural and natural resource
base. The increasing population of people and livestock on the steep mountain watershed of
Nepal are rapidly depleting existing natural resources.
Bhadra and Allard (1991) have studied the problems of watershed management in Bhutan. They
have pointed out that the overuse of land causes problems of winter fodder. Shifting cultivation
is very common. High rate of soil erosion is caused by slope land cultivation. Thus, government
is focusing on the intensification of land use rather than its extension. Watershed management in
Bhutan relates mostly to preventive measure of treating and nutrient loss. Tejwani in 1991 has
pointed out that grazing and shifting are practiced extensively in the north eastern Himalayan
zone of India. The increasing pace of development has also caused watershed degradation but
misutilization of land is primary causes of watershed degradation.
Based on the system, DSCWM in 1983 has presented the district watershed condition of Nepal.
It has stated that 25 districts have good condition, 13 districts have marginal condition, 5 districts
have poor condition and 7 district 's watershed condition is very poor.
2.3 LANDUSE
Joshi, 1991, in his study has found out that the degrading ecological condition in Nepal. The
quantity of forest covers has been decreasing. The estimated annual yield of forest is 6.9 million
cubic meters, but the annual demand is about 9.9 million cubic meter. He has further pointed out
that 10.6% dropping area has increased during the period of 1971 to 1981 but the yield has
declined. Nepal has highest livestock population density, which has put additional pressure on
land. Annual erosion is very high especially in grazing land. The increasing demand of food and
livestock population is problems in hilly watershed.
Karim et. al (1993), have studied the landuse dynamics of the Shivapuri watershed area between
1981 to 1983. They have found significant gain and loss on all landuse categories. They have
stated that forest cover has increased at hte cost of shrubland and grassland. Gurung et. al. (1986-
1988), have studied the land slope process in the Chure range of Central Nepal. They have found
out that forest was replaced by agriculture land even up to the critical slope. They have pointed
out that slope as a major spatio-physical factor influencing agricultural landuse.
Pandey (1995), stated that altitude is one of the important physiographic factors which control
the land use pattern as well as its productivity. The coverage of land use is also different
elevation.
Shah and Schreir (1995), have studied the aims of watershed project. They have stated to
produce inventory of current landuse, climate, socio-economic condition in the watershed are the
aims of watershed project. They are further stated to determine the landuse changes, to identify
major degradation processes are the major theme of watershed project.
Balla and Tiwari (1999) said that watershed management integrates not only erosion control
works and rural development elements, but also involve proper management of natural resources
and human resources into one entity. All the conditions and distributions of land use and
infrastructure effect watershed management.
Tuladhar (1996), found that the relationship between the vegetation and different environmental
factors, altitude aspects and soil in Shivapuri area plays an important role in affecting the
vegetation and climate. Soil characteristics are very much affected by the vegetation cover and
the little deposition.
Bajracharya (1983), from his study found that the loss of forest cover in Pangama village
Panchayat (now VDC) was mainly due to rapid population growth. This growing population
converted forest and into agriculture terraces to provide more food crops necessary for their
survival. Bajracharya remarks that fuel wood is not only the driving for deforestation.
Shrestha (1985-1988), studied the northern portion of the Tinau watershed and found the
intensive use of land due to the concentration of animal and human population. Forest land was
increasingly converted into the agricultural land. Agriculture practice in the marginal land
without proper soil conservation and water management and over exploited by the community
had resulted in the loss of topsoil and caused landslide.
Thapa and Weber (1990), have studied the upper Pokhara valley watershed with the objectives of
explaining spatial and temporal variation in landuse, existing farming system and its problems.
They have stated that middle hills of Nepal are environmentally hazardous areas. Soil erosion,
landslide, deforestation are the main causes of environmental degradation. They have pointed out
spatio-physical (altitude, nature of topography, slope, temperature, vegetation) and socio-
economic (household size, farm size) factors as the influencing factors of watershed
management.
2.4. REVIEW OF THE STUDY AREA
2.4.1. SOCIO-ECONOMY
Khatrichhetri in 1993 found out that the average household size in Shhivapuri watershed area
was higher than that reported for rural Nepal. Ethnic-wise average household size is found
highest among Gurung/Magar/Newar and lowest among Tamang group.
In Shivapuri watershed area, the male literacy rate is twice as that of female. The sex bias in
literacy rate is more pronounced in the case of small farm households than other type of
household. Literacy rate among Chhetri/Brahmin was found to be the highest followed by
Newar/Gurung/Magar groups, & Tamang group (Khatrichhetri 1993).
Chhetri in 1993 found out that the major crops grown in Shivapuri watershed area are paddy,
wheat, maize, of which maize occupies highest cropped area followed by millet, paddy, wheat
and mustard. The yield level of paddy, wheat, maize, millet & mustard in the study area is found
to be lower than in the hill district's average.
It was found out that in Shivapuri watershed area, 60% of households do not produce sufficient
grain for their own annual requirements from their agricultural land holdings. It was also
reported that 15% households have food shortages for more than 6 months. It was further
revealed that food shortages are much higher in protected area than other areas.
2.4.2. FOREST VEGETATION
Amatya from his study in 1993 found out that the Shivapuri watershed area is exceptionally rich
in biodiversity in terms of wood and herbaceous flora, lichens, mosses, fern etc. It has a great
potential for providing improved quality and increased quantity of drinking water to the people
of Kathmandu city. The area is very close to Kathmandu and therefore provides a great
opportunity for recreational uses such as trekking, site seeing, and viewing the valley floor and
snow peaks. In order to maintain and enhance the goods and services from the area, conservation
measures are to be taken. Therefore the area inside the wall should be completely protected with
the least interference. Only dead woods should be allowed to be removed to meet the fuel-wood
requirement of the local population. Abandoned lands are to be planted and the bar looking floor
of under stocked Chirpine stands are to be re-vegetated. Landslides and gullies should also be
treated, using bioengineering techniques.
There is a heavy pollution residing in and around the buffer zone, whose needs are to be possibly
met from the area. For meeting the increased requirement of the population, the buffer zone is to
be managed intensively to maximize forest productivity, on a sustained basis. Plantation of
abandoned land, grassland and shrub land, enrichment of under stocked forest area, and tending
of shrub land are to be done to increase the production. To accommodate the need of grazing
land for cattle, some grassland in staggered pattern will be developed for pasture improvement
(Amatya 1993).
2.4.3. SMALL SCALE ENTERPRISES IN SHIVAPURI WATERSHED AREA
Shrestha in 1993 carried out his study in Shivapuri watershed area to determine the feasibility of
existing small enterprises in the area, identify the new potential income generating areas, analyze
marketing prospects, envisage role of government, NGO's and other agencies, asses socio-
economic study impact with special reference to poorer household, to propose a training package
and recommendations. The study revealed that there are about 160 business scale enterprises in
the area including goat farming, beekeeping, bamboo and nigalo processing, woodworks,
horticulture, vegetable farming, poultry farming, pigery, nursery, sericulture, mills production,
waterwheel, black smithy, tailoring and lodge.
These enterprises are operating on marginal basis. Their technology is traditional and less
productive. The local enterprisers are prepared to switch over from traditional farming to
improved farming including horticulture facilities are not adequately available. Market is not
organized. Although they are prepared to make improvements in existing enterprises and adopt
new lines, lack of finance and technical know-how has proved to be deterrent (Shrestha 1993).
2.5 WATER RESOURCE MANAGEMENT
Water, like energy, is not a single discipline, but the focal point or intersection of several
disciplines. It is a subject of engineering. When its regime is modified by hydro-technical
structures. When the cost and benefits of such modifications are discussed, it becomes a subject
of economics. When its climatological origins are examined, it is a subject of applied physics. If
one wishes to understand how a society uses water, it is an object of anthropological inquiry
(Gyawali, 1989).
For the past few decades, water resources management (WRM) has been an important issue for
donors, governmental organization (GO) and non-governmental organization (NGO) in Nepal.
WRM for the purpose of this research includes the requisition, distribution, utilization and
conservation of water as well as the legitimate ways of controlling it at the community level.
(Pradhan et. al. 1998).
Thapa and Pradhan (1995), in their book "Water Resources Development, Nepalese
Perspectives" stated that approximately thousand of the rivers are more than 10 km long and
about hundred of them are longer than 160 km. surface water is estimated to occupy 2.7% of the
country's area of which 97% is occupied by large rivers.
According to Peter Sun et. al.,1988, all the countries were concerned that irrational use and
excessive exploitation of natural resources makes sustainable development more difficult and
aggravates environmental deterioration. Resources should be conserved for future generation. It
is necessary to improve the ecological environment.
Water resources play an important role for the economic development of Nepal. The natural
environmental and hydrological conditions availability of water make the development of water
resources potential difficult. Surface water resource is variable in time, space, and quality,
especially in Nepal, with four months of summer-monsoon period followed by eight months of
drought. River discharges vary widely each year, being high during the wet season and low in the
dry period. Besides the hazards of usually large floods from direct and torrential precipitation,
sediment loads transported by the rivers also directly affect the water resources development
works. Water resources development requires conception of a project, its planning, design,
construction and finally operation of facilities to control and utilize water (Shanker,1998).
Dove (1993), has profusely elaborated the relationship between forest people and their rain forest
environment. He concluded that, the nature of the relationship between forest degradation and
under development of the forest people is the reverse of that which is commonly claimed: forests
aren't degraded because forest people are impoverished, rather, forest people are impoverished
by the degradation of their forests and other resources by external forces.
With a population of twenty million and a staggering population growth rate of 2.2% per year,
the environmental degradation within this beautiful land has reached an alarming level. (Gurung,
1989). Kremen et. al. in 1994, has identified that the goal of integrated conservation of
biodiversity while improving human living standards.
Gyawali in his book, "Water in Nepal" (1989), has mentioned that a lot of falling water isn't
necessarily a natural resource. What makes an aspect of nature something is of immense value to
society is a right synthesis of physical features with social views and values. One cannot have an
economic resource if the physical phenomenon is there but the required social climate is absent.
Resource management issues are human problems that can only be solved with knowledge from
other sciences and managers. Sound management requires agreement on what information is
collected, and how the information is employed in decision making. (Community and Forestry)
According to Shanker, 1998, as water is one of the most important natural resource, it is
necessary to take up integrated water resource development works leading to the all-round
development of the country.
With a fixed supply of water and rapidly increasing demands for water and its services around
the entire urbanized area of the world, sustainability is becoming a more and more difficult goal
to achieve. Integrated water resource management, which means making better use of the
resources to meet current and future demands, is increasingly seen as the answer to this
challenge. (IWRM, 1993)
According to Alford in 1989, he found that the goals of water resource management project must
be consistent with the scale at which the project is undertaken. At the scale of the major river
systems of the region, the Hindu -Kush Himalaya are characterised by large, impersonal forces
well outside the scale of human modification. These are associated with the annual flow of water
into the system as low altitude, monsoon, precipitation, the runoff resulting from that
precipitation, and the intense geomorphic activity in the mountains which provides the bulk of
the sediment transported through the system.
Present investigation shows that the water quality within the Shhivapuri watershed area is
excellent for supplying it as drinking water to the Kathmandu. The dense vegetation cover in the
Syalmati, Nagmati , Bishnumati and Bagmati sub-watershed ensures a steady flow of water from
the area. The considerably large size of the watershed has been one of the determinates in the
fluctuation of water level and the discharge of the streams in the area. The concentration of the
chemical variables have been found to change with the volume of water in the streams (HMG
1996/97).
CHAPTER-3: METHODOLOGY
PRE-PHASE (PROJECT CONCEPT)
During this phase, basic nature of the project was identified. With the primary objective of
evaluating water resource management, Shivapuri watershed and wildlife reserve (SWWR) was
chosen as project site. Some basic facts like location, area coverage, local communities regarding
the proposed research area were identified. SWWR is known to us as a watershed providing
drinking water to the valley people. As few studies concerned with the water resource
management in the area was available, it was not an easy task to study and assess the water
resource management practices there. With the constant discussion with my supervisor on the
feasibility aspects, the project was selected and approximate objectives were set.
MAP SCALES
In Nepal there are topographical maps at different scales for example map scale 1:25000, map
scale 1:50000 etc. On the topographical maps many features are shown such as cities, villages,
roads & trials, rivers, small streams, contour lines etc. For the watershed management, which is
most directly related with field implementation a more detailed topomaps should be, used i.e. the
topographic map scale with scale of 1:25000. However if more detailed maps are available, that
is even more desirable.
SECONDARY DATA COLLECTION
The project selection was closely followed by review of literature, which included review of
concepts and theories, and previous research findings. Different accessible resource libraries
(ICIMOD, IUCN, DSCWM, NWSC etc) were approached. The literature review was, however,
carried out between different phases of project, whenever convenient.
RESEARCH DESIGN
Structured questionnaire was prepared (Appendix) comprising general query on water resource
utilization, water conservation, problems associated with water, land use practices etc. and
sample design was selected for the survey based on criteria such as time constraint and density of
households.
FIELD RESEARCH
Study was carried out in the eastern, mid and western side of Shivapuri Hill. Representative
households from each approach were selected by random sampling for the purpose of primary
data collection. Different research methodologies were adopted.
· Structured interview:
Structured questionnaires were administered to randomly sampled households to collect the
required information.
· Identification and discussion with key informants:
Different water experts, water engineers and concerned authorities were identified as key
informants. Pertinent information regarding water resource utilization, potential, conservation etc
was gathered from them during formal and informal discussions.
ANALYSIS AND EVALUATION:
· Processing of data:
All the data were edited and coded. Then, they were classified and tabulated.
·Analysis of data:
The tabulated data were analyzed. Various secondary data were used for the analysis.
On the basis of tabulated results, final evaluation was done.
CHAPTER-4: PRESENT SOCIO-ECONOMIC STATUS OF SHIVAPURI WATERSHED
AREA
Water resources play an important role for the economic development of Nepal. Thus, the socio-
economic study of Shivapuri watershed area was carried out. Both primary & secondary data
have been used & the following parameters were considered:
1.Population
2.Literacy status
3.Landuse pattern
4.Area, production & yield of major crops.
1.POPULATION
About 44,108 people live in the Shivapuri watershed area. Out of them, 1,590 people are living
inside the protected area and 42,518 people in the buffer zone of the Shivapuri watershed and
wildlife reserve (Shivapuri Management Plan, 1995). The average household size is 7.1 person in
the project area which is higher than the average household size of other part of rural village of
Nepal (Natural Resource Management Plan SWWR, 1994). The population broadly comprises
mainly three ethnic groups: Tamang, Brahmin / Chhetri and Magar / Gurung. The average
household size is found highest (8.9 person / hh) for Gurung / Magar / Newar ethnic groups
whereas the lowest (6.8 person / hh) is for the Tamang ethnic group in 1994.
According to Khatrichettri (1993), 31.3 percent of the population is below 10 year and 9.9
percent above the 59 years age group and age dependency ratio is estimated to be 70. the
following table illustrates this:
Farm Group Age<10M F T 10-59M F T >59M F T TotalM F T CDR ADR TDR
Marginal 8 9 17 16 12 28 4 2 6 28 23 51 60.7 21.4 82.1
Small 26 35 61 55 56 111 7 14 21 88 105 193 54.9 18.9 73.8
Medium 41 28 69 34 46 108 7 10 17 106 88 194 63.9 15.7 79.6
Large 19 21 40 56 48 104 9 6 15 84 75 159 38.5 14.4 52.9
Total 94 93 187 185 166 351 27 32 59 306 291 597 53.3 16.8 70.1
Percent 31 32 31.3 61 57 58.8 9 11 9.9 100 100 100
where,
CDR=Child Dependency Ratio defined as ( children under 10 years / population of 10-59 years
*100)
ADR=Aged Dependency Ratio defined as ( populatoion aged 60 years & above / population of
10-59 years old * 100)
TDR=Total Dependency Ratio defined as (CDR+TDR).
Obviously water & other natural resources are used more by 10-59 years age group as compared
to <10 and >59 years age group. Thus, the use of natural resources by 10-59 years age group in
Shivapuri Watershed area can be further studied which is not carried out in this survey.
2. LITERACY STATUS
Though the local people have indigenous techniques to conserve water resources, education can
enhance the genius techniques of the acquisition, distribution, utilization and conservation of
water as well as the legitimate ways of controlling it at the community level. According to
Khatrichhetri(1993), literacy rate by sex and household type in Shivapuri Watershed area is
given in the table below:
Table: Literacy rate by Sex and Household type
Farm groups Male Female Total
Marginal 50.0 38.1 43.6
Small 67.6 26.5 45.4
Medium 61.4 32.8 47.4
Large 72.3 42.1 58.2
Total 65.6 33.3
Depending upon the household type viz. marginal, small, medium & large, it is found that
literacy rate of large household type is greatest & that the marginal one is the lowest. The above
table clearly shows that, males are given more priority for education than the females. As a
whole, 65.5 percent of male, 33 percent pf female and a total of 49.3 percent are literate ones in
the Shivapuri Watershed area (Fig. 1).
3.LANDUSE PATTERN
With the coverage of about 215 sq. km, Shivapuri Watershed area stretches between 8 to 10 km
from north to south & between 20 to 10 km from east to west. The protected area, demarcated by
a peripheral wall surrounding its reaches is of 97.36 sq. km. According to Amatya (1993), area
by land use in Shivapuri Watershed area is given in the table below:
Table: area by land class (land use) in hector:
Land class Protected area Buffer zone area Total area Percent
Forest 6,692.0 1,741.6 8,433.6 39.1
Agriculture 755.4 6,309.8 7,065.2 32.7
Shrub 1,638.9 2,437.6 4,076.5 18.9
Grass / Shrub 262.2 289.2 558.4 2.6
Grass 74.3 640.9 715.2 3.3
Urban ----- 225.3 225.3 1.0
Water ----- 33.1 33.1 0.2
Abandoned 284.9 133.0 417.9 1.9
Landslide 21.8 53.7 75.5 0.3
Total 9,736.5 11,864.2 21,600.7 100.0
According to above table, it is obvious that forest area covers 39.1% which is the greatest area
according to the land use pattern. This is one of the major factors which prevents erosion in this
area. Thus, to every visited site, there was no severe sign of erosion. Water covers 0.2% of the
total area, but due to intense vegetation, streams, springs and tributaries originate in many places.
According to the villagers, there is enough water for utilization during the monsoon whereas they
face a little problem during winter (esp. from march to may). Agriculture covers an area of
32.7% and there is no proper irrigation system. Most people in this area are dependant on rain
water for irrigation, while some use waste water for irrigation (Fig 2).
4.AREA, PRODUCTION & YIELD OF MAJOR CROPS BY FARM STRATA
Major crops grown in Shivapuri Watershed area are paddy, wheat, maize, millet & mustard. It is
important to know the amount of water needed by certain crops for its proper growth. Though
the irrigation system in this area is poor, proper use of water under certain circumstances can
lead to the increase in productivity because there is a plenty of water resources in this area.
According to Khatrichhetri (1993); area, production and yield of major crops by farm strata in
Shivapuri Watershed area is given below:
CHAPTER-5:WATER RESOURCES ACT, 2049-AN ACT MADE FOR SUSTAINABLE
WATER RESOURCE MANAGEMENT:
An Act Made To Provide for the management of Water Resource
Preamble
Whereas, it is expedient to make arrangements for the rational, utilization, conservation,
management and development of the water resources that are available in the kingdom of Nepal
in the form of surface water, underground water or in whatsoever form, and
Whereas, it is expedient to make timely legal arrangements for determining beneficial uses of
water resources, preventing environmental an other hazardous effects thereof and also for
keeping water resources free from pollution.
Now, therefore, the parliament has, on the twenty first year of His Majesty King Birendra Bir
Bikram Shah Dev enacted this act.
1.Short title and commencement:
1.This act may be called "Water Resources Act, 2049".
2.This act shall come into force on such date as His Majesty's Government may, by a notification
published in the Nepal gazette, appoint.
2.Definition:
Unless the subject or the context otherwise requires, in this act-
a) "Water Resources mean the water that is available in the Kingdom of Nepal in the form of
surface water, underground water or in whatsoever form.
b) "Beneficial Uses" means rational uses of the water resources within the available means and
resources.
c) "Licensee" means the individual or the corporate body which has obtained the license to use
water pursuant to Section 8.
d) "Users Association" means Water Users Association constituted pursuant to Section 5.
e) "prescribed" 0r "As Prescribed" means prescribed or as prescribed in the rules made under this
act.
3.Ownership on Water Resources:
The ownership of the water resources available in the Kingdom of Nepal shall be vested in the
Kingdom of Nepal.
4.Utilization of Water Resources
1) No person shall be entitled to utilize the water resources without obtaining a license under this
act.
2) Notwithstanding anything written in sub-section(1), no license shall be required for the
following uses of water resources-
a) for one's own drinking water and other domestic use on an individual or collective basis,
b) for the irrigation of one's own land on an individual or collective basis,
c) for the purpose of running water-mill or water grinder as cottage industry,
d) for the use of a boat for local transportation,
e) for the use as prescribed, of the water resources confined to a land by the owner of such land,
3) A person or a corporate body making use of water resources shall make its
beneficial use without causing damage to other.
5.Constitution of water users association
1) Persons willing to make use of water resources for collective benefits on an institutional basis
may form a water resources Association in a manner as prescribed.
2) The water users association, constituted pursuant to sub-section (1) shall be registered in a
manner as prescribed before the prescribed authority.
6. Formation of Water users association
1) Users association shall be an autonomous corporate body with perpetual
Successions.
2) Users association shall have a separate seal of its own for the purpose of its all functions.
3) Users association may, as an individual, acquire, utilize, sale or arrange by any means any
movable or immovable property.
4) Users association may sue as an individual or be sued in its name.
7. Priority on the utilization of Water Resources:
1) While utilizing water resources following priority order shall , in general, be followed :
a. Drinking water and domestic uses;
b. Irrigation;
c. Agricultural Uses such as animal husbandry and fisheries;
d. Hydroelectricity;
e. Cottage Industry, industral enterprises and lining uses,
f. Navigation;
g. Recreational uses;
h. Other uses;
2) If a dispute arises while utilizing water resources, the prescribed committee shall, on the basis
of priority order as set out in sub-section (1), the beneficial use made of the water resources in
accordance with subsection (3) of section 4 and also by conducting other necessary enquiries,
decide as to whether or not in what manner such use could be made.
3) The decision made by the prescribed committee pursuant to sub-section (1) shall be valid to
all concerned authorities.
4) The procedure of the committee, as prescribed pursuant to sub-section (2) while deciding on
matters mentioned on that sub-section, shall be as prescribed .
8. Provisions Relating to License:
1) An individual or a corporate body, who desires to conduct survey or to utilize water resources,
shall be required to submit an application to the prescribed officer or authority along with the
economic, technical and environmental stydy report and with other prescribed particulars
provided that such study report shall not be required to be appended while applying for the
license to conduct the survey of water resources.
2) On receipt of an application pursuant to sub-section (1), the prescribed officer or authority
shall conduct or cause to conduct necessary enquiries and issue a license to the applicant by
prescribed within 30 days of the receipt of such application in the case of license for conducting
survey of water resource and within 120 days in the case of license for the utilization of water
resources in accordance with the priority order a set out in sub-section (1) of section 7.
3) An individual or corporate body who is utilizing water resources prior to the commencement
of this Act shall be required to submit an application along with the prescribed particulars to the
prescribed officer or authority within one year from the date of the commencement of this Act
except otherwise provided in sub-section (2) of section 4.
4) On receipt of an application pursuant to sub-section (3), the prescribed officer or authority,
after conducting necessary enquiries, shall issue a license according to the format as prescribed,
within 60 days of the receipt of such application.
5) The license is obliged to pay charge or annual fee as prescribed to His Majesty's Government.
6) In case a license wishes to sell or otherwise transfer his license, he shall be required to obtain
the approval from the prescribed officer or authority.
9. Utilization of water Resources for Hydro-electricity:
1) Notwithstanding anything written in section the prevailing laws shall govern resources and its
utilization for the generation of hydro-electricity.
(2) With regard to the generation of the hydro-electricity, the utilization of water resources and
other related matters should be done in accordance with this Act.
10.His Majesty's Government may utilize or develop water Resources:
(1) Nothing mentioned in this Act shall be deemed to have prevented His Majesty's Government
from utilizing or developing Water resources on its own.
(2) His Majesty's Government may, for purpose of extensive public uses, acquire and develop
water resources and the land, building, equipment and structures relating there to be utilized by
any person under this act.
Explanation:
(3) His Majesty's Government shall pay compensation as prescribed to the concerned person for
the land, building, equipment or structures relating to the utilization of water resources taken
over by it pursuant to sub section(2).
(4) The amount of compensation payable pursuant to subsection (3) shall be determined on the
basis of the current price (after deducting wear, tear and depreciation) of the land, building,
equipment and structures owned by His Majesty's Government.
11. Water resource development project may be turned-over:
1) His Majesty's Government, on terms and conditions as are necessary, turn-over to the users
association any water resources project constructed pursuant to sub-section (1) or (2) of section
10 after its completion.
2) The concerned users association shall have the ownership over the project turned over to
pursuant to sub-section (1) and the concerned users association shall operate such project as if it
has got license under this act.
12. Contract may be entered into for the utilization of water resources:
Not withstanding anything written elsewhere in this act, His Majesty's Government may, subject
to the prevailing law, enter into a contract with any national or foreign company, cooperate body
or person to develop or cause to develop or cause to develop, utilize and extend the services of
any water resources on such terms and conditions as mentioned in such contract.
13. Power to fix the terms and conditions of the use of the service and to realize the service
charge:
1) The licensee may make available services generated out of the use of water resources
developed on its own way to any other person on the basis of mutual terms and conditions and
realize the charge in consideration of such services rendered to them.
2) In case where the services generated out of the use of the use of water resources developed by
His Majesty's Government is made available to any other person, the service charge may be
fixed as prescribed, and may be realized in consideration of services rendered to them.
14. Services may be stopped:
For a customer who is in default of the payment of the charge for the utilization of services or
who utilizes the services unauthoritatively or who misuses the services or who acts in
contravention of the terms and conditions, the services to such persons may be stopped.
15. To enter into others' premises:
If His Majesty's Government or the licensee requires to enter into anyone's premises in
connection with the survey or utilization of the water resources, the employee of His Majesty's
Government or the licensee may enter into such premises only after giving prior notice to the
concerned person. In case any loss or damage is caused due to such entry, His Majesty's
Government or the licensee shall pay compensation, as prescribed for such loss and damage.
Provided that such employee may, without giving prior notice, entered into the concerned
premises to rescue for any accident or if there is a reasonable ground to suspect that water
resources is being unauthoritatively used or misused in such premises.
16. Utilization and acquisition of other's land and House:
1) If it is required that the land or house of any person be used or acquired for the purpose of
performing any of the following function, the licensee may submit an application to His
Majesty's Government.
a) For the construction of a dam or barrage,
b) For the construction of a canal, ditch or tunnel,
c) For the construction of water tank on the surface or for laying pipe,
d) For the construction of ponds or installation of water distributing center,
e) For performing any other necessary work related to the development of water resources.
2) On receipt of an application pursuant to sub-section (1), His Majesty's Government may, after
conducting necessary enquiries into the matter, make available such land or houses in the same
manner as it makes available to any corporate body under the prevailing laws.
3) If construction work relating to the development and utilization of water resources has been
performed by His Majesty's Government or a licensee, His Majesty's Government may prohibit
to use the premises of a house or land located in the area where such construction work is
performed or the premises of a house or land located in the prescribed distance from such place
of construction Majesty's Government or the licensee shall pay compensation, as prescribed, to
the concerned person for such damage or loss caused due to such prohibition.
17. Security of structure related to the utilization of water resources:
1) His Majesty's Government may make necessary arrangement for the security of any structure
related to the utilization of water resources, on the request of the licensee of by itself, if it seems
it necessary to provide such security.
2) If security arrangement is made pursuant to sub-section (1) on the request of the licensee, al
the expenses incurred for such security shall be borne by the licensee.
18. Fixing of Quality standard of water Resource:
1) His Majesty's Government may, by a notification published in the Nepal Gazette, fix the
necessary quality standard of water resources for various uses.
2) While making use of water resources, the quality standard as prescribed under sub-section (1)
shall be maintained.
19. Water resources not to be polluted:
1) His Majesty's Government may, by a notification published in the Nepal Gazette, prescribe
the pollution tolerance limit of the water resources.
2) No one shall pollute water resource by way of using or putting any litter, industrial wastes,
poison, chemical or toxicant to the effect that the pollution tolerance limit of the water resource
as prescribed in sub-section (1) is exceeded.
3) The prescribed authority may, as required, examine or cause the examination to determine as
to whether or not the water resource has been polluted or the quality standard as prescribed
pursuant to sub-section (1) of section 18 has been maintained.
20. Not to cause Substantial Adverse Effect on Environment:
While utilizing water resources, it shall be done in such a manner that no substantial adverse
effect be made on environment by way of soil erosion, flood, landslide or similar other cause.
21. License may be cancelled:
1) If the licensee performs any act in contravention of this act or rules made hereunder, the
prescribed authority may issue an order to the concerned licensee by prescribing necessary
improvements to be made on such activity within the specified period.
2) If the licensee makes no improvements within the prescribed period pursuant to sub-section
(1), the prescribed authority may cancel the license of such person.
3) Prior to the cancellation of license pursuant to sub-section (2), the prescribed authority shall
give the licensee a reasonable opportunity to explain his innocence.
22. Penalties:
1) The prescribed authority may impose a fine up to an amount of five thousand rupees to any
person who acts in contravention of this act or rules made hereunder. If damage is caused to
anybody due to such act, compensation for such damage shall also be realized from such person
by the prescribed authority.
2) If any person generates, transmits or distributes electricity without obtaining license, which is
required to be obtained under this act, without observing the terms and conditions set forth in the
license, the prescribed authority may impose a fine up to five thousand rupees and ask such
person to close such activity.
3) If a person steals, misuses or uses unauthoritatively the services developed out of the water
resources pursuant to this act, such person may be punished with a fine as per the worth value of
the object and the value f such object shall be realized from such person by the prescribed
officer.
4) If any person causes adverse effect, demolishes, destroys or causes harm otherwise with
intention to any source of drinking water, canal or any surface related to the utilization of water
resources or induces to do the said acts or attempt to do so, such person may be punished with a
fine as per the value of the object and the recovery of the value of such object from such person
or with imprisonment up to ten years or both.
23. Appeal:
Any person who is not satisfied on the decision of the compensation pursuant to sub-section 10,
15 or 16 or the decision of the cancellation of license pursuant to section 21 or an order of the
punishment issued by the prescribed authority pursuant to sub-section (1), (2) or (3) of section
22, an appeal against such decision or order may lie in an appeal against such decision or order
may lie in an Appellate court within a period of thirty-five days.
24. Power to make rules:
1) His Majesty's Government may frame rules in order to carry out the objective of this act
2) Without prejudice to the generality of the powers conferred by sub-section (1), His Majesty's
Government may frame rules, in particular, on the following subjects:
a) Matters relating to drinking water, irrigation, navigation, industrial and recreational uses and
matters related to similar uses of water resources.
b) Matters related to conservation of water resources and the control of flood and soil erosion.
c) Matters relating to conservation of environment.
d) Matters relating to fee, charges etc payable to His Majesty's Government for the utilization of
any service related to water resources.
e) Matters relating to the prevention of pollution of water resources.
f) Methods of various uses of water resources.
g) Matters relating to the setting standards of services, generated from the utilization of water
resources.
h) Matters relating to accident caused by the utilization of water resources and enquiries into
such matter and matters relating to compensation thereof.
i) Matters relating to users association and other matters related to users including protection and
facilities to be provided to the users.
j) Other necessary matters relating to the development and utilization of the water resources.
25. Repeal and Saving:
1) The canal, electricity and related water resources act, 2024 is hereby repealed.
2) Any act done under the rules and order made under the canal, electricity and related water
resources act, 2024 prior to the commencement of this act, shall be deemed to have been done
under these acts.
CHAPTER-6: RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
6.1 INTRODUCTION:
The use of water in human life is varied. It is essential for myriads of activities in which we're
increasingly involved. By its presence in the atmosphere, it tempers the sun's heat, the rain that
falls scours the hills & carries the sediment into the river valleys & deltas, the stream remove
almost unbelievable amounts of solid matter from the rocks in solution & carry these dissolved
materials into the sea to concentrate them (Sharma 1985).
In terms of volume, the availability of water in Nepal is tremendous. The nature of terrain offers
several locations where interventions could be made to tap & make productive use by
hydropower generation, enhance food security through irrigation, provide flood mitigation, &
derive navigation & other benefits. These prospectus make water the most viable natural
resource to be developed for Nepal's well being. Due to the nature of physical settings, climate &
hydrological characteristics about which the level of understanding is rather poor, but gradually
improving, interventions have to be made in a cautious manner (Thapa & Pradhan 1995).
Shivapuri watershed and wildlife reserve is the major watershed catchment area that provides 2.3
million litres of drinking water to kathmandu everyday. Different types of study related to water
resource management in this area were carried out under different headings.
6.2 SOCIO-ECONOMIC STUDY OF THE APPROACHED SITES
Study was carried out dividing the Shivapuri hill into three different divisions viz. western
approach, middle approach and eastern approach. Two different sites at each approach was
considered for the study.
6.2.1 WESTERN APPROACH
Two different sites viz. ward no-7 and ward no-9 of Dadagau was considered and the study was
carried out. Lying at an altitude of 1800m, ward no-7 of Dadagau VDC was made the first site
for study. Water in this area was brought from "Balbikash samash primary school", where a
spring originates. Here the water isn't supplied from Shivapuri Jaldhara. Water is used especially
for cooking, bathing, washing, drinking, irrigation (waste water). Water supply is adequate
during monsoon and scarce during the driest month of the year (March to May). Sanitation
system isn't good i.e. no good toilet system, so chances of fecal contamination of water due to
runoff. Major crops cultivated in this area are maize, millet and paddy. Use of compost and
inorganic fertilizer (urea) for cultivation, but no use of pesticide. According to the villager's
suggestion, the problem of scarcity of water can be solved by building a reservoir or a tank for
the collection of water. Wild boar from the protected area causes a major problem by eating their
crops and hence, decreasing the productivity. According to the villagers, the protected area has
created a lot of inconvenience for e.g. public vehicles aren't allowed to enter inside (only allowed
to enter after paying the tax), people aren't allowed to bring fodder from the protected areas etc.
Ward no-9 of the same village (Dadagau) was made the second site for the socio-economic
study. It lies at an altitude of about 1860m and the water supply is from the Shivapuri jaldhara .
Water is made to collect in a 5000L tank which was given by Tom Criss. There is enough water
for utilization and very often there is problem during driest month (when the spring dries up and
no water remains in the tank). Major crops planted are maize, wheat, millet and paddy. The
vegetables grown in this area are green vegetables, pea, cauliflower etc. Use of fodder as fuel
wood, which is to be stolen from the protected area. Poor sanitation system exists so chances of
fecal contamination of water due to runoff. Compost as well as Urea used for agriculture
purpose. The compost is kept for a period of 6 months. The villagers are dependant on the
rainwater for irrigation. Water supply in this area is comparatively more than in ward no-7
because there is no any tank in ward no-7 (for collection of water) and also ward no-9 lies at
higher altitude than ward no-7. Thus in ward no-7, plenty of water is wasted and in times of
drought, there is no water for drinking also whereas in ward no-7, water from the spring is made
to collect in a 5000L tank, so during times of drought (small duration) also, villagers are at least
provided with drinking water.
6.2.2 MIDDLE APPROACH
Shivapuri village eco-tourism and conservation farm, an eco-tourism center, is located at an
altitude of 2020m. There is a presence of very thin settlement & study was carried out in
Shivapuri village eco-tourism and conservation farm, which covers an area of 500 ropanies.
Spring water source, which is about a kilometer away from the site, is connected with a pipe and
made to collect in a 1000L tank. There is a plenty of water for utilization and no any problems of
scarcity throughout the year. The vegetables grown in this area are cauliflower, carrot, radish,
bean, pea, cabbage, green vegetables etc. Crops aren't grown here, so there is no use of organic
fertilizer i.e. compost is only used which is prepared by themselves. The sanitation system is
very good. The land is never kept bare i.e. cultivation is done quickly after harvesting.
Degradable wastes are composted whereas non-degradable wastes are sent to kathmandu. Fodder
as well as gas stoves are used as fuel-wood. Fodder is to be stolen from the protected area.
Problems causing animals are Deer and wild Boar. In comparison with the past years, the present
state of water is decreasing. Actually this site is built for the promotion of tourism in this
protected area. Mountain view from this area seems very beautiful and thus, this farm is
successful in attracting the tourist towards it. This farm consists of many facilities such as good
sanitation system, gas stoves, solar heater etc. Water supply in this area is adequate and still use
of water for other purposes such as Laundry, Gardening, Fishery, building water fountain etc can
be done.
Lying at an altitude of 1500m, Taulun is another place located at the middle approach of the
Shivapuri hills. Here also the human settlement is very thin and study was carried out in "Nagi
gumba"(a monastery where Buddhist monks stays). Water is brought from two different streams
and collected in three different tanks each of 3000L capacity. There is plenty of water for
utilization and sometimes problems may arise during the driest month (only if it occurs for
longer period). Though the reservoir has a capacity 0f 9000L, water scarcity may occur because
the number of water users group is high i.e. number of monks is high. Water is used mainly for
cooking, drinking, bathing, gardening, cleaning monastery, irrigation etc. vegetables grown are
green vegetables and cauliflower.
Fodder used as fuel-wood and fodder to be stolen from the protected area.
6.2.3 EASTERN APPROACH
Mulkharka was made the first approach from the eastern side of the hill. Ward no-6 of the
sundarijal VDC was considered for the study. The sundarijal sub-watershed is the biggest and the
most important catchment for drinking water supply in Kathmandu. From the streams viz.
Bagmati, Nagmati & Shyalmati, water is channeled through pipelines to reservoirs in Sundarijal.
Within the watershed, the sensitive settlements of Okhreni and Mulkharka are situated at the
upstream of Sundarijal reservoir. In Mulkharka, there is plenty of water for utilization and very
little problem may arise during the driest month. But also, water is enough for drinking, cooking
and washing during that period also. Vegetables grown in this area are green vegetables, onion,
and cauliflower. The major crops grown are maize, wheat and paddy. Monkeys and wild boar are
the major problems, which destroy crops and vegetables. Thus plenty of bare land were seen i.e.
very less land were only cultivated due to the threat of monkeys which ate crops even during the
daytime also! For the vegetables compost is only used and for the crops both compost as well as
Urea is used. Fodder used as fuel and is to be stolen from the protected area. Good sanitation
system in this area and a project for good sanitation system was carried out by SIWDP (1995).
Wastes are haphazardly disposed but the problem of wastes in Mulkharka is not the main
problem as the settlement here is not so thick. According to one of the villagers, the present state
of water in the area is degrading because the villagers cut the vegetation around the spring that
results to drying of spring. As compared to few years before, water is less accessible because
during winter also enough rainfall used to occur, thus recharging the spring. Whereas now there
is no enough rainfall during winter so sometimes there is problem during the winter. The main
uses of water are cooking, washing, bathing, irrigation (by clean water not waste water). Animals
reared are cows, buffalos, goats etc. Animals are either grazed in private land (where there is no
cultivation) or grazed inside the protected area. Lands were found bare because monkeys caused
too much problems that people gave up agriculture and started opening hotels. Conflict of water
may arise and at such time, either wealthy or stronger people receive more water than poor and
weaker ones.
Sundarijal buspark, which lies in ward no-9 of Sundarijal VDC, was located as another site from
the eastern approach. There is no any problem of water throughout the year i.e. there is enough
water for utilization. Compared to past few years, discharge of Bagmati has greatly decreased but
there is no any change in the supply of water resources i.e. neither increasing nor decreasing. As
the slope is very steep, water from the spring has such a great potential that, if the tap is kept
closed, the pipe will burst out. Thus the tap is always left open, but there is no any tank for the
storage of water. So there is huge wastage of water in this area i.e. the conservation practice is
very poor. There are so many springs that each house has its own spring (except the one who
can't afford) and the cost of bringing the spring water is about Rs.10,000 to Rs.15,000. Most of
the people here are dependant on business than agriculture i.e. opening shops & hotels.
Cultivation is done for their own use only i.e. not for selling. Vegetables grown are onion, green-
vegetables, potato (little). Compost is used whereas Urea is avoided as crops are rarely grown.
Here stoves are found to be used by most of the households rather than fodder and gas stoves.
The sanitation system is good. Wastes (biodegradable) are buried inside the earth to make
compost and the compost preparation time is about 4 to 5 months.
6.3 WATER RESOURCE FROM SHIVAPURI WATERSHED & WILDLIFE RESERVE
Shivapuri is one of the main source of drinking water to the Kathmandu valley. About 30 million
liters of water per day are tapped from the Bagmati, Nagmati, Bishnumati, Sanla, Mahadev and
Tusal khola. Water courses into reservoirs at Sundarijal, Panomuhan, Tokha, Alle, Dhakel chaur
and Panchmane and is fed through pipelines to Kathmandu. The quality of water originating
from the headwaters in the Shivapuri watershed and wildlife reserve is clean and unpolluted
(NWSC, 1999). Water from these streams is also used for irrigating during the dry season.
Water demand in Kathmandu is estimated to be at least 126,300 m3 per day (NWSC 1999) in the
dry season to about 120,000 m3 per day in the rainy season. Surface water supplied from the
Shivapuri watershed varies from an estimated 24,000m3 per day in the dry season to 54,000m3
per day in the wet season, or between 35% and 45% of the total water supplied to the Kathmandu
valley (NWSC 1999).
The average water production in Shivapuri watershed area is given in the table below:
Streams and water tapping reservoirs Month Average Average water production
unit Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun July Aug
Thulo khola, Alle khola, Bounde & Bhandare, Balaju Reservoir L/sec 228 171 114 85 98 65 102
91 144 802 808 318 27.4 ML per day
Bishnumati, Panimuhan, mahaarajgunj reservoir L/sec 236 167 105 108 75 88 125 120 176 1033
1159 412 35.6 ML per day
Sundarijal (Bagmati, Nagmati & Syalmati) Mahankalchour reservoir L/sec 106* 587 616 551
568 366 705 655 2045 4501 3802* 1896 163.8 ML per day
As shown in the above table, the average water production from Balaju, Maharajgunj and
Mahankalchour reservoirs are 27.4 ML/day, 35.5 ML/day and 163.8 ML/day respectively. It is
obvious that the average water production of the Mahankalchour is the highest of all the three
reservoirs, which covers about 69% of waater supply in the valley. The volume of water
collected inBalaju, Maharajgunj and Mahankalchour reservoirs during the month March ( the
driest month) is 5600 m3, 7600 m3 and 31000 m3 respectively. Whereas in the month July (
monsoon), the volume of water collected in the three reservoirs are 69300 m3, 89300 m3 and
388800 m3 respectively.
Total water received from the Shivapuri watershed in the three major reservoirs are given in the
table below:
Reservoirs Source Capacity of Reservoir water supply per day to Kathmandu valley Average
(ML/day)
(a)
Water supply % from total water demand of Ktm Valley (140ML/day)
(b)
(a/b*100)%
Dry (ML/day) wet (MLday)
Balaju Thulo khola, Alle khola, Bounde & Bhandare 3600 3.0 8.0 5.5 3.9
Maharajgunj Bishnumati, Panimuhan 5000 2.5 5.5 4.0 2.9
Mahankalchaur Sundarijal (Bagmati, Syalmati & Nagmati) 9000 15.0 25.0 20.0 14.3
Total 1,43,600 20.5 38.5 29.5 21.1
Table:total water received from Shivapuri watershed in 3 major reservoirs.
The total capacity of water reservoir is 1,43,600 m3. These reservoirs are located at 3 different
places viz. Balaju, Maharajgunj, Mahankalchaur. Water supply per day to the Kathmandu valley
isn't constant. Obviously it is more in rainy season and less in dry season i.e. 38.5 million L/day
in rainy season and 20.5ML/day during the dry month. Taking average of both the seasons, an
amount of 29.5 ML/day water is received fromShivapuri watershed in the 3 major reservoirs.
Water supply in form of percent from total water demand of Kathmandu valley i.e. 140ML/day
is just 21.1%.
Given below is the table of total water production in Sivapuri watershed area and quantity of
tapped water to the three major reservoirs.
Liter/sec ML/day Percent
Total water production from shivapuri watershed area 2626
226.7
100
Total water quantity tapped by NWSSC from the watershed 341.4 29.5 13.0
Untapped quantity of water from the southern slope of the watershed 87.0 3.31
As shown in the above table, the total water production from Shivapuri watershed area is 2626
liter/sec. In terms of day, it amounts to 226.7 million L/day which is equivalent to 100%. The
total quantity of water tapped by NWSSC from the watershed area is just 341.4 liter/sec. In terms
of day, it amounts to 29.5 million liter/day which is equivalent to just 13%. Untapped quantity of
water from the southern slope of the watershed is 87.0 L/sec which is equivalent to 3.31%.(Fig
4).
The total water demand and the consumption of water in the Kathmandu valley is given in the
table below:
Liter/sec ML/day Percent
Total water demand for kathmandu valley(NWSSC) 1620.0 140 100
Total water consumption from shivapuri watershed to Kathmandu 341.4 29.5 21.1
1620 liter/sec is the total amount of water demand for kathmandu valley (NWSSC,1999). In
terms of day, it is 140 million liter/day, which is equivalent to 100%. But the total water
consumption from Shivapuri watershed to Kathmandu is just 341.4 liter/sec. In terms of day, it is
29.5 ML/day, which is equivalent to 21.1% only. It is obvious that (100-21.1)% of water i.e.
78.9% demand of water by the kathmanduits is still a major problem. This seems awkward in
case of Nepal, which is the second richest country in water resources all over the globe. Such
problems arise mainly due to lack of funding, lack of awareness among the people for water
resource conservation and wise utilization, poor economic status of the country, absence of
concrete plan at the decision-making level, interference in the development works by different
national and international agencies, political unstability inside the country etc.(Fig 3).
6.4 UTILIZATION OF WATER RESOURCE INSIDE THE VALLEY
Shortage of drinking water is a serious problem in Kathmandu. Present water demand in the
valley is about 140 MLD, whereas production is only 80 to 90 MLD during dry season. It has
also been estimated that the rate of water demand is increasing by 6 MLD every year. Leakage of
40% is making the situation more complicated (NWSC 1999). In spite of this problem, drinking
water is being used for several non-drinking purposes such as flushing toilets, washing, watering
the garden and vehicle cleaning. This is a waste of valuable and scarce resources.
While interviewing the different experts, it was found out that the use of water by the valley
people are for the following purposes:
1.drinking and cooking,
2.dishwashing,
3.bathing/showering,
4.laundry,
5.cleaning,
6.gardening,
7.toilet flushing.
For valley people, the quality of water for above mentioned purposes haven't been defined. In
some places, chlorinated water (used for drinking) is used for washing, bathing, cleaning,
laundry, gardening & even toilet flushing, whereas some places aren't accessible to the NWSC
water supply and don't have chlorinated water for drinking also. This is mainly due to lack of
awareness among the people. It is necessary to conserve water at the household level.
For practicing water conservation at the household level, it is necessary to first understand the
amount of water being used for different purposes. Table below shows an example of quantities
and different use of drinking water in a typical European house. It indicates that of total water
consumption, only 2% is used as drinking water, the rest 98% serves the purpose of cleaning and
hygiene. About 33% of high quality drinking water is poured into the toilet each day, although
for this purpose use of low quality water is sufficient.
Liter per person per day Purpose of use Quality requirement
3 Drinking and cooking Highest quality
10 Dishwashing High quality
57 Bathing/showering High quality
20 Laundry High quality
7 Cleaning Low quality
3 Gardening Low quality
45 Toilet flushing Lowest quality
It is now high time for Kathmandu residents to act to make the best use of the little water we
have. Public awareness about water resource & conservation must be made a major issue. People
need to think how water can be saved and be best utilized.
NEPAL WATER SUPPLY CORPORATON (NWSC)
NWSC is an organization, which was set up to serve the people with the potable drinking water
and well managed sewerage system. The organization thus has very great responsibility toward
the people. Drinking water is not only the basic need of the valley, but it is a universal need.
Water is important not only for human beings, but for animals too. On the other hand, the
sewerage system has its own importance. For a healthy environment, there should be good
sewerage system.
Water production in Kathmandu valley in the month Aug/Sep 1993 is given in the table below:
Yearly Average Production in MLD Daily average production in MLD
S.N. Name of system Surface Ground Total Average Surface Ground Total
1. Tri-Bhim Dhara Balaju 8.00 3.00 11.00 3.64 3.64
2. Bir Dhara Bansbari 14.00 4.00 18.00 24.14 24.41
3. Sundarijal-Mahankalchour 2617.92 371.04 2988.96 41.79 5.88 47.67
4. Dudhpokhari 2.01 2.01
5. Sundarighat 4.40 0.28 4.68
6. Pharping 22.10 22.10
7. Chapagaun 10.10 10.10
8. Bhaktapur Mahadev Khola 3.84 3.84
9. Dhobighat
10. Bode 2.10 2.10
11. Locanthali 0.17 0.17
12. Koteshwor 0.08 0.08
13. Manohara 1.42 1.42
Total 112.02 9.93 121.95
Sundarijal-Mahankalchour is a major system which produces an average of 2988.96 MLD of
water per annum (surface water contributes 2617.92 and ground water contributes 371.04 MLD).
Daily average production of surface water is about 112.02 MLD (including all the thirteen
systems), ground water contributes to about 9.93 MLD. Therefore in total, the daily average
production of water in the month Aug/Sep 1999 is about 121.95 MLD.
Production of water from surface sources is given in the table below:
Name of system Name of source Minimum yield L/M Actual monthly production (ML) Daily
average production (MLD) Remark
Tri-Bhim Dhara Alle, Bounde, Bhandare, Panchmane 776.96 24.28
Mahadev Khola Mahadev Khola
Bir Dhara System Shivapuri, Bishnumati 125.12 3.91
Sundarijal Nagmati,Bagmati, Syalmati 13.61 611.2 19.10
New JICA line 16.08 726.08 22.69
Dudhpokhari Dudhpokhari,Dhobighat 1395.84 64.32 2.01
Nakhu NakhuKhola 1800 83.2 2.60
Lunkot Lunkot 1250 57.6 1.80
Pharping Satmul, Sesh Naraya, Kutorimul 19.83 707.2 22.10
Chapagaun Basukimal,
Nallu Khola,
Muldol pump 2.6
2.8
2.5
83.2
96
80 2.60
3.00
2.50
Pharping well Chhareghare pump 1.9 64 2.00
Dhobighat water spout Water spout 0.95 32 1.00
Mahadev khola (Bhaktapur) Mahadev Khola 0.16 122.88 3.84
Total 4492.66 2116.48 113.43
Reservoir wise production of water in the Kathmandu valley is given in the table below:
Reservoir Capacity of reservoir (m3) Average daily supply (MLD) Remarks
Balaju 3600
Mahankalchor 8500 22.30
Bansbari 2000
Bhajangal 900
Kirtipur 200
Dhobighat 1800
Sundarijal 800
Sainbhu 2700
Tahakhel
Bansbari
(Bhaktapur)
2500
Bode 1000
Total 29000
The capacity of reservoir as a whole (total) in Kathmandu valley is 29,000 m3. Average daily
supply of Mahankalchour is 22.30 MLD. The average daily supply of other reservoirs isn't
available.
Comparative operating data of water supply through different year viz. 1990, 1999 and 2000 is
given in the table below:
Water
Supply Years 1990 1999 2000
Production capacity (MLD) inside Kathmandu valley outside Kathmandu valley 120
95
25 182
125
57 224
130
94
Water demand (MLD)
inside Kathmandu valley outside Kathmandu valley 145
120
25 214
160
54
259
165
94
Average daily production (MLD) inside Kathmandu valley outside Kathmandu valley 102
80
22 155
105
50 200
110
90
Leakage waste 40% 38% 37%
Total population served 7,50,000 16,38,000 17,06,000
6.5. 1.AN OVERVIEW OF NWSC'S ROLE INSIDE THE KATHMANDU VALLEY
NWSC (Nepal water supply corporation) consists of two water supply systems inside
Kathmandu valley. The first system is the old system which is situated at Sundarijal buspark ,
while the latter is the new system, situated at Mahankal. The old system was built in 6th October
1966, inaugurated by H.E. The prime minister of India Smt. Indira Gandhi, which was
constructed under the Indian Aid Programme jointly by His Majesty's Government & Indian Aid
Mission. Here the water from different streams viz. Bagmati, Nagmati & Shyalmati is collected
in a storage tank having a capacity of 19.6 million Liter / day (calculated in terms of whole year
not season cause seasonal fluctuation occurs but the capacity remains the same). Later on in
1993, a new system was carried out by a project named Mahankal Chaur Project or JICA project.
The capacity of this new system is 26 million Liter / day.
Sundarijal reservoir makes use of surface water whereas Mahankal reservoir makes use of both
the surface water & ground water resource. During monsoon, there is much more water than in
winter. Thus it is estimated that about 45.6 million L / day of water is collected in the reservoir
during the monsoon and about 30 million L / day is collected in the reservoir during the driest
month. Capacity of different plants supplying water to Kathmandu valley is given below (Fig 5).
Name of Plants Capacity (million L/ day)
Sundarijal 19.6
Mahankal 26.0
Bansbari 22.0
Balaju 10.0
Total 77.6
Supply of water from different plants in monsoon and in the driest month is shown in the table
below:
Name of plant Water available during monsoon (m L/day) Water available during the driest
month (m L/day)
Name of Plant Water available during monsoon
(m L/day) Water available during the driest month (m L/day)
Sundarijal 19.6 10.4
Mahankal 26.0 19.6
Bansbari 22.0 9.0
Balaju 10.0 6.0
Total 77.6 45.0
6.5.2. DISTRIBUTION OF WATER RESOURCE IN THE VALLEY
Mahankal project or JICA project supplies water to more than 60% area of the whole Kathmandu
valley. Some of the area in which water from mahankal isn't received are Maharajgunj,
Dhumbari, Chandole, Lainchaur, Paknajol, chhetrapati and to the west of Bishnumati river.
Remaining core area of the valley is supplied with this water.
6.5.3. DISTRIBUTION NETWORK
During the period of Rana regimes, pipes were brought (old pipes) from rivers directly to their
houses & distributed to some people whom they ( Rana) like. These were known as 'Tribhim
Dhara', 'Bir Dhara' etc. As time passed by, the population increased and the demand for water
also increased rapidly. Reservoirs at different places were constructed & several pipes were built.
There was mixing of old and new pipes so, chaos type of network was formed. This type of
network is relatively poor & is a major problem for supplying water. Such poor network leads to
leakage of water, contamination of water and uneven distribution of water. As population
increased, demand of pipes also increased and more pipes were brought into network so there is
a chaos in the core area of Kathmandu valley. Moreover; such network avoids isolated systems
i.e. if isolated system exists, supplied water can be distributed to concerned area only and there
would be no much problem of water. But in absence of such isolated systems, water is stolen,
contaminated, leaked etc.
6.5.4. DISTRIBUTION PROBLEM
a) There is no exact place for distribution of water due to chaos network system.
b) Poor network system,
c) Absence of isolated system.
Moreover; leakage also contributes to loss of water to be supplied in the valley. Leakage is not
only the water coming out from the old pipes, but if the collected revenue from a certain area
becomes less than the cost required to supply the water in that area, it is also included in the
leakage. The cost of electricity (because of running water motors) to NWSC as a whole amounts
to Rs.40 to 50 lakhs per month i.e. 4.8 crore to 6 crore per annum. Leakages from the pipes and
reservoirs are about 15% and in total leakage account to 40%, which is thought to reduce to 38%
now. The capacity of the tank in Mahankal is 98 lakhs liter.
6.5.5 TREATMENT OF WATER
Old system of water treatment in Sundarijal, which treats surface water only, includes the
following process:
a) Aeration,
b) Flocculation / coagulation,
c) Sedimentation,
d) Filtration,
e) Disinfection.
Mahankalchour consists of new treatment systems & facilitates both surface and ground water
treatment. It includes bio-filtration process in treating the ground water, rest all the processes
used in Sundarijal is also used here.
Present study shows that the water quality within the Shivapuri Watershed is excellent for
supplying it as drinking water to the Kathmandu valley. The dense vegetation cover in the
Shyalmati, Nagmati, bishnumai and Bagmati sub-watersheds ensures a steady flow of water from
the area. The considerably large size of the watershed has been one of the determinants in the
fluctuation of water level and discharge of the streams in the area. The concentrations of the
chemical variables have been found to change with the volume of water in the stream (HMG
1996-1997).
6.5.6 CHALLENGES FACED BY NWSC
The challenges faced by NWSC are too many but summarily, they are:
a) Shortage of water for rapidly growing population, especially in Kathmandu valley urban areas
including the capital.
b) Very old network system in place but still in use, contributing to a high leakage percentage
(system loss), demanding immediate up-grading.
c) Financial resources constraints to meet ever growing demand/aspirations from the public.
d) Strengthening institutional capacity to fulfill customer's expectation in the new millennium.
e) Need to compete with the private utilities in the coming years.
6.6 CONSERVATION OF WATER:
6.6.1 RAINWATER HARVESTING:
Rainwater use can be an effective solution to water shortage and reliable source of water for
areas short of surface and ground water. In most Hindu Kush Himalayan (HKH) countries, water
scarcity has become a limitation for social and economic development and the situation will
worsen if nothing is done immediately to improve the water supply. In the past, the emphasis
was on the development of surface and ground water resources. These sources are becoming
exhausted in many areas. Shortage of surface water and fast depletion of the groundwater table
has reached an alarming situation many countries. Afghanistan, Pakistan, China and India are
already feeling the severity of the problem. China has taken a lead in using the third kind of
water resource, i.e. rainwater, which is renewable and has tremendous potential to meet the
growing needs in future.
6.6.1.a. ADVANTAGES OF WATER HARVESTING:
Rainwater catchment utilization (RWCU) has certain advantages over surface or groundwater
development. Some of these are stated below:
a) The cost of RWCU is only 1/6 to 1/8 of water brought a long distance haul by truck.
b) The investment for a RWCU irrigation system can be repaid within 4-5 years.
c) Decrease in runoff due to water exhaust by RWCU will only be 0.1-0.5% of total river flow.
d) Rainwater is usually less polluted than surface or ground water .
e) Rainfall is usually widely distributed and is generally available close to home unlike river
water or deep underground.
f) Rainwater projects are simple. They can be built by users themselves with some input from
outside.
6.6.1.b. DIFFERENT TYPES OF RAINWATER HARVESTING:
The different types of rainwater catchment / collection systems include the following:
a) Rooftop
b) Concrete lined surface
c) Cement lined surface
d) Plastic film, both exposed and covered with soil
e) Compacted soil
f) Roads/runways/paved surfaces
6.6.1.c. WATER HARVESTING IN KATHMANDU VALLEY:
Though water harvesting is a new technology to Nepal, its demand is increasing in a very high
rate. Now government and experts have started to collect rainwater to solve the drinking water
problem in the Kathmandu valley. About 12 km towards north from Kathmandu and towards
northeast of Shivapuri watershed; stone, fences and cement have been used to build a reservoir
for collecting rainwater. About 50m long and 4m high reservoir has been built. According to the
concerned authorities, until Melamchi comes, the problem of drinking water can be solved to
some extent. Water in this reservoir is made to collect in Sundarijal reservoir , which is finally
collected in the Mahankalchour reservoir.
If 1.5% of the total land inside the valley is made as reservoirs to collect the rain water, then the
problem of drinking water inside the valley can be solved. If this is done 'Melamchi' is not
necessary (Gyawali 2001). Water demand inside the valley is 15 crore liter/day. But the
government is able to provide only 6-7 crore liter of water per day (including ground and surface
water). The capacity of NWSC to store water is 13 crore liter, while in Kathmandu alone, 10
crore liter of water per day is the must.
6.6.1.d CONCLUSION
Sustainable harvesting of local water, including rainwater, offers the best hope of meeting the
challenges of the growing water crisis. For this, appropriate policy incentives and support and the
use of indigenous knowledge and traditional water management systems will be essential.
Experience from China has shown that, appropriate programs and policy incentives for
harvesting rainwater and local water sources at the household and small community levels can
not only boost food production, but can also help local people to increase their income within a
very short time. Year-round availability of water through water harvesting programs for
domestic use will also greatly reduce the drudgery of women and children who, otherwise, have
to walk long distance up and down the mountain tracks to fetch water.
Climate, culture and civilization are critical determinants in meeting the needs for water. The
challenge lies in reviving the traditional wisdom of the local people and their water management
systems and using them as a basis to develop and impart efficient local water (including rain
water) harvesting and management systems. As such, optimum and efficient use of harvested
water is an integral part of ensuring that water harvesting systems are adaptable and sustainable.
This includes the selection of right type of crops e.g. orchards and vegetables, and irrigation
systems with greater efficiency. It is advisable to limit the use of stored water to drinking,
cooking and dish-washing when the water level in the domestic storage system is not
replenished.
6.6.2. GREY WATER TREATMENT: AN OPTION FOR WATER RECYCLING
It is an acknowledgement fact that there is a huge scarcity of water inside the Kathmandu valley.
Over extraction of ground water has already shown adverse effects like drying if traditional
water sources and deteriorating the water quality even in the deep aquifer. Recently it has been
found that recycling of Greywater is an effective way to water resource management.
6.6.2.a RECYCLING OF GREYWATER
Blackwater and Greywater can be separated easily; only a separate plumbing system is needed.
Greywater is comparatively less polluted than blackwater. Its composition varies greatly with
lifestyle: family size, age of residents, eating habits, detergents used, etc. Compared to combined
sewage, Greywater usually contains much less nutrients (nitrogen and phosphorus) and
pathogens since Greywater is not contaminated directly by human excrement. Therefore it can be
treated and reused where potable water is not required, like irrigation and flushing toilets. The
total water demand for a home could be reduced by 60% by instituting Greywater recycling
system (Sanitarsytemtechnik, 1994).
6.6.2.b GREYWATER TREATMENT TECHNOLOGY
Greywater treatment methods have been developed worldwide during the last two decades. The
greywater treatment systems vary from simple filtration prior to sub-surface irrigation and more
advanced methods producing water of swimming water quality. In Berlin, development and
testing of various greywater treatment systems is motivated by limited ground water resources
(Sanitarsystemtechnik,1991).
The center for Applied Ecology Schattweid, Switzerland, and the University of Wisconsin, USA,
have developed simple nature-based plant and sand-filter systems for Greywater handling (Heeb
and Zust, 1991; Schonborn and Zust,1994; Siegrist and Boyle,1981). Multi-stage rotating
biological contractor (RBC) and Plant covered vertical soil filter system were practiced in Berlin
since 1989 (Nolde,1996).
6.6.2.c DESCRIPTION OF GREYWATER TREATMENT PLANT:
Suppose the three-story house built at an area of about 222 square meters land is occupying
nearly 75% of the land for the house, remaining 25% is maintained as a garden. A family with
seven members is living in the house whose water consumption is about 1000 liter per day. It
produces about 500 liters of Greywater everyday. The Greywater consists of wastewater from
bathroom, shower, washing machine, and wastewater from kitchen. For the separation of
Greywater from Blackwater, separate plumbing was fixed for wastewater from kitchen,
bathroom, and washing machine. Thus separated Greywater is collected into a settling tank for
further treatment.
6.6.2.d COMPONENTS OF GREYWATER TREATMENT SYSTEM:
It consists of the following units:
a) Settlement tank (500 liters) as a pretreatment.
b) Feeding tank (200 liters).
c) Constructed wetland.
a) Settlement tank as a pretreatment: pretreatment is necessary as the Greywater contains hair,
grease and soap that can cause problems in the following treatment process. The system contains
of a 500 liter settling tank, with two chambers as a primary treatment. In this tank, solids settle
and materials like grease and hair float. In addition, anaerobic digestion reduces the organic
matter content. It reduces the suspended solids by more than 50% thus minimizing the risk of
clogging the filter beds. Overflow of the settlement tank is connected to the feeding tank.
b) Feeding tank:
A feeding tank of 200 liters capacity collects the primary treated Greywater for intermittent
loading of the filter beds. Once the tank is full, the Greywater is flushed into the main filter bed
through hydro-mechanical action. The system does not use any electric device.
c) Constructed wetland:
Vertical subsurface flow constructed wetland is the main treatment unit of this system. It is a
rectangular brick box of 6m(L)*1m(B)*1m(H). The bottom layer (20cm) of the bed consists of
gravel (20 to 40 mm) as a drainage layer and the main layer (80 cm) coarse sand is used just
above the gravel layer. The bed is planted with Phragmites karka (Narkat) and Canna sp. Water
is distributed into the bed 3 to 4 times a day through a 25 mm diameter perforated pipe that is
fixed at the middle of the bed just above the surface level. The inlet distribution pipe is
connected to the feeding tank. The system utilizes the coarse sand for infiltration, while plants
absorb nutrients and promote growth of microorganisms. When the water is flushed into the bed,
it moves vertically through the bed and collects at the bottom. Finally the treated water drains out
through a perforated pipe and collects in an underground tank for further use.
6.6.2.e EFFICIENCY OF TREATMENT PLANT
The system has been operating since April 1998 with excellent results. Elimination of nutrients
and organic components are quite similar even after 2 years of operation. Effluent quality of
BOD, COD and ammonia are far below the permissible limit set by European countries for
effluent water discharge into inland surface water. Though 99.99% of fecal coliform are removed
by the system, there is still significant number of fecal coliform in treated water. Therefore the
water is not suitable for drinking, but for irrigation and toilet flushing this number is quite
acceptable. The number of fecal coliform can be eliminated through simple disinfection if
needed.
6.6.2.f USE OF TREATED WATER:
The treated Greywater is pumped into an overhead tank connected to the toilet system. Similarly,
it is also being used for watering the garden and vehicle washing. Such house can save nearly
400 liters of water everyday. The cost of constructing and operating such system is about NRs.
25,000. The system only needs some care like removing the weeds from the wetland; trimming
the plant once a year, and removing the sludge from the settlement tank once a year. Sludge can
be dried up and used as compost for kitchen garden.
6.6.2.g CONCLUSION
This study concludes that the Greywater recycling is feasible in Kathmandu's houses, apartments
and hotels where small land is available. It can help solve Kathmandu's water shortage problem
to some extent and also contribute to minimizing surface water pollution.
6.6.3 CREATING PUBLIC AWARENESS FOR CONSERVATION OF WATER
In 'Panga' city of Kirtipur, there is a tradition that the tap should be open for the whole night.
Nearby people are used to hearing the sound of falling water and easily fall asleep by enjoying
the sound of falling water. This is an example to illustrate that public awareness to conserve
water is too poor. Most of the people, in general are used to spend a huge amount of water (than
actually needed) for bathing/showering, flushing toilets, dishwashing etc; use chlorinated
(drinking) water for gardening, toilet flushing etc for which low quality water can work. In
Sundarijal area also, water flows from tap continuously. If the tap is closed, pipe burst out due to
immense pressure. But there is no any tanks or reservoirs for the collection of water and making
out the best use of it. The following steps can be undertaken for conservation of water resources
inside the valley:
·Cleaning up of natural streams and rivers:
As there are several streams and rivers inside the Kathmandu valley, these can be seen as an
alternative for water resource utilization such as cloth washing, dishwashing, vehicle washing
etc. Before two decades ago, most of the people in Kathmandu valley used to depend upon
streams and rivers but now the pollution of these rivers and streams are very severe. Several
steps can still be carried out for cleaning these rivers and streams. It might take a long time as
these water sources are heavily polluted but after a certain period of time, this water sources can
be used for low purpose use such as laundry, dishwashing etc. This in turn will result in
sustainable water resource utilization of the surface water resource inside the valley.
·Use of water conservation technology/strategy:
In public places such as hotels, hospitals, schools etc. modern technology can be used for water
resource conservation. For e.g. electronic taps (using electronic sensor which will automatically
pour water if the hand is inside the tub and stop pouring if the hand is outside the tub) can be
used. This hasn't yet been used in case of Kathmandu, but in some parts of India, it is extensively
in use. Such conservation technology need to be used in our Kathmandu also. On the other hand,
in toilets and bathrooms, water cistern which can let the desired amount of water to clean up, can
be used for the effective utilization of water resource at the household level.
·Proper Network System
The network system used for the distribution of water resource by NWSC is very chaos. Old and
new pipes are mixed together in several places. So there is no proper place for the distribution of
water, which is one of the main problem of NWSC. Thus, an attempt should be made by the
government and the public to develop an effective networking system.
·Implementing proper plans for effective distribution of water
Water distribution in the valley is very uneven. The main reason behind this fact is that many
houses make use of motors for withdrawing water. This can be controlled by implementing
proper plans such as -off the electricity during the time of water supply so that distribution of
water to every places is the same.
·Maintaining Leakage
15% of the tapped water is lost due to leakage in pipes and reservoirs. Most of the necessary to
prevent the water loss and contamination of water (with drainage canals). Moreover; 25%
leakage is due to activities like water stealing and other activities, which results in the collection
of the revenue less than the cost required to supply water. Thus, proper steps are to be taken for
maintaining leakage.
6.7 MELAMCHI-AN ALTERNATIVE WATER SOURCE TO KATHMANDU VALLEY
It has been confirmed that tunneling the water from Melamchi can serve as an alternative to
quench the thirst of Kathmanduities. It will be at least 6-7 years, if not more, before water from
Melamchi starts flowing through our taps. Over extraction of ground water has already shown
adverse effects like drying of traditional water sources and deteriorating the quality even in deep
aquifers.
6.7.1 AN OVERVIEW OF MELAMCHI PROJECT
A long term water supply Development Project for the Kathmandu valley towns was initated in
the late eighties under which pre-feasibility studies identified (in 1991) the Melamchi river
outside the valley in the north-east, 45 km away from the valley and lying in the neighboring
Sindhupalchowk district. It is one of the important tributaries of Indrawati river and the run-of-
the-river diversion scheme was proposed near Melamchi gaon (village), near Helambu. The
system under proposal is a 26 km tunnel, 12-16 sq. m. cross sectional area carrying 10 cu.m of
raw water (ultimate under gravity) runs to the Mahankal gaon near Sundarijal water treatment
plant site. A new water treatment plant is to be constructed to treat 170 MLD raw water that will
be serviced to the five municipal towns including the capital and the adjoining villages in and
around the valley. Other works will include the construction of 16 big service reservoirs at high
points, bulk transmission (Distribution Trunk Mains), urban distribution network system
rehabilitation inside the core areas, etc. The feasibility study gave the project cost estimated to be
around US $ 275 million (in 1991) and now up-dated to be around US $ 460 million. Detail
engineering design is currently underway on this mega project. Many
countries/bilateral/multilateral/lending agencies development Banks are ready to finance His
Majesty's government for this Melamchi Project till the completion stage, which should bring in
additional 170 MLD of drinking water. The full development of the long term water supply
project in 3 stages e.g. Melamchi river (170 MLD), Yangri river (170 MLD) and Larke river
(170 MLD) will bring in a total of 510 MLD water to the Capital, which will be sufficient till
2030 A.D..
6.7.2. PROBLEMS ASSOCIATED WITH MEAMCHI
a) It is very costly.
b) A long tunnel of 26 km can cause many problems such as leakage. Some argue that in an
earthquake prone zone like Nepal, the earthquake might damage the tunnel and such an
expensive project would go in vain.
c) There is huge financial problem. First of all World Bank agreed to give loan, but later they
claimed that NWSC must be privatized for getting the loan. Later Asian Development Bank
(ADB) also attempt to finance Melamchi Project, but now they've also suggested to privatize
NWSC. While privatizing NWSC has both merits and demerits.
6.8 INTEGRATED WATER RESOURCE MANAGEMENT:
Given below is the figure of Integrated water resource management which is found to be true in
case of Kathmandu.
NATURAL WATER RESOURCE SYSTEM floods droughtspollution HUMAN ACIVITY
SYSTEM
Ambient improved water water
Air water demand for
quality human
uses
WATER RESOURCE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM INSTITUTIONS AND ORGANIZATIONS
With a fixed supply of water and rapidly increasing demands of water and its services in
Kathmandu valley, sustainability is becoming a more and more difficult goal to achieve.
Integrated water resource management, which means making better use of the resources to meet
current and future demands, is increasingly seen as the answer to this challenge.
As shown in the above figure, integrated management involves understanding of three
interrelated systems. Both a thorough understanding of the natural water resource system and
detailed knowledge of how human activities affect and are affected by the natural system are
needed to make the management system work.
Due to pollution caused by the human activity (such as deforestation) in the natural water
resource system, severe impacts such as droughts and floods occur. In Shivapuri watershed area,
human activity in polluting the natural water resource system isn't so severe as it is a protected
area. Thus, there is minimal chance of floods and droughts to occur. Similarly, natural water
system is present in the atmosphere (air) in the form of clouds, water vapour, dew etc. Water
resource management system must aim at the use of natural water resource system (such as using
rivers, streams, rainwater harvesting) and then return the improved water quality again back to
the natural water resource system. In case of Shivapuri watershed area, as the pollution is not so
severe, improved water quality is returned in the atmosphere. It is obvious that water is
indispensable to human life. Thus, there is a great demand of water. To fulfill this demand,
NWSC is the main organization responsible to supply water to the people of Kathmandu valley.
As such, the integrated water resource management in case of Kathmandu valley involves
understanding of three systems (shown in the above figure), which are interrelated systems.
Although water management problems and issues differ with different contexts, for e.g., urban or
upstream watersheds, the underlying challenges to integrated water management remain the
same-how to achieve the sustainability in providing needed water services to the expanding
populations and economics of the Kathmandu.
CHAPTER-7: SUMMARY
The study about water resource management is carried out in the Shivapuri watershed area via
eastern, mid and western approach. It is found that in eastern side (Sundarijal), there're many
springs, streams, tributaries and rivers in comparison to the western and middle side of the hill.
Thus, there is plenty of water in eastern side and there is no problem of water throughout the
year, whereas in the middle and western side, water scarcity may arise during the driest month.
In many places, it is found that people are dependent on spring water resource. As the area is
exceptionally rich in biodiversity in terms of woody and herbaceous flora, lichens, mosses, fern
etc, it has a great potential for providing improved quality and increased quantity of drinking
water to the valley people and surrounding local people around & inside the protected area.
Water is used especially for drinking, cooking, washing, bathing and irrigation. Water supply is
adequate during monsoon and scarce during the driest month. In monsoon, water from the tap
flows throughout the day, whereas in the driest month, some of the places face huge water
scarcity problems. For proper utilization of water and to get rid of the problems during the driest
month, water must be collected in a tank or reservoir so that the water isn't wasted. Major crops
grown in Shivapuri watershed area are paddy, wheat, maize, millet and mustard. Wild boar, deer
and monkeys caused lots of troubles. Compost and inorganic fertilizer (urea) are used for
cultivation, but pesticides aren't.
The total amount of water received from Shivapuri watershed in the three major reservoirs viz.
Balaju, Maharajgunj and Mahankalchour is 20.5 million liter per day during the dry season and
38.5 million liter per day during the rainy season. The total water production from Shivapuri
watershed area is 2626 liter per second i.e. 226.7 million liter per day, whereas the total quantity
of water tapped by NWSSC from the Shivapuri watershed area is just 341.4 liter per second i.e.
29.5 million liter per day.
The total water demand for the Kathmandu valley is about 140 million liter per day. But the total
water consumption from the Shivapuri watershed to the Kathmandu is just 29.5 million liter per
day. Valley people use water for many purposes such as drinking, dishwashing,
bathing/showering, laundry, cleaning, gardening and toilet flushing. People aren't aware about
the proper utilization of water resources, thus it is necessary to practice water resource
conservation at the household level. It is now high time for Kathmandu resedients to make best
use of the little water we have.
NWSC is an organization, which was set up to serve the people with potable drinking water and
well managed sewerage system. The total capacity of the major plants viz. Sundarijal,
Mahankalchour, Bansbari and Balaju is about 77.6 million liter per day. Water available during
monsoon is 77.6 million liter per day and in the driest month is 45.0 million liter per day. The
distribution problem faced by NWSC is that there is no exact place for distribution of water due
to chaos network system. Leakages also contributes to loss of water. Pipes and reservoirs leakage
account to 15% and in total leakage account to 40%, which is thought to reduce to 38% now.
The treatment plants located at Sundarijal and Mahankalchour makes use of process such as
aeration, flocculation/coagulation, sedimentation, filtration, disinfection. Mahankalchour
includes bio-filtration process in treating the ground water. There are many challenges to be
faced by NWSC such as shortage of water for rapidly growing population, very old network
system still in use, financial resource constraints etc.
Conservation practice of water resources is a must for integrated water resource management. In
a country like Nepal, where monsoon is favorable, rainwater use can be an effective solution to
water shortage and reliable source of water for areas short of surface and ground water. There are
many advantages of rainwater harvesting such as low cost, less polluted, simple to operate etc.
Though water harvesting is a new technology to Nepal, its increasing in a very high rate. Now
government and experts have started to collect rainwater to solve the drinking water problem in
the Kathmandu valley. Thus, sustainable harvesting of the rainwater, offers the best hope of
meeting the challenges to the growing water crisis.
Greywater treatment technology is also an approach towards conservation of water which is an
option for water recycling. The greywater consists of wastewater from bathroom, shower,
washing machine and wastewater from kitchen. This greywater is allowed to pass through
settlement tank, feeding tank and constructed wetland. The cost of constructing and operating
such system needs some care. Thus, greywater recycling is feasible in Kathmandu's houses,
apartments and hotels where small land is available. It is a must for creating public awareness for
conservation of water .
Tunneling water from Melamchi can serve as an alternative to quench the thirst of
Kathmanduities. Melamchi river is about 45 km away from the valley. The system under
proposal is a 26 km tunnel, 12-16 sq. m. cross-sectional area carrying 10 cu. m of raw water. The
cost is thought to be around US $ 460 million. The full development of the long term supply
project in three stages will bring in a total of 510 MLD of water to the capital, which will be
sufficient till 2030 A.D. There are various problems associated with Melamchi such as high cost,
leakage in the tunnel, financial problems etc.
Integrated water resource management involves understanding of three interrelated systems.
Both a thorough understanding of the natural water resource system and detailed knowledge of
how human activities affect and are affected by the natural system are needed to make the
management system work.
CHAPTER-8: CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
The Shivapuri watershed situated at the north end of the Kathmandu valley is an important
catchment supplying most of the water demand of the Kathmandu valley. According to NWSSC
(1997), Shivapuri watershed fulfills approximately 21% to 22% of the total drinking water
demand of the Kathmandu valley. Due to intense vegetation cover, there're many springs,
streams, tributaries and rivers in this area. Water supply is adequate during monsoon and scarce
during the driest month. Water resource conservation practices in this area is poor. The total
water production from Shivapuri watershed area is 226.7 million liter per day, whereas the total
quantity of water tapped by NWSSC from watershed area is just 29.5 million liter per day. But
the total water demand in the valley is about 10 million liter per day. NWSC is an organization,
which was set up to serve the people with potable drinking water and well managed sewerage
system. NWSC is able to supply 77.6 million liter water per day during the monsoon and about
45.0 million liter water per day during the driest month. There are many problems faced by
NWSC such as leakage, old network system, shortage of water for rapidly growing population.
Water harvesting and Greywater treatment technology are two major processes adopted for the
integrated water resource management, which is feasible in case of Kathmandu valley. Melamchi
is also an alternative to supply water to the valley people but it has many problems such as high
cost, leakage, financial problems etc. Althoug sustainability of water resource is becoming more
and more difficult goal to achieve, integrated water resource management is increasingly seen as
an answer to this challenge.
Based on short scheduled visit, the following general needs were assessed and the
recommendations were made accordingly.
·Upland water resource management:
It is obvious that water collected for the distribution of valley people is the water coming from
the uplands (Shivapuri watershed area). Thus, proper water resource management at uplands is
very essential. It is found that the water conservation practice in Shivapuri watershed area is
relatively very poor. In many places, water comes from the tap throughout the day but this water
isn't collected in a tank or reservoir. So, plenty of water is wasted at this level. Thus, water at this
level should be conserved and utilized properly.
· Development of proper sanitation system
The sanitation system in the uplands is found to be very poor. More than 50% of the sampled
households (sampled) aren't facilited with the toilets. Thus, there is a high probability that the
downstream people are affected by the fecal contamination of water. As such, proper sanitation
system should be developed for effective water resource management.
· Water harvesting:
As monsoon is favorable in case of Nepal, rainwater use can be effective solution to water
shortage. There are different ways to collect rainwater such as ferro cement jar rooftop
harvesting, traditional spring water harvesting, cement-plastered storage tank for rainwater
harvesting, rooftop water harvesting etc. In case of Kathmandu, rooftop water harvesting can
prove to be very effective. If 1.5% of the total land inside the valley is made as reservoirs to
collect the rainwater, then the problem of drinking water inside the valley can be solved. If this is
done, Melamchi is not necessary. (Gyawali 2001). As such sustainable harvesting of rainwater
offers the best hope for meeting the challenges of the growing water crisis.
·Greywater recycling:
Greywater recycling should be integrated in apartment and new housing. Institutions like schools
and colleges should be aware about this technology. They should install this technology to
recycle their water and also provide research facility for students. This type of technology should
be used by hotels that use water intensively for different purposes. Awareness should be built
from the grass-root level to policy level for replication of this technology.
·Cleaning up of natural streams and rivers:
As there are several streams and rivers inside the Kathmandu valley, these can be seen as an
alternative for water resource utilization such as cloth washing, dishwashing, vehicle washing
etc. Before two decades ago, most of the people in Kathmandu valley used to depend upon
streams and rivers but now the pollution of these rivers and streams are very severe. Several
steps can still be carried out for cleaning these rivers and streams. It might take a long time as
these water sources are heavily polluted but after a certain period of time, this water sources can
be used for low purpose use such as laundry, dishwashing etc. This in turn will result in
sustainable water resource utilization of the surface water resource inside the valley.
·Use of water conservation technology/strategy:
In public places such as hotels, hospitals, schools etc. modern technology can be used for water
resource conservation. For e.g. electronic taps (using electronic sensor which will automatically
pour water if the hand is inside the tub and stop pouring if the hand is outside the tub) can be
used. This hasn't yet been used in case of Kathmandu, but in some parts of India, it is extensively
in use. Such conservation technology need to be used in our Kathmandu also. On the other hand,
in toilets and bathrooms, water cistern which can let the desired amount of water to clean up, can
be used for the effective utilization of water resource at the household level.
·Proper Network System:
The network system used for the distribution of water resource by NWSC is very chaos. Old and
new pipes are mixed together in several places. So there is no proper place for the distribution of
water, which is one of the main problem of NWSC. Thus, an attempt should be made by the
government and the public to develop an effective networking system.
·Implementing proper plans for effective distribution of water:
Water distribution in the valley is very uneven. The main reason behind this fact is that many
houses make use of motors for withdrawing water. This can be controlled by implementing
proper plans such as -off the electricity during the time of water supply so that distribution of
water to every places is the same.
·Maintaining Leakage:
15% of the tapped water is lost due to leakage in pipes and reservoirs. Most of the necessary to
prevent the water loss and contamination of water (with drainage canals). Moreover; 25%
leakage is due to activities like water stealing and other activities, which results in the collection
of the revenue less than the cost required to supply water. Thus, proper steps are to be taken for
maintaining leakage.
·Creating public awareness:
Most of the people, in general are used to spend a huge amount of water (than actually needed)
for bathing/showering, flushing toilets, dishwashing etc; use chlorinated water for gardening,
toilet flushing etc for which low quality water can work.. Thus, creating public awareness among
the general public about the importance of water resource management is a must.
ANNEX
CHECKLIST
QUESTIONNAIRES TO THE VILLAGERS:
District__________________ VDC_________________ Ward No_____
Village__________________ Respondent Full Name__________________
Household Survey:
1.Do you have enough water for utilization?
2.Where is the water supply from?
3. Do you face water problems? If yes, mention the time i.e. months in which you face such
problems. What can be the solutions of such problems?
4. Do you have water harvesting/storing tanks in your house or communities?
5. Since how long has your family lived here?
· 0-7 years
· 8-20 years
· 20 years +
· Migrated recently
6. Do you think that the present status of water in your area is degrading? If yes, what is the main
factor responsible for this? What can be the solutions to such problems?
7. How do you get fuelwood?
· From forest
· From private forest
· Purchase
· Own Land
· Others
8. What type of changes do you perceive in water resource accessibility now as
compared to the past years?
9. What type of fertilizers and pesticides do you use in your agricultural field?
10. If you use compost, how do you prepare it?
11. How is the sanitation system?
12.Where do you discharge the wastes?
13.What are the landuse types practiced in these areas?
· Forestry
· Agriculture
· Grassland
· Agro-forestry
· Horticulture
· Bee-keeping
· Fishery
16. How is the irrigation handled in the field?
17. How can the water resources in the area be best utilized?
QUESTIONNAIRES TO EXPERTS:
1. What is the present status of water accessibility inside Kathmandu valley?
2. What is the main reason behind the scarcity of water in the valley?
3. How can the water resource be best utilized?
4. How can water be made available to every households of the Kathmandu
valley?
5. What are the possible techniques that can be implemented for the
conservation of water resources inside the valley?
6. What are the main on-going functions, objectives and problems of NWSC?
7. Is Melamchi the only remaining alternative of water resource to the valley?
If yes, what are the problems associated with Melamchi? If not, what can be the Other
alternatives?
8. What is the must for sustainable water resource management at the household
level?
9. What are the plans and policies to be developed for Integrated water resource
management?
GRAPHS:
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