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Water Reuse

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Water ReuseIssues, Technologies, and Applications

Metcalf & Eddy | AECOM

Written by

Takashi AsanoProfessor Emeritus of Civil and Environmental Engineering University of California at Davis

Franklin L. BurtonConsulting EngineerLos Altos, California

Harold L. LeverenzResearch AssociateUniversity of California at Davis

Ryujiro TsuchihashiTechnical SpecialistMetcalf & Eddy, Inc.

George TchobanoglousProfessor Emeritus of Civil and Environmental Engineering University of California at Davis

New York Chicago San Francisco Lisbon London Madrid Mexico CityMilan New Delhi San Juan Seoul Singapore Sydney Toronto

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Water reuse : issues, technologies, and applications / written byTakashi Asano . . . [et al.]. — 1st ed.

p. cm.Includes index.ISBN-13: 978-0-07-145927-3 (alk. paper)ISBN-10: 0-07-145927-8 (alk. paper)1. Water reuse. I. Asano, Takashi.

TD429.W38515 2006628.1′62—dc22

2006030659

Copyright © 2007 by Metcalf & Eddy, Inc. All rights reserved. Printed in the United Statesof America. Except as permitted under the United States Copyright Act of 1976, no part ofthis publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, or stored ina data base or retrieval system, without the prior written permission of the publisher.

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ISBN-13: 978-0-07-145927-3ISBN-10: 0-07-145927-8

Photographs: All of the photographs for this textbook were taken by George Tchobanoglous,unless otherwise noted.

The sponsoring editor for this book was Larry S. Hager and the production supervisor wasPamela A. Pelton. It was set in Times by International Typesetting and Composition. The artdirector for the cover was Brian Boucher.

Printed and bound by RR Donnelley.

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Information contained in this work has been obtained by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.(“McGraw-Hill”) from sources believed to be reliable. However, neither McGraw-Hill norits authors guarantee the accuracy or completeness of any information published herein, andneither McGraw-Hill nor its authors shall be responsible for any errors, omissions, or dam-ages arising out of use of this information. This work is published with the understanding thatMcGraw-Hill and its authors are supplying information but are not attempting to render engi-neering or other professional services. If such services are required, the assistance of anappropriate professional should be sought.

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This book is dedicated to Metcalf & Eddy’s James Anderson, who died of cancer inMarch 2006 and was therefore unable to see this book through to publication.

As Director of Technology, Jim was responsible for Metcalf & Eddy’s research programand for the continued development of our textbooks. It was through his vision of theimportance of water reuse in strategic water resources management that this book wasbrought to fruition. Jim also understood the need to train environmental engineeringprofessionals and Metcalf & Eddy’s commitment to do its part as originally conceivedand carried out by Leonard Metcalf and Harrison P. Eddy nearly 100 years ago.

Steve GuttenplanPresident

Metcalf & Eddy

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ABOUT THE AUTHORS

Takashi Asano is a Professor Emeritus of the Department of Civil and EnvironmentalEngineering at the University of California, Davis. He received a B.S. degree in agri-cultural chemistry from Hokkaido University in Sapporo, Japan, an M.S.E. degree insanitary engineering from the University of California, Berkeley, and a Ph.D. in envi-ronmental and water resources engineering from the University of Michigan, Ann Arborin 1970. His principal research interests are water reclamation and reuse and advancedwater and wastewater treatment in the context of integrated water resources manage-ment. Professor Asano was on the faculty of Montana State University, Bozeman, andWashington State University, Pullman. He also worked for 15 years as a water recla-mation specialist for the California State Water Resources Control Board inSacramento, California, in the formative years of water reclamation, recycling, andreuse. He is a recipient of the 2001 Stockholm Water Prize and also a member of theEuropean Academy of Sciences and Arts, the International Water Academy, and an hon-orary member of the Water Environment Federation. Professor Asano received anHonorary Doctorate from his alma mater, Hokkaido University in Sapporo, Japan, in2004. He is a registered professional engineer in California, Michigan, and Washington.

Franklin L. Burton served as vice president and chief engineer of the western region ofMetcalf & Eddy in Palo Alto, California, for 30 years. He retired from Metcalf & Eddyin 1986 and has been in private practice in Los Altos, California, specializing in treat-ment technology evaluation, facilities design review, energy management, and valueengineering. He received his B.S. in mechanical engineering from Lehigh University andan M.S. in civil engineering from the University of Michigan. He was a coauthor of thethird and fourth editions of the Metcalf & Eddy textbook Wastewater Engineering:Treatment and Reuse. He has authored over 30 publications on water and wastewatertreatment and energy management in water and wastewater applications. He is a regis-tered civil engineer in California and is a life member of the American Society of CivilEngineers, American Water Works Association, and Water Environment Federation.

Harold L. Leverenz is a research associate at the University of California, Davis. Hereceived a B.S. in biosystems engineering from Michigan State University and an M.S.and Ph.D. in environmental engineering from the University of California, Davis. Hisprofessional and research interests include decentralized systems for water reuse, natu-ral treatment processes, and ecological sanitation systems. Dr. Leverenz is a member ofthe American Ecological Engineering Society, the American Society of Agricultural andBiological Engineers, and the International Water Association.

Ryujiro Tsuchihashi is a technical specialist with Metcalf & Eddy, Inc. He received hisB.S. and M.S. in civil and environmental engineering from Kyoto University, Japan, and aPh.D. in environmental engineering from the University of California, Davis. The areas ofhis expertise include biological nutrient removal molecular technologies in the detection ofpathogenic organisms in the aquatic environment, health aspects of groundwater recharge,biological and various water reuse applications. He is a member of the American Societyof Civil Engineers, International Water Association, and WateReuse Association.

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George Tchobanoglous is a Professor Emeritus in the Department of Civil andEnvironmental Engineering at the University of California, Davis. He received a B.S.degree in civil engineering from the University of the Pacific, an M.S. degree in sanitaryengineering from the University of California at Berkeley, and a Ph.D. from StanfordUniversity in 1969. His research interests are in the areas of wastewater treatment andreuse, wastewater filtration, UV disinfection, aquatic wastewater management systems,wastewater management for small and decentralized wastewater management systems,and solid waste management. He has authored or coauthored over 350 technical publi-cations including 13 textbooks and 4 reference works. The textbooks are used in morethan 225 colleges and universities, as well as by practicing engineers. The textbookshave also been used extensively in universities worldwide both in English and in trans-lation. He is a past president of the Association of Environmental Engineering andScience Professors. Among his many honors, in 2003 Professor Tchobanoglous receivedthe Clarke Prize from the National Water Research Institute. In 2004, he was inductedinto the National Academy of Engineering. In 2005, he received an Honorary Doctor ofEngineering Degree from the Colorado School of Mines. He is a registered civilengineer in California.

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Contents

Preface xxviiAcknowledgments xxxiiiForeword xxxvii

Part 1 Water Reuse:An Introduction 1

1 Water Issues: CurrentStatus and the Role ofWater Reclamation andReuse 3

Working Terminology 4

1-1 Definition of Terms 6

1-2 Principles of Sustainable Water ResourcesManagement 6

The principle of sustainability 7Working definitions of sustainability 7Challenges for sustainability 7Criteria for sustainable water resourcesmanagement 7

Environmental ethics 13

1-3 Current and Potential FutureGlobal Water Shortages 15

Impact of current and projected worldpopulation 15

Potential global water shortages 19Water scarcity 19Potential regional water shortages in thecontinental United States 20

1-4 The Important Role of WaterReclamation and Reuse 23

Types of water reuse 24Integrated water resources planning 24Personnel needs/sustainable engineering 27Treatment and technology needs 27Infrastructure and planning issues 28

1-5 Water Reclamation and Reuseand Its Future 30

Implementation hurdles 31Public support 31Acceptance varies depending on opportunityand necessity 31

Public water supply from polluted watersources 31

Advances in water reclamationtechnologies 31

Challenges for water reclamationand reuse 32

Problems and Discussion Topics 32

References 33

2 Water Reuse: Past andCurrent Practices 37


2-1 Evolution of Water Reclamationand Reuse 39

Historical development prior to 1960 39Era of water reclamation and reusein the United States-post-1960 41

2-2 Impact of State and Federal Statutes onWater Reclamation and Reuse 45

The Clean Water Act 45The Safe Drinking Water Act 46

2-3 Water Reuse—Current Status in theUnited States 46

Withdrawal of water from surfaceand groundwater sources 46

Availability and reuse of treated wastewater 46Milestone water reuse projects and researchstudies 47

2-4 Water Reuse in California: A Case Study 47Experience with water reuse 47Current water reuse status 48

ix

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Water reuse policies and recyclingregulations 51

Potential future uses of reclaimed water 52

2-5 Water Reuse in Florida: A Case Study 53Experience with water reuse 54Current water reuse status 54Water reuse policies and recyclingregulations 56

Potential future uses of reclaimed water 56

2-6 Water Reuse in Other Partsof the World 58

Significant developments worldwide 58The World Health Organization’s water reuseguidelines 59

Water reuse in developing countries 59

2-7 Summary and Lessons Learned 63


References 66

Part 2 Health andEnvironmentalConcerns in WaterReuse 71

3 Characteristics of MunicipalWastewater and RelatedHealth and EnvironmentalIssues 73


3-1 Wastewater in Public Water Supplies—de facto Potable Reuse 77

Presence of treated wastewater in publicwater supplies 78

Impact of the presence of treated wastewateron public water supplies 78

3-2 Introduction to Waterborne Diseasesand Health Issues 78

Important historical events 79Waterborne disease 80Etiology of waterborne disease 81

3-3 Waterborne Pathogenic Microorganisms 83Terminology conventions for organisms 83

Log removal 83Bacteria 83Protozoa 87Helminths 89Viruses 89

3-4 Indicator Organisms 92Characteristics of an ideal indicatororganism 92

The coliform group bacteria 93Bacteriophages 93Other indicator organisms 94

3-5 Occurrence of Microbial Pathogens inUntreated and Treated Wastewater andin the Environment 94

Pathogens in untreated wastewater 94Pathogens in treated wastewater 97Pathogens in the environment 102Survival of pathogenic organisms 102

3-6 Chemical Constituents in Untreatedand Treated Wastewater 103

Chemical constituents in untreatedwastewater 103

Constituents added through domesticcommercial and industrial usage 104

Chemical constituents in treatedwastewater 108

Formation of disinfection byproducts(DBPs) 113

Comparison of treated wastewaterto natural water 114

Use of surrogate parameters 115

3-7 Emerging Contaminants in Waterand Wastewater 117

Endocrine disruptors and pharmaceuticallyactive chemicals 117

Some specific constituents with emergingconcern 118

New and reemerging microorganisms 120

3-8 Environmental Issues 120Effects on soils and plants 121Effects on surface water andgroundwater 121

Effects on ecosystems 121Effects on development and land use 122


References 124

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4 Water Reuse Regulationsand Guidelines 131


4-1 Understanding Regulatory Terminology 134Standard and criterion 134Standard versus criterion 134Regulation 135Difference between regulations andguidelines 135

Water reclamation and reuse 135

4-2 Development of Standards, Regulations,and Guidelines for Water Reuse 135

Basis for water quality standards 136Development of water reuse regulationsand guidelines 136

The regulatory process 139

4-3 General Regulatory Considerations Relatedto Water Reclamation and Reuse 139

Constituents and physical properties ofconcern in wastewater 139

Wastewater treatment and water qualityconsiderations 142

Reclaimed water qualitymonitoring 145

Storage requirements 146Reclaimed water application rates 147Aerosols and windborne sprays 147

4-4 Regulatory Considerations for Specific WaterReuse Applications 149

Agricultural irrigation 149Landscape irrigation 150Dual distribution systems and in-building

uses 151Impoundments 152Industrial uses 153Other nonpotable uses 153Groundwater recharge 154

4-5 Regulatory Considerations for IndirectPotable Reuse 155

Use of the most protected watersource 155

Influence of the two water acts 155Concerns for trace chemical constituents and

pathogens 156Assessment of health risks 157

4-6 State Water Reuse Regulations 157Status of water reuse regulations and

guidelines 158Regulations and guidelines for specific reuse

applications 158Regulatory requirements for nonpotable uses

of reclaimed water 165State regulations for indirect potable

reuse 167

4-7 U.S. EPA Guidelines for Water Reuse 169Disinfection requirements 169Microbial limits 178Control measures 178Recommendations for indirect potable

reuse 178

4-8 World Health Organization Guidelines forWater Reuse 179

1989 WHO guidelines for agriculture andaquaculture 180

The Stockholm framework 180Disability adjusted life years 180Concept of tolerable (acceptable)

risk 181Tolerable microbial risk in water 1812006 WHO guidelines for the safe use of

wastewater in agriculture 182

4-9 Future Directions in Regulations andGuidelines 184

Continuing development of state standards,regulations, and guidelines 184

Technical advances in treatmentprocesses 184

Information needs 184


References 187

5 Health Risk Analysis in WaterReuse Applications 191


5-1 Risk Analysis: An Overview 193Historical development of risk

assessment 194Objectives and applications of human health

risk assessment 194

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Elements of risk analysis 194Risk analysis: definitions and concepts 196

5-2 Health Risk Assessment 197Hazard identification 198Dose-response assessment 198Dose-response models 200Exposure assessment 204Risk characterization 204Comparison of human health and ecological

risk assessment 205

5-3 Risk Management 205

5-4 Risk Communication 206

5-5 Tools and Methods Used in RiskAssessment 207

Concepts from public health 207Concepts from epidemiology 208Concepts from toxicology 209National toxicology program cancer

bioassay 213Ecotoxicology: environmental effects 214

5-6 Chemical Risk Assessment 215Safety and risk determination in regulation

of chemical agents 215Risks from potential nonthreshold

toxicants 220Risk considerations 224Chemical risk assessment summary 225

5-7 Microbial Risk Assessment 225Infectious disease paradigm for microbial risk

assessment 225Microbial risk assessment methods 227Static microbial risk assessment models 227Dynamic microbial risk assessment

models 229Selecting a microbial risk model 232

5-8 Application of Microbial Risk Assessmentin Water Reuse Applications 234

Microbial risk assessment employing a staticmodel 234

Microbial risk assessment employing dynamicmodels 239

Risk assessment for water reuse from entericviruses 244

5-9 Limitations in Applying Risk Assessment toWater Reuse Applications 249

Relative nature of risk assessment 249

Inadequate consideration of secondaryinfections 249

Limited dose-response data 250


References 251

Part 3 Technologies andSystems for WaterReclamation andReuse 255

6 Water Reuse Technologiesand Treatment Systems:An Overview 257


6-1 Constituents in Untreated MunicipalWastewater 260

6-2 Technology Issues in Water Reclamationand Reuse 260

Water reuse applications 262Water quality requirements 262Multiple barrier concept 263Need for multiple treatment technologies 265

6-3 Treatment Technologies for WaterReclamation Applications 265

Removal of dissolved organic matter,suspended solids, and nutrients bysecondary treatment 268

Removal of residual particulate matter insecondary effluent 269

Removal of residual dissolvedconstituents 271

Removal of trace constituents 271Disinfection processes 271

6-4 Important Factors in the Selection ofTechnologies for Water Reuse 272

Multiple water reuse applications 273Need to remove trace constituents 273Need to conduct pilot-scale testing 276Process reliability 276Standby and redundancy considerations 279Infrastructure needs for water reuse

applications 280

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6-5 Impact of Treatment Plant Locationon Water Reuse 281

Centralized treatment plants 282Satellite treatment facilities 282Decentralized treatment facilities 283

6-6 The Future of Water ReclamationTechnologies and Treatment Systems 286

Implication of trace constituents on futurewater reuse 287

New regulations 287Retrofitting existing treatment plants 288New treatment plants 289Satellite treatment systems 289Decentralized treatment facilities and

systems 289New infrastructure concepts and

designs 290Research needs 291


References 293

7 Removal of Constituents bySecondary Treatment 295


7-1 Constituents in Untreated Wastewater 299Constituents of concern 299Typical constituent concentration values 299Variability of mass loadings 301

7-2 Technologies for Water ReuseApplications 304

7-3 Nonmembrane Processes forSecondary Treatment 307

Suitability for reclaimed waterapplications 307

Process descriptions 308Process performance expectations 310Importance of secondary sedimentation

tank design 318

7-4 Nonmembrane Processes for the Controland Removal of Nutrients in SecondaryTreatment 320

Nitrogen control 320Nitrogen removal 321Phosphorus removal 324Process performance expectations 328

7-5 Membrane Bioreactor Processes forSecondary Treatment 328

Description of membrane bioreactors 330Suitability of MBRs for reclaimed water

applications 331Types of membrane bioreactor

systems 332Principal proprietary submerged membrane

systems 333Other membrane systems 338Process performance expectations 340

7-6 Analysis and Design of Membrane BioreactorProcesses 340

Process analysis 340Design considerations 353Nutrient removal 358Biosolids processing 361

7-7 Issues in the Selection of SecondaryTreatment Processes 361

Expansion of an existing plant vs. construction ofa new plant 362

Final use of effluent 362Comparative performance of treatment

processes 362Pilot-scale studies 362Type of disinfection process 362Future water quality requirements 363Energy considerations 363Site constraints 364Economic and other considerations 368


References 371

8 Removal of ResidualParticulate Matter 373


8-1 Characteristics of Residual SuspendedParticulate Matter from Secondary TreatmentProcesses 375

Residual constituents and properties ofconcern 375

Removal of residual particles from secondarytreatment processes 385

8-2 Technologies for the Removal of ResidualSuspended Particulate Matter 388

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Technologies for reclaimed waterapplications 388

Process flow diagrams 390Process performance expectations 390Suitability for reclaimed water

applications 392

8-3 Depth Filtration 392Available filtration technologies 392Performance of depth filters 398Design considerations 407Pilot-scale studies 415Operational issues 417

8-4 Surface Filtration 417Available filtration technologies 419Performance of surface filters 422Design considerations 423Pilot-scale studies 425

8-5 Membrane Filtration 425Membrane terminology, types, classification,

and flow patterns 426Microfiltration and ultrafiltration 430Process analysis for MF and UF

membranes 435Operating characteristics and strategies

for MF and UF membranes 436Membrane performance 436Design considerations 441Pilot-scale studies 441Operational issues 443

8-6 Dissolved Air Flotation 445Process description 445Performance of DAF process 448Design considerations 448Operating considerations 453Pilot-scale studies 453

8-7 Issues in the Selection of Technologiesfor the Removal of Residual ParticulateMatter 454

Final use of effluent 454Comparative performance of

technologies 455Results of pilot-scale studies 455Type of disinfection process 455Future water quality requirements 455Energy considerations 455Site constraints 455Economic considerations 455


References 459

9 Removal of DissolvedConstituents withMembranes 461


9-1 Introduction to Technologies Used for theRemoval of Dissolved Constituents 463

Membrane separation 463Definition of osmotic pressure 463Nanofiltration and reverse osmosis 465Electrodialysis 466Typical process applications and flow

diagrams 467

9-2 Nanofiltration 467Types of membranes used in

nanofiltration 468Application of nanofiltration 471Performance expectations 471

9-3 Reverse Osmosis 473Types of membranes used in reverse

osmosis 473Application of reverse osmosis 474Performance expectations 474

9-4 Design and Operational Considerationsfor Nanofiltration and Reverse OsmosisSystems 475

Feedwater considerations 475Pretreatment 477Treatability testing 479Membrane flux and area requirements 482Membrane fouling 487Control of membrane fouling 490Process operating parameters 490Posttreatment 492

9-5 Pilot-Plant Studies for Nanofiltration andReverse Osmosis 499

9-6 Electrodialysis 501Description of the electrodialysis process 501Electrodialysis reversal 502Power consumption 503Design and operating considerations 506Membrane and electrode life 507Advantages and disadvantages of electrodialysis

versus reverse osmosis 508

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9-7 Management of Membrane Waste Streams 509

Membrane concentrate issues 509Thickening and drying of

waste streams 511Ultimate disposal methods for membrane

waste streams 515


References 522

10 Removal of Residual TraceConstituents 525


10-1 Introduction to Technologies Used for theRemoval of Trace Constituents 528

Separation processes based on masstransfer 528

Chemical and biological transformationprocesses 531

10-2 Adsorption 532Applications for adsorption 532Types of adsorbents 533Basic considerations for adsorption

processes 536Adsorption process limitations 551

10-3 Ion Exchange 551Applications for ion exchange 552Ion exchange materials 554Basic considerations for ion exchange

processes 555Ion exchange process limitations 559

10-4 Distillation 560Applications for distillation 560Distillation processes 560Basic considerations for distillation

processes 562Distillation process limitations 563

10-5 Chemical Oxidation 563Applications for conventional chemical

oxidation 563Oxidants used in chemical oxidation

processes 563Basic considerations for chemical oxidation

processes 566Chemical oxidation process

limitations 567

10-6 Advanced Oxidation 567Applications for advanced oxidation 568Processes for advanced oxidation 569Basic considerations for advanced oxidation

processes 574Advanced oxidation process limitations 577

10-7 Photolysis 578Applications for photolysis 578Photolysis processes 579Basic considerations for photolysis

processes 579Photolysis process limitations 586

10-8 Advanced Biological Transformations 586Basic considerations for advanced biological

treatment processes 587Advanced biological treatment processes 588Limitations of advanced biological

transformation processes 590


References 594

11 Disinfection Processesfor Water ReuseApplications 599


11-1 Disinfection Technologies Used forWater Reclamation 602

Characteristics for an ideal disinfectant 602Disinfection agents and methods in water

reclamation 602Mechanisms used to explain action

of disinfectants 604Comparison of reclaimed water

disinfectants 605

11-2 Practical Considerations and Issues forDisinfection 606

Physical facilities used for disinfection 606Factors affecting performance 609Development of the CRt Concept for predicting

disinfection performance 616Application of the CRt concept for reclaimed

water disinfection 617Performance comparison of disinfection

technologies 618Advantages and disadvantages of alternative

disinfection technologies 618

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11-3 Disinfection with Chlorine 622Characteristics of chlorine

compounds 622Chemistry of chlorine compounds 624Breakpoint reaction with chlorine 626Measurement and reporting of disinfection

process variables 631Germicidal efficiency of chlorine and various

chlorine compounds in clean water 631Form of residual chlorine and contact

time 631Factors that affect disinfection of reclaimed

water with chlorine 633Chemical characteristics of the reclaimed

water 635Modeling the chlorine disinfection

process 639Required chlorine dosages for

disinfection 641Assessing the hydraulic performance of

chlorine contact basins 644Formation and control of disinfection

byproducts 650Environmental impacts 654

11-4 Disinfection with Chlorine Dioxide 654Characteristics of chlorine dioxide 655Chlorine dioxide chemistry 655Effectiveness of chlorine dioxide as a

disinfectant 655Byproduct formation and control 656Environmental impacts 657

11-5 Dechlorination 657Dechlorination of reclaimed water

treated with chlorine and chlorinecompounds 657

Dechlorination of chlorine dioxide with sulfurdioxide 660

11-6 Disinfection with Ozone 660Ozone properties 660Ozone chemistry 661Ozone disinfection systems components 662Effectiveness of ozone as a disinfectant 666Modeling the ozone disinfection process 666Required ozone dosages for disinfection 669Byproduct formation and control 670Environmental impacts of using ozone 671

Other benefits of using ozone 671

11-7 Other Chemical Disinfection Methods 671Peracetic acid 671Combined chemical disinfection processes 672

11-8 Disinfection with Ultraviolet Radiation 674Source of UV radiation 674Types of UV lamps 674UV disinfection system configurations 678Mechanism of inactivation by UV

irradiation 682Factors affecting germicidal effectiveness of UV

irradiation 684Modeling the UV disinfection process 690Estimating UV dose 691Ultraviolet disinfection guidelines 700Analysis of a UV disinfection system 708Operational issues with UV disinfection

systems 708Environmental impacts of UV

irradiation 711


References 718

12 Satellite Treatment Systemsfor Water ReuseApplications 725


12-1 Introduction to Satellite Systems 727Types of satellite treatment systems 728Important factors in selecting the use of

satellite systems 730

12-2 Planning Considerations for SatelliteSystems 730

Identification of near-term and future reclaimedwater needs 730

Integration with existing facilities 731Siting considerations 731Public perception, legal aspects,

and institutional issues 734Economic considerations 735Environmental considerations 735Governing regulations 735

12-3 Satellite Systems for NonagriculturalWater Reuse Applications 735

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Reuse in buildings 736Landscape irrigation 736Lakes and recreational enhancement 736Groundwater recharge 736Industrial applications 737

12-4 Collection System Requirements 738Interception type satellite system 738Extraction type satellite system 738Upstream type satellite system 739

12-5 Wastewater Characteristics 739Interception type satellite system 740Extraction type satellite system 740Upstream type satellite system 741

12-6 Infrastructure Facilities for SatelliteTreatment Systems 741

Diversion and junction structures 741Flow equalization and storage 744Pumping, transmission, and distribution

of reclaimed water 745

12-7 Treatment Technologies for SatelliteSystems 745

Conventional technologies 745Membrane bioreactors 746Sequencing batch reactor 746

12-8 Integration with Existing Facilities 748

12-9 Case Study 1: Solaire Building New York,New York 751

Setting 751Water management issues 751Implementation 752Lessons learned 753

12-10 Case Study 2: Water Reclamation and Reusein Tokyo, Japan 755


12-11 Case Study 3: City of Upland, California 760



References 762

13 Onsite and DecentralizedSystems for WaterReuse 763


13-1 Introduction to Decentralized Systems 766Definition of decentralized systems 766Importance of decentralized systems 767Integration with centralized systems 770

13-2 Types of Decentralized Systems 770Individual onsite systems 771Cluster systems 771Housing development and small community

systems 772

13-3 Wastewater Flowrates and Characteristics 774

Wastewater flowrates 774Wastewater constituent concentrations 778

13-4 Treatment Technologies 785Source separating systems 786In-building pretreatment 788Primary treatment 788Secondary treatment 792Nutrient removal 797Disinfection processes 802Performance 804Reliability 804Maintenance needs 804

13-5 Technologies for Housing Developmentsand Small Community Systems 806

Collection systems 807Treatment technologies 815

13-6 Decentralized Water ReuseOpportunities 816

Landscape irrigation systems 816Irrigation with greywater 818Groundwater recharge 818Self-contained recycle systems 821Habitat development 821

13-7 Management and Monitoring ofDecentralized Systems 821

Types of management structures 821Monitoring and control equipment 824


References 827

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14 Distribution and Storage ofReclaimed Water 829


14-1 Issues in the Planning Process 831Type, size, and location of facilities 831Individual reclaimed water system versus dual

distribution system 832Public concerns and involvement 833

14-2 Planning and Conceptual Design ofDistribution and Storage Facilities 833

Location of reclaimed water supply, majorusers, and demands 834

Quantities and pressure requirements formajor demands 834

Distribution system network 836Facility design criteria 841Distribution system analysis 845Optimization of distribution system 847

14-3 Pipeline Design 856Location of reclaimed water pipelines 856Design criteria for reclaimed water

pipelines 858Pipeline materials 858Joints and connections 860Corrosion protection 861Pipe identification 862Distribution system valves 863Distribution system appurtenances 863

14-4 Pumping Systems 866Pumping station location and site

layout 866Pump types 867Pumping station performance 870Constant versus variable speed operation 870Valves 871Equipment and piping layout 872Emergency power 872Effect of pump operating schedule on system

design 875

14-5 Design of Reclaimed Water StorageFacilities 877

Location of reclaimed water reservoirs 878Facility and site layout for reservoirs, piping,

and appurtenances 879

Materials of construction 881Protective coatings—interior and exterior 881

14-6 Operation and Maintenance of DistributionFacilities 882

Pipelines 883Pumping stations 884

14-7 Water Quality Management Issues in ReclaimedWater Distribution and Storage 884

Water quality issues 885Impact of water quality issues 887The effect of storage on water quality

changes 887Strategies for managing water quality in open

and enclosed reservoirs 889


References 898

15 Dual Plumbing Systems 901


15-1 Overview of Dual Plumbing Systems 902

Rationale for dual plumbing systems 902Applications for dual plumbing systems 903

15-2 Planning Considerations for Dual PlumbingSystems 907

Applications for dual plumbing systems 907Regulations and codes governing dual

plumbing systems 908Applicable health and safety regulations 908

15-3 Design Considerations for DualDistribution Systems 908

Plumbing codes 908Safeguards 908

15-4 Inspection and Operating Considerations 913

15-5 Case Study: Irvine Ranch Water District, Orange County, California 915

Setting 915Water management issues 915Implementation 916Operational issues 918Lessons learned 919

15-6 Case Study: Rouse Hill Recycled WaterArea Project (Australia) 919

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15-7 Case Study: Serrano, California 921Setting 922Water management issues 922Implementation 923Lessons learned 925


References 926

Part 4 Water ReuseApplications 927

16 Water Reuse Applications:An Overview 929


16-1 Water Reuse Applications 930Agricultural irrigation 931Landscape irrigation 931Industrial uses 931Urban nonirrigation uses 933Environmental and recreational uses 933Groundwater recharge 933Indirect potable reuse through surface water

augmentation 933Direct potable reuse 934Water reuse applications in other parts

of the world 934

16-2 Issues in Water Reuse 934Resource sustainability 934Water resource opportunities 935Reliability of water supply 935Economic considerations 935Public policy 935Regulations 936Issues and constraints for specific

applications 937

16-3 Important Factors in the Selectionof Water Reuse Applications 937

Water quality considerations 937Types of technology 939

Matching supply and demand 939Infrastructure requirements 939Economic feasibility (affordability) 940Environmental considerations 941

16-4 Future Trends in Water ReuseApplications 941

Changes in regulations 942Water supply augmentation 942Decentralized and satellite systems 942New treatment technologies 942Issues associated with potable reuse 944


References 944

17 Agricultural Uses ofReclaimed Water 947


17-1 Agricultural Irrigation with ReclaimedWater: An Overview 949

Reclaimed water irrigation for agriculturein the United States 950

Reclaimed water irrigation for agriculturein the world 952

Regulations and guidelines related to agriculturalirrigation with reclaimed water 953

17-2 Agronomics and Water QualityConsiderations 954

Soil characteristics 955Suspended solids 958Salinity, sodicity, and specific ion toxicity 959Trace elements and nutrients 966Crop selection 971

17-3 Elements for the Design of ReclaimedWater Irrigation Systems 971

Water reclamation and reclaimed waterquantity and quality 977

Selection of the type of irrigation system 977Leaching requirements 986Estimation of water application rate 989Field area requirements 997Drainage systems 998Drainage water management and disposal 1003Storage system 1003Irrigation scheduling 1008

Contents xix

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17-4 Operation and Maintenance of ReclaimedWater Irrigation Systems 1008

Demand-supply management 1009Nutrient management 1009Public health protection 1011Effects of reclaimed water irrigation on soils

and crops 1011Monitoring requirements 1014

17-5 Case Study: Monterey Wastewater ReclamationStudy for Agriculture—Monterey, California 1015

Setting 1016Water management issues 1016Implementation 1016Study results 1017Subsequent projects 1021Recycled water food safety study 1021Lessons learned 1021

17-6 Case Study: Water Conserv II, Florida 1022

Setting 1023Water management issues 1023Implementation 1023Importance of Water Conserv II 1027Lessons learned 1027

17-7 Case Study: The Virginia Pipeline Scheme,South Australia—Seasonal ASR of ReclaimedWater for irrigation 1028

Setting 1028Water management issues 1029Regulatory requirements 1029Technology issues 1029Implementation 1030Performance and operations 1032Lessons learned 1035


References 1038

18 Landscape Irrigation withReclaimed Water 1043


18-1 Landscape Irrigation: An Overview 1045Definition of landscape irrigation 1045Reclaimed water use for landscape irrigation in

the United States 1046

18-2 Design and Operational Considerations forReclaimed Water Landscape IrrigationSystems 1047

Water quality requirements 1047Landscape plant selection 1050Irrigation systems 1054Estimation of water needs 1054Application rate and irrigation schedule 1065Management of demand-supply balance 1065Operation and maintenance issues 1066

18-3 Golf Course Irrigation with ReclaimedWater 1070

Water quality and agronomicconsiderations 1070

Reclaimed water supply and storage 1072Distribution system design

considerations 1075Leaching, drainage, and runoff 1076Other considerations 1076

18-4 Irrigation of Public Areas withReclaimed Water 1076

Irrigation of public areas 1078Reclaimed water treatment and water

quality 1079Conveyance and distribution system 1079Aesthetics and public acceptance 1079Operation and maintenance issues 1080

18-5 Residential Landscape Irrigation withReclaimed Water 1080

Residential landscape irrigation systems 1080

Reclaimed water treatment and waterquality 1081

Conveyance and distribution system 1081Operation and maintenance issues 1082

18-6 Landscape Irrigation with DecentralizedTreatment and Subsurface IrrigationSystems 1082

Subsurface drip irrigation for individualon-site and cluster systems 1082

Irrigation for residential areas 1086

18-7 Case Study: Landscape Irrigation in St. Petersburg, Florida 1086

Setting 1087Water management issues 1087Implementation 1087

xx Contents

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Project Greenleaf and resourcemanagement 1089

Landscape irrigation in the cityof St. Petersburg 1091

Lessons learned 1093

18-8 Case Study: Residential Irrigation inEl Dorado Hills, California 1093

Water management issues 1094Implementation 1094Education program 1096Lessons learned 1096


References 1099

19 Industrial Uses ofReclaimed Water 1103


19-1 Industrial Uses of Reclaimed Water:An Overview 1105

Status of water use for industrial applicationsin the United States 1105

Water management in industries 1107Factors affecting the use of reclaimed water

for industrial applications 1108

19-2 Water Quality Issues for Industrial Uses ofReclaimed Water 1109

General water quality considerations 1110Corrosion issues 1110Indexes for assessing effects of reclaimed water

quality on reuse systems 1115Corrosion management options 1126Scaling issues 1127Accumulation of dissolved

constituents 1129

19-3 Cooling Water Systems 1132System description 1132Water quality considerations 1132Design and operational considerations 1135Management issues 1138

19-4 Other Industrial Water ReuseApplications 1141

Boilers 1141Pulp and paper industry 1147Textile industry 1150Other industrial applications 1154

19-5 Case Study: Cooling Tower at a Thermal PowerGeneration Plant, Denver, Colorado 1155


19-6 Case Study: Industrial Uses of ReclaimedWater in West Basin Municipal WaterDistrict, California 1158



References 1165

20 Urban Nonirrigation WaterReuse Applications 1169


20-1 Urban Water Use and Water ReuseApplications: An Overview 1171

Domestic potable water use in the UnitedStates 1171

Commercial water use in the United States 1172Urban nonirrigation water reuse in the United

States 1172Urban nonirrigation water reuse in other

countries 1172

20-2 Factors Affecting the Use of ReclaimedWater for Urban Nonirrigation ReuseApplications 1175

Infrastructure issues 1175Water quality and supply issues 1176Acceptance issues 1179

20-3 Air Conditioning 1179Description of air conditioning systems 1179Utilizing reclaimed water for air conditioning

systems 1181Water quality considerations 1181Management issues 1183

20-4 Fire Protection 1183Types of applications 1186Water quality considerations 1187Implementation issues 1187Management issues 1188

Contents xxi

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20-5 Toilet and Urinal Flushing 1188Types of applications 1188Water quality considerations 1188Implementation issues 1192Satellite and decentralized systems 1193Management issues 1193

20-6 Commercial Applications 1195Car and other vehicle washing 1195Laundries 1196

20-7 Public Water Features 1197Fountains and waterfalls 1197Reflecting pools 1197Ponds and lakes in public parks 1198

20-8 Road Care and Maintenance 1198Dust control and street cleaning 1199Snow melting 1199


References 1201

21 Environmental andRecreational Uses ofReclaimed Water 1203


21-1 Overview of Environmental and RecreationalUses of Reclaimed Water 1205

Types of environmental andrecreational uses 1206

Important factors influencing environmental andrecreational uses of reclaimed water 1207

21-2 Wetlands 1210Types of wetlands 1210Development of wetlands with reclaimed

water 1213Water quality considerations 1216Operations and maintenance 1216

21-3 Stream Flow Augmentation 1222Aquatic and riparian habitat enhancement with

reclaimed water 1222Recreational uses of streams augmented with

reclaimed water 1224Reclaimed water quality requirements 1224Stream flow requirements 1226Operations and maintenance 1226

21-4 Ponds and Lakes 1228Water quality requirements 1228

Operations and maintenance 1230Other considerations 1230

21-5 Other Uses 1231Snowmaking 1231Animal viewing parks 1231

21-6 Case Study: Arcata, California 1231Setting 1232Water management issues 1232Implementation 1232Lessons learned 1233

21-7 Case Study: San Luis Obispo, California 1234Setting 1234Water management issues 1235Implementation 1235Lessons learned 1238

21-8 Case Study: Santee Lakes, San Diego,California 1238



References 1242

22 Groundwater Recharge withReclaimed Water 1245


22-1 Planned Groundwater Rechargewith Reclaimed Water 1248

Advantages of subsurface storage 1248Types of groundwater recharge 1249Components of a groundwater recharge

system 1250Technologies for groundwater recharge 1251Selection of recharge system 1253Recovery of recharge water 1254

22-2 Water Quality Requirements 1255Water quality challenges for groundwater

recharge 1255Degree of pretreatment required 1255

22-3 Recharge Using Surface SpreadingBasins 1256

Description 1256Pretreatment needs 1257Hydraulic analysis 1259

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Operation and maintenance issues 1268Performance of recharge basins 1271Pathogens 1279Examples of full-scale surface spreading

facilities 1280

22-4 Recharge Using Vadose Zone Injection Wells 1282

Description 1282Pretreatment needs 1283Hydraulic analysis 1284Operation and maintenance issues 1285Performance of vadose zone injection

wells 1286Examples of operational full-scale vadose zone

injection facilities 1286

22-5 Recharge Using Direct Injection Wells 1287Description 1287Pretreatment needs 1288Hydraulic analysis 1288Operation and maintenance issues 1290Performance of direct injection wells 1291Examples of full-scale direct aquifer injection

facilities 1292

22-6 Other Methods Used for GroundwaterRecharge 1293

Aquifer storage and recovery (ASR) 1293Riverbank and dune filtration 1294Enhanced river recharge 1295Groundwater recharge using subsurface

facilities 1296

22-7 Case Study: Orange County Water DistrictGroundwater Replenishment System 1296

Setting 1297The GWR system 1297Implementation 1297Lessons learned 1298


References 1300

23 Indirect Potable Reusethrough Surface WaterAugmentation 1303


23-1 Overview of Indirect Potable Reuse 1305De facto indirect potable reuse 1305

Strategies for indirect potable reuse throughsurface-water augmentation 1307

Public acceptance 1308

23-2 Health and Risk Considerations 1308Pathogen and trace constituents 1308System reliability 1309Use of multiple barriers 1309

23-3 Planning for Indirect Potable Reuse 1309Characteristics of the watershed 1310Quantity of reclaimed water to be blended 1311Water and wastewater treatment

requirements 1312Institutional considerations 1312Cost considerations 1313

23-4 Technical Considerations for Surface-WaterAugmentation in Lakes and Reservoirs 1314

Characteristics of water supplyreservoirs 1314

Modeling of lakes and reservoirs 1319Strategies for augmenting water supply

reservoirs 1320

23-5 Case Study: Implementing Indirect Potable Reuseat the Upper Occoquan Sewage Authority 1323

Setting 1323Water management issues 1323Description of treatment components 1323Future treatment process directions 1326Water quality of the Occoquan Reservoir 1327Water treatment 1328Lessons learned 1328

23-6 Case Study: City of San Diego WaterRepurification Project and Water

Reuse Study 2005 1329Setting 1330Water management issues 1330Wastewater treatment mandates 1330Water Repurification Project 13312000 Updated Water Reclamation Master

Plan 1332City of San Diego Water Reuse

Study 2005 1332Lessons learned 1334

23-7 Case Study: Singapore’s NEWater for IndirectPotable Reuse 1334

Setting 1335Water management issues 1335NEWater Factory and NEWater 1335

Contents xxiii

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Implementation 1335NEWater demonstration plant

performance 1336Project milestones 1336Lessons learned 1337

23-8 Observations on Indirect Potable Reuse 1340


References 1342

24 Direct Potable Reuse ofReclaimed Water 1345


24-1 Issues in Direct Potable Reuse 1346Public perception 1347Health risk concerns 1347Technological capabilities 1347Cost considerations 1348

24-2 Case Study: Emergency Potable Reuse inChanute, Kansas 1348

Setting 1348Water management issues 1349Implementation 1349Efficiency of sewage treatment and the

overall treatment process 1349Lessons learned 1351Importance of the Chanute experience 1352

24-3 Case Study: Direct Potable Reusein Windhoek, Namibia 1352


24-4 Case Study: Direct Potable Reuse DemonstrationProject in Denver, Colorado 1361

Setting 1362Water management issues 1362Treatment technologies 1362Water quality testing and studies 1364Animal health effects testing 1371Cost estimates on the potable reuse advanced

treatment plant 1372Public information program 1373Lessons learned 1374

24-5 Observations on Direct Potable Reuse 1375


References 1376

Part 5 Implementing WaterReuse 1379

25 Planning for WaterReclamation andReuse 1381


25-1 Integrated Water Resources Planning 1384Integrated water resources planning

process 1385Clarifying the problem 1386Formulating objectives 1386Gathering background information 1386Identifying project alternatives 1388Evaluating and ranking alternatives 1389Developing implementation plans 1389

25-2 Engineering Issues in Water Reclamationand Reuse Planning 1392

25-3 Environmental Assessment and PublicParticipation 1392

Environmental assessment 1393Public participation and outreach 1393

25-4 Legal and Institutional Aspects ofWater Reuse 1393

Water rights law 1393Water rights and water reuse 1395Policies and regulations 1397Institutional coordination 1397

25-5 Case Study: Institutional Arrangements at theWalnut Valley Water District, California 1397

Water management issues 1397Lessons learned 1398

25-6 Reclaimed Water Market Assessment 1399Steps in data collection and analysis 1399Comparison of water sources 1399Comparison with costs and revenues 1401Market assurances 1402

25-7 Factors Affecting Monetary Evaluation ofWater Reclamation and Reuse 1406

Common weaknesses in water reclamation andreuse planning 1407

Perspectives in project analysis 1408Planning and design time horizons 1408Time value of money 1409Inflation and cost indices 1409

xxiv Contents

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25-8 Economic Analysis for Water Reuse 1411Comparison of alternatives by present worth

analysis 1412Measurement of costs and inflation 1412Measurement of benefits 1412Basic assumptions of economic

analyses 1414Replacement costs and salvage

values 1415Computation of economic cost 1417Project optimization 1420Influence of subsidies 1421

25-9 Financial Analysis 1422Construction financial plans and revenue

programs 1422Cost allocation 1423Influence on freshwater rates 1423Other financial analysis considerations 1423Sources of revenue and pricing of reclaimed

water 1424Financial feasibility analysis 1425Sensitivity analysis and conservative

assumptions 1429


References 1432

26 Public Participation andImplementation Issues 1435


26-1 How Is Water Reuse Perceived? 1436Public attitude about water reuse 1436Public beliefs about water reuse

options 1440

26-2 Public Perspectives on Water Reuse 1440Water quality and public health 1441Economics 1441Water supply and growth 1441Environmental justice/equity issues 1441The “Yuck” factor 1442Other issues 1442

26-3 Public Participation and Outreach 1443Why involve the public? 1443Legal mandates for public involvement 1443Defining the “public” 1444Approaches to public involvement 1444

Techniques for public participation andoutreach 1446

Some pitfalls in types of public involvement 1448

26-4 Case Study: Difficulties Encountered in RedwoodCity’s Landscape Irrigation Project 1450Setting 1450Water management issues 1450Water reclamation project planned 1450Lessons learned 1452

26-5 Case Study: Water Reclamation and Reuse inthe City of St. Petersburg, Florida 1451

Setting 1453Water and wastewater management issues 1453Development of reclaimed water system 1455Current status of water reclamation and

reuse 1456Lessons learned 1456Access to city’s proactive water reclamation and

reuse information 1459

26-6 Observations on Water Reclamation andReuse 1459


References 1460

Appendixes

A Conversion Factors 1463

B Physical Properties of Selected Gasesand the Composition of Air 1471

C Physical Properties of Water 1475

D Statistical Analysis of Data 1479

E Review of Water Reclamation Activities in theUnited States and in Selected Countries 1485

F Evolution of Nonpotable Reuse Criteria andGroundwater Recharge Regulationsin California 1509

G Values of the Hantush Function F(α, β) and the Well Function W(u) 1523

H Interest Factors and Their Use 1525

Indexes

Name Index 1529

Subject Index 1541

Contents xxv

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Preface

With many communities approaching the limits of their available water supplies, waterreclamation and reuse has become a logical option for conserving and extending avail-able water supply by potentially (1) substituting reclaimed water for applications thatdo not require drinking (potable) water, (2) augmenting existing water sources and pro-viding an additional source of water supply to assist in meeting both present and futurewater needs, (3) protecting aquatic ecosystems by decreasing the diversion of freshwa-ter as well as reducing the quantity of nutrients and other toxic contaminants enteringwaterways, (4) postponing and reducing the need for water control structures, and(5) complying with environmental regulations by better managing water consumptionand wastewater discharges. The increasing importance and recognition of water recla-mation and reuse have led to the need for specialized instruction of engineering and sci-ence students in their undergraduate and graduate levels, as well as practicing engineersand scientists, and a technical reference for project managers and government officials.Aside from the need for a textbook on water reuse applications and the technologiesused to treat and distribute reclaimed water, there is also the need to address the specialconsiderations of public health, project planning and economics, public acceptance, andthe diverse uses of reclaimed water in society.

This textbook, Water Reuse: Issues, Technologies, and Applications, is an endeavor by theauthors to assemble, analyze, and synthesize a vast amount of information on water recla-mation and reuse. To deal with the amount of available material, the book is organized intofive parts, each dealing with a coherent body of information which is described below.

It is important to understand the concept of sustainable water resources management asa foundation for water reclamation and reuse. Thus, in Part 1 of this textbook, currentand potential future water shortages, principles of sustainable water resources manage-ment, and the important role of water reclamation and reuse are introduced briefly. Thepast and current practices of water reclamation and reuse are presented, which also serveas an introduction to the subsequent engineering and water reuse applications chapters.

Health and environmental issues related to water reuse are discussed in three relatedchapters in Part 2. The characteristics of wastewater are introduced, followed by a dis-cussion of the applicable regulations and their development. Because health risk analy-sis is an important aspect of water reuse applications, a separate chapter is devoted tothis subject including tools and methods used in risk assessment, chemical risk assess-ment, and microbial risk assessment.

Part 1: WaterReuse: AnIntroduction

Part 2: HealthandEnvironmentalConcerns inWater Reuse

xxvii

ORGANIZATION OF THE TEXTBOOK AND CONTENT

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The various technologies and systems available for the production and delivery ofreclaimed water are the subject of Part 3. Although design values are presented, detaileddesign is not the focus of these chapters. Rather, the focus is on the dependable per-formance of the processes and technologies. Detailed discussions are provided withrespect to constituents of concern in water reuse applications including particulate mat-ter, dissolved constituents, and pathogenic microorganisms. Another important aspectof water reclamation is related to meeting stringent water quality performance require-ments as affected by wastewater variability and process reliability, factors which areemphasized repeatedly throughout this textbook.

Because water quality and infrastructure requirements vary greatly with specific waterreuse application, major water reuse applications are discussed in separate chapters inPart 4: nonpotable water reuse applications including agricultural uses, landscape irriga-tion, industrial uses, environmental and recreational uses, groundwater recharge, and urbannonpotable and commercial uses. Indirect and direct potable reuses are discussed with sev-eral notable projects. Groundwater recharge can be considered as a form of indirect potablereuse if the recharged aquifer is interconnected to potable water production wells.

In the final Part 5 of this textbook, the focus is on planning and implementation for waterreuse. Integrated water resources planning, including reclaimed water market assessment,and economic and financial analyses are presented. As technology continues to advanceand cost effectiveness and the reliability of water reuse systems becomes more widely rec-ognized, water reclamation and reuse plans and facilities will continue to expand as essen-tial elements in sustainable water resources management. Implementation issues in waterreclamation and reuse are discussed including soliciting and responding to communityconcerns, development of public support through educational programs, and the develop-ment of financial instruments.

To illustrate the principles, applications, and facilities involved in the field of waterreclamation and reuse, more than 350 data and information tables and 80 detailedworked examples, more than 500 illustrations, graphs, diagrams, and photographs areincluded. To help the readers of this textbook hone their analytical skills and mastery ofthe material, problems and discussion topics are included at the end of each chapter.Selected references are also provided for each chapter.

The International System (SI) of Units is used in this textbook. The use of SI units isconsistent with teaching practice in most universities in the United States and in mostcountries throughout the world.

To further increase the utility of this textbook, several appendixes have been included.Conversion factors from SI Units to U.S. Customary Units and the reverse are presentedin Appendixes A-1 and A-2, respectively. Conversion factors used commonly for theanalysis and design of water and wastewater management systems are presented inAppendix A-3. Abbreviations for SI and U.S. Customary Units are presented inAppendixes A-4 and A-5, respectively. Physical characteristics of air and selected gases

xxviii Preface

Part 3: WaterTechnologiesand Systemsfor WaterReclamationand Reuse

Part 4: WaterReuseApplications

Part 5:ImplementingWater Reuse

IMPORTANT FEATURES OF THIS TEXTBOOK

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and water are presented in Appendixes B and C, respectively. Statistical analysis of datawith an example is presented in Appendix D.

Milestone water reuse projects and research studies in the United States and a summaryof water reclamation and reuse in selected countries of the world are presented inAppendixes E-1 and E-2, respectively. Evolution of nonpotable reuse criteria andgroundwater recharge regulations in California is presented in Appendix F.Dimensionless well function W(u) values are presented in Appendix G. Finally, inter-est factors and their use are presented and illustrated in Appendix H.

With recent Internet developments, it is now possible to view many of the facilities dis-cussed in this textbook through satellite images using one of the many search engines avail-able on the Internet. Where appropriate, global positioning coordinates for water reusefacilities of interest are given to allow viewing of these facilities in their natural setting.

Enough material is presented in this textbook to support a variety of courses for one ortwo semesters or three quarters at either the undergraduate or graduate level. The spe-cific topics to be covered will depend on the time available and the course objectives.Three suggested course plans are presented below.

Course Title: Survey of Water ReuseSetting: 1 semester or 1 quarter, stand-alone classTarget: Upper division or MS, environmental science majorCourse Objectives: Introduce important considerations influencing water reuse plan-

ning and implementation.Sample outline:

Topic Chapters Sections

Introduction to water reuse 1, 2 All

Wastewater characteristics 3 3-1, 3-2, 3-5 to 3-8

Regulations for water reuse 4 4-1 to 4-7

Public health protection and 5 5-1 to 5-5, 5-9risk assessment

Introduction to water reclamation 6 Alltechnologies

Infrastructure for water reuse 12, 13, 14, 15 12-1, 12-2, 13-1, 13-2,13-6, 14-1, 14-2,15-1, 15-2

Overview of disinfection for reuse 11 11-1, 11-2applications

Introduction to water reuse applications 16 All

Perspectives on water reuse planning 25 25-1 to 25-4

Perspectives on public acceptance 26 26-1 to 26-3

Preface xxix

Course Plan I

USE OF THIS TEXTBOOK

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Course Title: Water Reuse ApplicationsSetting: 1 semester or 1 quarter class Target: Upper division or MS, environmental engineering majorCourse Objectives: Introduce nonconventional engineering aspects of water reuse

including satellite, decentralized, and onsite treatment and reusesystems. An overview of various water reuse applications areintroduced.

Sample outline:


Introduction to water reclamation and reuse 1, 2 1-1 to 1-5, 2-1


Water reuse regulations and guidelines 4 4-1 to 4-4, 4-6 to 4-8

Public health protection and risk assessment 5 5-1 to 5-5, 5-8, 5-9

Introduction to water reclamation technologies 6 6-1 to 6-5

Overview of disinfection for reuse applications 11 11-1, 11-2

Introduction to water reuse applications 16 All

Reclaimed water use for irrigation 17, 18 17-1 to 17-3, 18-1 to18-2, 18-4 to 18-5

Reclaimed water use for industrial processes 19 19-1 to 19-3

Urban nonirrigation, environmental, and 20, 21 20-1, 20-2, 21-1recreational uses

Indirect potable reuse by groundwater and 22, 23 22-1 to 22-2, 22-7,surface water augmentation 23-1 to 23-3, 23-8

Economic and financial analysis 25 25-6 to 25-9

Public participation and public acceptance 25, 26 25-3, 26-1 to 26-3

Course Title: Advanced Treatment Technologies and Infrastructure for WaterReuse Applications

Setting: 1 semester or 1 quarter classTarget: MS level, environmental engineering majorCourse Objectives: Introduce treatment technologies important in water reuse.

Introduce reliability issues, concept of probability distribution inassessing disinfection performance, and future directions. Thecourse will be a stand-alone class on advanced treatment, or partof a wastewater treatment class that covers both conventional andadvanced technologies emphasizing water reclamation, recycling,and reuse.

This textbook is a useful supplement to a companion textbook,Wastewater Engineering: Treatment and Reuse, 4th ed.,(Tchobanoglous, G., F.L. Burton, and H.D. Stensel) for the fol-lowing topics:

xxx Preface

Course Plan II

Course Plan III

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Sample outline:


Introduction to water reuse 1, 2 All


Introduction to water reclamation 6, 16 6-2 to 6-4, 16-1 to 16-4and reuse

Membrane filtration, membrane 7, 8 7-5, 7-6, 8-5bioreactor

Nanofiltration, reverse osmosis, 9 9-1 to 9-4and electrodialysis

Adsorption, Advanced oxidation 10 10-1, 10-2, 10-6, 10-7

Disinfection 11 11-1 to 11-3, 11-5, 11-6, 11-8

Alternative systems for water reuse 12, 13 12-1, 12-2, 13-1, 13-2, 13-6,

Infrastructure for water reuse 14, 15 14-1, 14-2, 15-1 to 15-3

Preface xxxi

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This textbook, Water Reuse: Issues, Technologies, and Application is a tribute to thepioneering planners and engineers who were able to look ahead of their time and pushforward the frontiers of water reclamation and reuse from obscure practice to a grow-ing discipline in sustainable water resources management. Based on the widespreadacceptance of water reuse and the development of new treatment technologies andapplications, it is an appropriate time to produce a comprehensive textbook on the sub-ject. A book of this magnitude, however, could not have been written without the assis-tance of numerous individuals, some are acknowledged below and others who remainin the background. The authors are particularly grateful to many individuals who con-tributed the information through personal contacts and the “grey” literature as well asconference and symposium proceedings.

The principal authors were responsible for writing, editing, coordinating, and alsoresponding to reviewer’s comments for this textbook. Individuals who contributed specif-ically to the chapters, listed in chapter order, included Dr. James Crook, environmentalengineering consultant, who prepared Chapter 4, Water Reuse Regulations andGuidelines; Dr. Joseph Cotruvo, J. Cotruvo Associates, prepared chemical risk assess-ment, and Dr. Adam W. Olivieri, Eisenberg Olivieri & Associates and Mr. Jeffery A.Soller, Soller Environmental, prepared microbial risk assessment in Chapter 5, HealthRisk Analysis in Water Reuse Applications; Mr. Max E. Burchett of Whitley Burchett &Associates prepared Chapter 14, Storage and Distribution of Reclaimed Water; ProfessorAudrey D. Levine of the University of South Florida prepared portions of Chapter 19,Industrial and Commercial Uses of Reclaimed Water; Professor Peter Fox of ArizonaState University prepared Chapter 22, Groundwater Recharge with Reclaimed Water;Mr. Richard A. Mills of California State Water Resources Control Board prepared Chapter25, Planning for Water Reclamation and Reuse. The help and assistance of Mr. PierMantovani in the formative stage of the textbook preparation is also acknowledged. A sig-nificant contributor to preparation of this textbook was Ms. Jennifer Cole Aieta of AietaCole Enterprises who edited and provided insightful commentary for all of the chapters.

Other individuals who contributed, arranged in alphabetical order, are: Mr. RobertAngelotti, Upper Occoquan Sewage Authority, who reviewed portions of Chapter 23;Dr. Akissa Bahri of the International Water Management Institute in Ghana whoreviewed Chapter 17; Mr. Harold Bailey, Padre Dam Municipal Water District,reviewed portions of Chapter 21 and provided several pictures used in Chapters 18 and21; Drs. Jamie Bartram and Robert Bos, World Health Organization in Switzerlandreviewed portions of Chapter 4; Mr. Matt Brooks, Upper Occoquan Sewage Authority,who reviewed portions of Chapter 23; Mr. Bryan Buchanan, City of Roseville,California, provided several photos used in Chapter 18; Ms. Katie DiSimone, City of

Acknowledgments

xxxiii

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San Luis Obispo, California, provided information for Chapter 21; Mr. Bruce Durhamof Veolia, UK, provided materials for Chapter 24; Mr. Jeffery Goldberg, City ofSt. Petersburg, reviewed part of Chapter 18; Dr. Stephen Grattan, the University ofCalifornia, Davis, reviewed Chapter 17; Ms. Lori Kennedy, University of California,Davis, who helped compiling information and drafted portions of Chapters 1, 2, and 25;Mr. Tze Weng Kok, Singapore Public Utilities Board reviewed portions of Chapter 24;Professor Naoyuki Funamizu of Hokkaido University in Japan reviewed portions ofChapter 5 and also provided water reuse pictures; Dr. Josef Lahnsteiner, WABAG inAustria and Dr. Günter G. Lempert, Aqua Services & Engineering (Pty) Ltd. inNamibia reviewed and contributed to Chapter 24; Messrs Gary Myers and JohnBowman, Serrano El Dorado Owners’ Association, California, provided materials usedin Chapters 14 and 18; Professor Slawomir W. Hermanowicz of the University ofCalifornia, Berkeley reviewed Chapter 1; Professor Audrey D. Levine of the Universityof South Florida reviewed Chapters 1 and 2; Dr. Loretta Lohman of Colorado StateUniversity Cooperative Extension reviewed Chapter 26; Professor Rafael Mujeriego ofTechnical University of Catalonia in Spain in numerous discussions over many yearshas contributed valuable insight; Dr. Kumiko Oguma of the University of Tokyo inJapan reviewed portions of Chapter 11 and provided information on microbial regrowthin UV disinfection; Professor Choon Nam Ong of the National University of Singaporereviewed portions of Chapter 24; Professor Gideon Oron, Ben-Gurion University of theNegev in Israel provided irrigation pictures; Mr. Erick Rosenblum, City of San Jose,California, reviewed portions of Chapter 26; Dr. Bahman Sheikh, water reclamationconsultant, reviewed Chapters 17, 23, and 24; Messrs. Keiichi Sone and Toshiaki Uenoof the Tokyo Metropolitan Government in Japan provided several water reuse picturesused in Chapters 20 and 21; Professor H. David Stensel of the University of Washingtonreviewed Chapters 6 and 7; Mr. Tim Sullivan, El Dorado Irrigation District, California,provided information and reviewed portions of Chapter 18; Professor Kenneth Tanjiof the University of California, Davis, reviewed Chapter 17; Mr. Thai Pin Tan ofSingapore Public Utilities Board reviewed portions of Chapter 24 and provided theinformation; Professor Hiroaki Tanaka of Kyoto University in Japan reviewed micro-bial risk assessment sections of Chapter 5; Dr. R. Shane Trussell reviewed and providedvaluable comments on membrane bioreactors in Chapter 7; Professor Gedaliah Shelefof the Israel Institute of Technology in Israel through numerous discussions over manyyears has contributed valuable insight on water reclamation and reuse; ProfessorEdward D. Schroeder of the University of California, Davis reviewed an early draft ofChapters 1 and 2; Dr. David York of Florida Department of Environmental Protectionreviewed portions of Chapter 2. The collective efforts of these individuals were invalu-able and greatly appreciated.

The assistance of the staff of Metcalf & Eddy in preparation of this textbook is alsoacknowledged. The efforts of Mr. James Anderson were especially important in mak-ing this book possible and in managing the resources made available by Metcalf &Eddy to the authors. Sadly, Mr. Anderson never saw the published version of this text-book; he passed away as the manuscript was nearing completion. It was his vision thatwater reclamation and reuse would become an important part of global water resourcesmanagement. As Metcalf & Eddy’s full time author, Dr. Ryujiro Tsuchihashi withMs. Kathleen Esposito took on the additional responsibility for the completion of thistextbook, Ms. Dorothy Frohlich provided liaison between the authors and reviewers.

xxxiv Acknowledgments

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Members of the McGraw-Hill staff were also critical to the production of this textbook.Mr. Larry Hager was instrumental in the development of this textbook project.Mr. David Fogarty served as editing supervisor and helped keep all of the loose endstogether. Ms. Pamela Pelton served as the production supervisor. Ms. Arushi Chawlaserved as project manager at International Typesetting and Composition.

Takashi Asano, Davis, CAFranklin L. Burton, Los Altos, CA

Harold L. Leverenz, Davis, CARyujiro Tsuchihashi, New York, NYGeorge Tchobanoglous, Davis, CA

Acknowledgments xxxv

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The history of Metcalf & Eddy textbooks is nearly as long as the firm’s. A few yearsafter the firm’s founding 100 years ago, Leonard Metcalf and Harrison P. Eddy under-took the preparation of a book bringing together in a form convenient for ready refer-ence the more important principles of theory and rules of practice in sewerage designand operation. The work was published in three volumes in 1914–1915 under the titleAmerican Sewerage Practice. Due to urging from academicians, a single-volumeabridgement for use in engineering schools was published in 1922.

Since that time, Metcalf & Eddy books have undergone numerous revisions and print-ings. To meet global needs, Metcalf & Eddy textbooks have also been translated intoChinese, Italian, Japanese, Korean, and Spanish. To date, the books have been used inover 300 universities worldwide.

After the fourth edition, entitled Wastewater Engineering: Treatment and Reuse, waspublished in 2003, it became evident that global water issues and needs will make waterreuse one of the crucial components of water resources management. For that reason,Metcalf & Eddy concluded that a proper response would be to launch a full textbookon the subject of water reuse. The new textbook, Water Reuse: Issues, Technologies,and Applications, is therefore focused on providing education for the building blocksneeded to rationally manage our most critical resource—water.

Metcalf & Eddy believes it is essential to encourage wastewater and water supply profes-sionals to elevate water reuse to a strategic level in their planning process so that this lim-ited resource can be efficiently managed and properly preserved. It is envisioned thatwastewater professionals will see this textbook as a road map to the implementation ofcomplex water reuse projects. There is no other single source of information availabletoday that combines a discussion of issues in water reuse, policy, up-to-date treatment tech-nologies, real-life practical water reuse applications, as well as planning and implementa-tion considerations. Metcalf & Eddy takes great pride in presenting the first textbook toaddress water reuse in such a comprehensive fashion. This book combined with the fourthedition represents the most complete treatise on the subject of wastewater today.

Metcalf & Eddy was able to assemble a team of authors that has no equal, consisting ofDr. Takashi Asano, the 2001 Stockholm Water Prize Laureate; Dr. George Tchobanoglous,a member of the National Academy of Engineering; and Franklin Burton, formerVice President and Chief Engineer in the western regional office of Metcalf & Eddy.New additions to the author team are Dr. Harold Leverenz, and Metcalf & Eddy’s Dr. Ryujiro Tsuchihashi. Dr. Tsuchihashi also served as a full-time Metcalf & Eddy liaisonto our California-based author team.

Foreword

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This textbook could not be completed without the contribution of many individuals, inaddition to our principal authors. Other Metcalf & Eddy professionals (unless otherwisenoted) who contributed as reviewers of chapters are: William Bent, Bohdan Bodniewicz,Anthony Bouchard (Consoer Townsend Envirodyne Engineers), Gregory Bowden,Timothy Bradley, Pamela Burnett, Theping Chen, William Clunie, Nicholas Cooper,Ashok Dhingra, Bruce Engerholm, Kathleen Esposito, Robert Jarnis, Gary Johnson(Connecticut Department of Environmental Protection), Mark Laquidara, ThomasMcMonagle, Chandra Mysore, William Pfrang, Charles Pound, John Reidy, JamesSchaefer, Robert Scherpf, Betsy Shreve, Beverley Stinson, Brian Stitt, Patrick Toby(Consoer Townsend Envirodyne Engineers), Dennis Tulang, Larry VandeVenter, StanleyWilliams (Turner Collie & Braden) and Alan Wong. Kathleen Esposito contributed to thecoordination aspects of this project with the assistance of Dorothy Frohlich.

I would also like to acknowledge Mr. Larry Hager of the McGraw-Hill ProfessionalDivision who was instrumental in bringing the resources of McGraw-Hill to this proj-ect from inception to completion.

The new textbook could not have been launched without the enthusiastic support ofMetcalf & Eddy’s parent company, AECOM Technology Corporation. I thank Mr.Richard Newman, Chairman of the Board, and Mr. John Dionisio, President and ChiefExecutive Officer, for their support and vision.

Steve Guttenplan, PEPresident

xxxviii Foreword

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Part1WATER REUSE: AN INTRODUCTION

The social, economic, and environmental impacts of past water resources developmentand inevitable prospects of water scarcity are driving the shift to a new paradigm in waterresources management. New approaches now incorporate the principles of sustainability,environmental ethics, and public participation in project development. With many com-munities approaching the limits of their available water supplies, water reclamation andreuse have become an attractive option for conserving and extending available water sup-ply by potentially (1) substituting reclaimed water for applications that do not requirehigh-quality drinking water, (2) augmenting water sources and providing an alternativesource of supply to assist in meeting both present and future water needs, (3) protectingaquatic ecosystems by decreasing the diversion of freshwater, reducing the quantity ofnutrients and other toxic contaminants entering waterways, (4) reducing the need forwater control structures such as dams and reservoirs, and (5) complying with environ-mental regulations by better managing water consumption and wastewater discharges.

Water reuse is particularly attractive in the situation where available water supply isalready overcommitted and cannot meet expanding water demands in a growing com-munity. Increasingly, society no longer has the luxury of using water only once. Part 1serves as an introduction to the general subject of water reuse. Current and potentialwater shortages, principles of sustainable water resources management, and the impor-tant role of water reclamation and reuse are discussed in Chap. 1. An overview of exist-ing water reclamation and reuse applications and issues is presented in Chap. 2, whichalso serves as an introduction to the subsequent chapters.

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3

1 Water Issues: Current Status and the Role ofWater Reclamation and Reuse

WORKING TERMINOLOGY 4

1-1 DEFINITION OF TERMS 6

1-2 PRINCIPLES OF SUSTAINABLE WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT 6The Principle of Sustainability 7Working Definitions of Sustainability 7Challenges for Sustainability 7Criteria for Sustainable Water Resources Management 7Environmental Ethics 13

1-3 CURRENT AND POTENTIAL FUTURE GLOBAL WATER SHORTAGES 15Impact of Current and Projected World Population 15Potential Global Water Shortages 19Water Scarcity 19Potential Regional Water Shortages in the Continental United States 20

1-4 THE IMPORTANT ROLE OF WATER RECLAMATION AND REUSE 23Types of Water Reuse 24Integrated Water Resources Planning 24Personnel Needs/Sustainable Engineering 27Treatment and Technology Needs 27Infrastructure and Planning Issues 28

1-5 WATER RECLAMATION AND REUSE AND ITS FUTURE 30Implementation Hurdles 31Public Support 31Acceptance Varies Depending on Opportunity and Necessity 31Public Water Supply from Polluted Water Sources 31Advances in Water Reclamation Technologies 31Challenges for Water Reclamation and Reuse 32

PROBLEMS AND DISCUSSION TOPICS 32

REFERENCES 33


WORKING TERMINOLOGY

Term Definition

Agricultural water use Water used for crop production and livestock uses.

Aquifer Geological formations that contain and transmit groundwater.

Beneficial uses The many ways water can be used, either directly by people, or for their overall benefit.Examples include municipal water supply, agricultural and industrial applications, navi-gation, fish and wildlife habitat enhancement, and water contact recreation.

Consumptive use The part of water withdrawn that is evaporated, transpired, incorporated into productsor crops, consumed by humans or livestock, or otherwise removed from the immediatewater environment.

Direct potable reuse See Potable reuse, direct.

Domestic water use Domestic water use includes water for normal household purposes, such as drinking,food preparation, bathing, washing clothes and dishes, flushing toilets, and wateringlawns and gardens.

Ecoefficiency The efficiency with which environmental resources are used to produce a unit of economicactivity.

Environmental ethics A discipline of ethics that explores moral responsibility in relation to the environment.

Evapotranspiration A collective term that includes loss of water from the soil by evaporation and by tran-spiration from plants.

Global hydrologic cycle The annual accounting of the moisture fluxes over the entire globe in all of their various forms.

Groundwater The subsurface water that occurs beneath the water table in soils and geologic forma-tions that are fully saturated and supplies wells and springs.

Groundwater recharge The infiltration or injection of natural waters or reclaimed waters into an aquifer, provid-ing replenishment of the groundwater resource or preventing seawater intrusion.

Indirect potable reuse See Potable reuse, indirect.

Industrial water use Water used in industrial operations and processes. The principal industrial water usersare thermal and atomic power generation.

Irrigation water use Artificial application of water on lands to assist in the growing of crops and pastures orto maintain vegetative growth in recreational lands such as parks and golf courses.

Integrated water A process that promotes the coordinated development and management of water, land,resources planning and related resources to maximize the resultant economic and social welfare in an equi-

table and sustainable manner.

Landscape irrigation Irrigation systems for applications such as golf courses, public parks, playgrounds,school yards, and athletic fields.

Municipal water use The water withdrawals made by the populations of cities, towns, and housing estates,and domestic and public services and enterprises. Also includes water used to providedirectly for the needs of urban populations, which consume high-quality water from citywater supply systems.

Nonpotable reuse All water reuse applications that do not involve either indirect or direct potable reuse.

Per capita water use The average amount of water used per person during a standard time period, usually per day.

Potable water Water suitable for human consumption without deleterious health risks. The term drinking water is a preferable term better understood by the community at large.

4 Chapter 1 Water Issues: Current Status and the Role of Water Reclamation and Reuse


1-1 Definition of Terms 5

Potable reuse, direct The introduction of highly treated reclaimed water either directly into the potable watersupply distribution system downstream of water a treatment plant, or into the raw watersupply immediately upstream of a water treatment plant (see Chap. 24).

Potable reuse, indirect The planned incorporation of reclaimed water into a raw water supply such as in potablewater storage reservoirs or a groundwater aquifer, resulting in mixing and assimilation,thus providing an environmental buffer (see Chaps. 22 and 23).

Public water supply Water withdrawn by public and private water suppliers and delivered to multiple usersfor domestic, commercial, industrial, and thermoelectric power uses.

Reclaimed water Municipal wastewater that has gone through various treatment processes to meet specificwater quality criteria with the intent of being used in a beneficial manner (e.g., irrigation).The term recycled water is used synonymously with reclaimed water, particularly inCalifornia.

Renewable water The water entering a country’s surface and groundwater systems. Not all of this water can resources be used because some falls in a place or time that precludes tapping it even if all eco-

nomically and technically feasible storage and diversion structures were built.

Return flow The water that reaches a ground- or surface-water source after release from the pointof use and thus becomes available for further use.

Runoff Part of the precipitation that appears in surface streams. It is the same as streamflow unaf-fected by artificial diversions, storage, or other works of man in or on the stream channels.

Sustainability The principle of optimizing the benefits of a present system without diminishing thecapacity for similar benefits in the future.

Sustainable Development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability ofdevelopment future generations to meet their own needs.

Transpiration Water removed from soil that undergoes a change-of-state from liquid water in the stom-ata of the leaf to the water vapor of the atmosphere.

Wastewater Used water discharged from homes, business, cities, industry, and agriculture. Varioussynonymous uses such as municipal wastewater (sewage), industrial wastewater, andstormwater.

Water reclamation Treatment or processing of wastewater to make it reusable with definable treatment reli-ability and meeting appropriate water quality criteria.

Water reuse The use of treated wastewater for a beneficial use, such as agricultural irrigation andindustrial cooling.

Watershed The natural unit of land upon which water from direct precipitation, snowmelt, and otherstorage collects and flows downhill to a common outlet where the water enters anotherwater body such as a stream, river, wetland, lake, or the ocean.

Withdrawals The water removed from the ground or diverted from a stream or lake for use.

The feasibility and reliability of providing adequate quantities and quality of water tomeet societal needs is constrained by geographic, hydrologic, economic, and social fac-tors. Projections of unprecedented global population growth, particularly in urban areas,have fueled concerns about water availability in increasingly complex environmental,economic, and social settings. Some of the important questions and concerns are:(1) how long can existing water sources be sustained? (2) how can we ensure the reliabilityof current and future water sources? (3) where will the next generation of water sourcesbe found to meet the needs of growing populations and uses and provide for agriculture


and industrial water requirements? and (4) how will conflicts between watershed inter-ests in environmental preservation and beneficial uses of water sources be resolved? Toaddress the social, economic, and environmental impacts of water resources develop-ment and avert the ominous prospects of water scarcity, there is a critical need to reex-amine the way water resources systems are planned, constructed, and managed.

The emerging paradigm of sustainable water resources management emphasizes whole-system solutions to reliably and equitably meet the water needs of present and future gen-erations. Understanding the concepts of sustainable water resources management as afoundation of water reclamation and reuse is of fundamental importance. Thus, the pur-pose of this introductory chapter is to provide a perspective on (1) a definition of termsincluding working terminology used in this chapter, (2) principles of sustainable waterresources management, (3) current and potential future global water shortages, (4) theimportant role played by water reclamation and reuse, and (5) the future of water recla-mation and reuse. The discussion in this chapter is designed to stimulate readers to thinkabout future water resources development and management in more sustainable and com-prehensive ways, incorporating water reclamation and reuse as one of the viable options.

1-1 DEFINITION OF TERMS

Several different terms are used to describe forms of water and wastewater and their sub-sequent treatment and reuse. To facilitate communication among different disciplinesassociated with water reclamation and reuse practices, it is important to establish a broadunderstanding of the terminology used in the field of water reclamation and reuse.Useful terminology related to water reclamation and reuse is presented as WorkingTerminology at the beginning of this chapter and every chapter in this textbook.

For the purpose of gaining broader public acceptance of water reuse, in 1995 the Stateof California amended the provisions of the existing Water Code substituting the termrecycled water for reclaimed water and the term recycling for reclamation (State ofCalifornia, 2003). Water recycling is defined to mean water, which as a result of treat-ment of wastewater, is suitable for a direct beneficial use or a controlled use that wouldnot otherwise occur. However, because of the traditional usage of the word and thepractice in water reclamation and reuse, the terms reclaimed water and recycled waterare used synonymously in this textbook. It should be noted that the terminology givenabove may be considered working definitions that have evolved from water and waste-water treatment, several water reuse legislations and regulations, as well as in responseto questions raised by reclaimed water users and the public at large.

1-2 PRINCIPLES OF SUSTAINABLE WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT

Historically, water resources management has focused on supplying water for humanactivities, with an intrinsic assumption that technological solutions would keep pacewith steadily increasing water demands and progressively more stringent water qualityrequirements. Past water resources development was based on manipulating the natural



hydrologic cycle by attempting to balance the inherent water availability in a regionwith societal needs for water in the context of the social and economic background ofthe region, population, and the extent of urbanization (Baumann et al., 1998;Thompson, 1999; Bouwer, 2000). Because of the social, economic, and environmentalimpacts of past development and the prospects of potential water shortages, a new par-adigm for water resources development and management is evolving, based on the prin-ciples of sustainability and environmental ethics. Sustainability and environmentalethics are examined further in this section.

The principle of sustainability, a cornerstone in the Brundtland Commission’s report enti-tled Our Common Future (WCED, 1987), is defined as follows: “Humanity has the abilityto make development sustainable to ensure that it meets the needs of the present withoutcompromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.” Sustainability isbecoming a driving principle of political, economic, and social development and it hasachieved considerable public acceptance; however, the debate still continues over just whatis to be sustained, how, and for whom (Wilderer et al., 2004; Sikdar, 2005).

Sustainability can be applied to a range of human activities (e.g., sustainable agriculture)or to human society as a whole. From an environmental perspective, human activitiesare not sustainable if they irreversibly degrade natural ecosystems that perform essen-tial life-supporting functions. In economics, sustainability may be defined, for example,as “. . . nondeclining utilities (welfare) of a representative member of society for mil-lennia into the future . . .” (Pezzey, 1992). Despite the lack of a common understandingof what sustainability is and the variable interpretations among different disciplines,there is a general understanding that a whole system, long-term view is needed to assessand approach sustainability, particularly in the case of water resources management. Inthis textbook, sustainability is defined as the principle of optimizing the benefits of apresent system without diminishing the capacity for similar benefits in the future.

The goal of sustainable water resources development and management is to meet waterneeds reliably and equitably for current and future generations by designing integratedand adaptable systems, optimizing water-use efficiency, and making continuous effortstoward preservation and restoration of natural ecosystems. The transition to a sustainablesociety poses a number of technological and social challenges. Technological innovationscan help to improve what is called the ecoefficiency of human activities. Recognizing thatwater resources are finite, it is essential that the overall use of the resource be sustainabledespite the increased efficiency of current and future technologies. Unless populationand consumption growth rates are reduced, technological improvements may onlydelay the onset of negative consequences (Huesemann, 2003). Today, considerations forsustainability must include a number of aspects that vary both temporally and spatially,including energy and resource use and environmental pollution (Hermanowicz, 2005).

The emerging paradigm of sustainable water resources management has been inter-preted in different ways by different stakeholders. The American Society of CivilEngineers (ASCE, 1998) proposed the following working definition for sustainablewater resources systems: “Sustainable water resources systems are those designed andmanaged to fully contribute to the objectives of society, now and in the future, while

1-2 Principles of Sustainable Water Resources Management 7

The Principle ofSustainability

WorkingDefinitions ofSustainability

Challenges forSustainability

Criteria forSustainableWaterResourcesManagement


maintaining their ecological, environmental, and hydrological integrity.” In practice, theextent of sustainability in water resources management needs to be measurable with rel-evant criteria. Criteria often identified with sustainable water resources management areshown in Table 1-1.

Traditional approaches to water resources development have focused on modifyingwater storage and flow patterns by constructing dams and reservoirs and/or designingsystems for interbasin transfers to secure water supplies (see Fig. 1-1). In many cases,developing additional water resources satisfies the first criterion in Table 1-1 (i.e., tomeet basic human needs for water). However, in a growing number of cases, there isnot enough water available to meet basic water needs, as evidenced by the rise in waterscarcity in many regions of the world. New sources of water that can be developed cost-effectively are not available for many of the major urban areas of the developing world.Cost-effective sources of water have already been developed or are in the process ofdevelopment, and, in most cases, water that has been harnessed has been fully allocatedand in many cases overallocated.

Further, construction of dams and reservoirs is becoming less feasible due to considera-tion of ecological and social impacts, safety, and the cost of complying with environ-mental regulations. Thus, in many places, additional supplies of drinking water can beobtained only by reallocating water that is currently used by other sectors such as agri-culture or by using alternative water sources such as saline or brackish water, stormwa-ter, or reclaimed water. Under the principles of sustainable water resources management,demand management, such as water conservation, is used to meet basic water needs. Itis argued by some that the need to develop new sources of water can be avoided byimplementing measures for more efficient use of water (Vickers, 1991; Gleick, 2002). Itmight also be argued that multiple approaches are needed to ensure the sustainability ofwater resources management including water reclamation and reuse, water conservation,and other demand management as listed in Table 1-1.

Water ConservationWater conservation has been viewed historically by the water industry as a standby ortemporary measure that is utilized only during times of drought or other emergencywater shortages. This limited view of the role of water conservation is changing; utili-ties that have pioneered the use of conservation have shown that it is a viable long-termsupply option (Vickers, 2001). Water conservation can yield a number of benefits forthe water utility, environment, and community. These benefits include reduced energyand chemical inputs for water treatment, downsized or postponed expansions of waterfacilities, and reduced costs and impacts of wastewater management.

Common conservation measures include customer education about water use, water-efficient fixtures, water-efficient landscaping, metering, economic incentives, andwater-use restriction programs (Maddaus, 2001). In the United States, 42 percent ofannual water use is, on the average, for indoor purposes and 58 percent for outdoor pur-poses (Mayer et al., 1999). Indoor residential water use can be reduced significantly byinstalling water-efficient fixtures, such as low-volume flush toilets. Typical indoordomestic uses of water in the United States with potential water savings with residential




Objective Action

Meet basic human needs for water Provide adequate quantity of waterof a quality appropriate to protectpublic health without compromising enviromental quality.

Maintain long-term renewability Replenish freshwater through returnflows to the environment.

Preserve ecosystems Manage the interface betweensocietal activities and sensitive ecosystems; ensure that ecosystemwater balance is maintained. Striveto achieve zero effluent dischargegoals.

Promote efficient use of resources Optimize the use of energy, material,water, and control the release ofgreenhouse gas emissions.

Encourage water conservation Ensure that water users are informedof the advantages of waterconservation; develop newways to conserving water; implementincentives to promote waterconservation.

Encourage water reclamation and reuse Preserve high quality water sourcesfor other uses; develop new waysof water reclamation and reuse;prevent environmental degradationby closed-loop management oftreated wastewater.

Emphasize importance of water quality Identify relationships betweenin multiple uses of water pollution prevention programs,

effective management of industrialwater use and wastewater treatment,and alternative uses of water. Striveto achieve zero effluent discharge goals.

Examine necessity and opportunity of Involve public and private stake-water resources needs and build holders in planning and decision-consensus making, equitably distribute costs

and benefits.

Design for resilience and adaptability Develop design strategies that incorporate mechanisms to deal withuncertainty, risk, and changingsocietal values.

aCompiled, in part, from various sources including ASCE (1998); Gleick (1998 and 2000); Braden and vanIerland (1999); Loucks (2000); Asano (2002); Baron et al. (2002).

Table 1-1

Criteria for sustain-able water resourcemanagementa


water conservation are shown in Table 1-2. Water conservation can reduce indoor wateruse by 32 percent on a per capita basis as shown in Table 1-2. In addition to indoorwater uses, the water use efficiency for outdoor residential water applications such aslandscape irrigation, washing cars, and other cleaning or recreational uses can also ben-efit from implementing water conservation practices.

Water Reclamation and ReuseWater reclamation is the treatment or processing of wastewater to make it reusable withdefinable treatment reliability and meeting water quality criteria. Water reuse is the useof treated wastewater for beneficial uses, such as agricultural irrigation and industrialcooling. Treated municipal wastewater represents a more reliable and significant sourcefor reclaimed water as compared to wastewaters coming from agricultural return flows,stormwater runoff, and industrial discharges. As a result of the Federal Clean Water Actand related wastewater treatment regulations, centralized wastewater treatment hasbecome commonplace in urban areas of the United States (see Chap. 2, Sec. 2-2). Newtechnologies in decentralized and satellite wastewater treatment have also been developed


Figure 1-1

Shasta Dam, on the Sacramento River near Redding, CA, serves to controlflood waters and store surplus winter runoff for irrigation in the Sacramento andSan Joaquin Valleys, maintain navigation flows, provide flows for the conservationof fish and water for municipal and industrial use, protect the Sacramento-SanJoaquin Delta from intrusion of saline ocean water, and generate hydroelectricpower (Courtesy of U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Reclamation).(Coordinates: 40.718 N, 122.420 W)


(see Chaps. 12 and 13). The emphasis of this textbook is, therefore, focused on planningand implementation of water reclamation and reuse from municipal wastewater. Thebenefits of water reclamation and reuse and factors driving its future are summarized inTable 1-3.

With many communities approaching the limits of their readily available water supplies,water reclamation and reuse has become an attractive option for conserving and extend-ing available water supply by potentially (1) substituting reclaimed water for applica-tions that do not require high-quality water supplies, (2) augmenting water sources andproviding an alternative source of supply to assist in meeting both present and futurewater needs, (3) protecting aquatic ecosystems by decreasing the diversion of freshwa-ter, reducing the quantity of nutrients and other toxic contaminants entering waterways,(4) reducing the need for water control structures, and (5) complying with environmen-tal regulations by better managing water consumption and wastewater discharges.

Water reuse is attractive particularly in situations where the available water supply isalready overcommitted and cannot meet expanding water demands in a growing com-munity. Increasingly, society no longer has the luxury of using water only once.Examples of signs highlighting water conservation and reuse are shown on Fig. 1-2.

Water reuse offers an alternative water supply that is consistently available in urbanareas, even during drought years, for various beneficial uses. However, because of itsgenesis from municipal wastewater (traditionally known as sewage), acceptance of


Table 1-2

Typical single family home water use, with and without water conservationa

Typical single family home water use

Without water With waterconservation conservation

Water uses L/capita⋅db Percent L/capita⋅db Percent

Toilets 76.1 27.7 36.3 19.3

Clothes washers 57.2 20.9 40.1 21.4

Showers 47.7 17.3 37.9 20.1

Faucets 42.0 15.3 40.9 21.9

Leaks 37.9 13.8 18.9 13.8

Other domestic 5.7 2.1 5.7 3.1

Baths 4.5 1.6 4.5 2.4

Dish washers 3.8 1.3 3.8 2.0

Total 274.4 100 187.8 100

aAdapted from AWWA Research Foundation (1999).bL/capita⋅d, liters per capita per day.



Table 1-3

Water reclamation and reuse: rationale, potential benefits, and factors driving itsfurther usea

Rationale for water reclamation and reuse

• Water is a limited resource. Increasingly, society no longer has the luxury ofusing water only once

• Acknowledge that water recycling is already happening and do it more and better

• The quality of reclaimed water is appropriate for many nonpotable applicationssuch as irrigation and industrial cooling and cleaning water, thus providing asupplemental water source that can result in more effective and efficient use ofwater

• To meet the goal of water resource sustainability it is necessary to ensure thatwater is used efficiently

• Water reclamation and reuse allows for more efficient use of energy andresources by tailoring treatment requirements to serve the end-users of the water

• Water reuse allows for protection of the environment by reducing the volume oftreated effluent discharged to receiving waters

Potential benefits of water reclamation and reuse

• Conservation of fresh water supplies

• Management of nutrients that may lead to environmental degradation

• Improved protection of sensitive aquatic environments by reducing effluentdischarges

• Economic advantages by reducing the need for supplemental water sources andassociated infrastructure. Reclaimed water is available near urban developmentwhere water supply reliability is most crucial and water is priced the highest

• Nutrients in reclaimed water may offset the need for supplemental fertilizers,thereby conserving resources. Reclaimed water originating from treated effluentcontains nutrients; if this water is used to irrigate agricultural land, less fertilizeris required for crop growth. By reducing nutrient (and resulting pollution) flowsinto waterways, tourism and fishing industries are also helped

Factors driving further implementation of water reclamation and reuse

• Proximity: Reclaimed water is readily available in the vicinity of the urbanenvironment, where water resources are most needed and are highly priced

• Dependability: Reclaimed water provides a reliable water source, even indrought years, as production of urban wastewater remains nearly constant

• Versatility: Technically and economically proven wastewater treatment processesare available now that can provide water for nonpotable applications and canproduce water of a quality that meets drinking water requirements

• Safety: Nonpotable water reuse systems have been in operation for over fourdecades with no documented adverse public health impacts in the UnitedStates or other developed countries

• Competing demands for water resources: Increasing pressure on existingwater resources due to population growth and increased agricultural demand


reclaimed water as an alternative water source has to overcome unique hurdles. In theUnited States and other developed countries, reclaimed water is treated using strictwater quality control measures to ensure that it is nontoxic and free from disease caus-ing microorganisms, but it does carry potential risks inherent in the use of any resourceexposed to human waste. Concerns for health and safety must be addressed in the plan-ning and implementation of water reclamation and reuse. It has been found that the suc-cess of water reclamation and reuse projects in many parts of the world has hinged onthe pressures associated with the urgent necessity for water coupled with the opportu-nity to develop water reuse systems.

Environmental ethics involves the application of moral responsibility in relation to man-agement of the natural environment. Similar to the principle of sustainability, environ-mental ethics has emerged in response to serious environmental degradation resulting fromsocietal activities such as over-allocation of natural resources. There are several theoriesof environmental ethics that are used to describe human obligations in the protectionof natural systems. The anthropocentric (human-centered) perspective emphasizes envi-ronmental protection for the survival and well-being of humans alone. The ecocentric(nature-centered) perspective regards humans as only one element of the broader naturalcommunity, and bases moral responsibility on the intrinsic value and rights of nature.


Factors driving further implementation of water reclamation and reuse

• Fiscal responsibility: Growing recognition among water and wastewater managersof the economic and environmental benefits of using reclaimed water

• Public interest: Increasing awareness of the environmental impacts associatedwith overuse of water supplies, and community enthusiasm for the concept ofwater reclamation and reuse

• Environmental and economic impacts of traditional water resources approaches:Greater recognition of the environmental and economic costs of water storagefacilities such as dams and reservoirs

• Proven track record: The growing numbers of successful water reclamationand reuse projects throughout the world

• A more accurate cost of water: The introduction of new water chargingarrangements (such as full cost pricing) that more accurately reflect the fullcost of delivering water to consumers, and the growing use of these chargingarrangements

• More stringent water quality standards: Increased costs associated with upgradingwastewater treatment facilities to meet higher water quality requirements foreffluent disposal

• Necessity and opportunity: Motivating factors for development of water reclama-tion and reuse projects such as droughts, water shortages, prevention of seawa-ter intrusion and restrictions on wastewater effluent discharges, plus economic,political, and technical conditions favorable to water reclamation and reuse

aCompiled from various sources including Asano (1998); Queensland Water Recycling Strategy(2001); Mantovani et al. (2001); Simpson (2006).

EnvironmentalEthics

Table 1-3

Water reclamation and reuse: rationale, potential benefits, and factors driving itsfurther usea (Continued)


Equitable Water AllocationAn ongoing water resources management debate questions whether society has an obli-gation to meet the basic water needs for all people and ecosystems. Because of theuneven geographic distribution of populations, water availability, and wealth, it is dif-ficult to provide for equitable and balanced allocation of water resources. Balancingsocietal water needs with ecosystem requirements is even more challenging, consider-ing the complex science-defining ecosystem needs, the widely varying perceptions ofecosystem value, and the dire social consequences of water scarcity (Harremoës, 2002).

Precautionary PrincipleAnother ethical question is whether human activities should proceed if there is a poten-tial, but unproven risk to the environment or public health. The precautionary principle,introduced in European environmental policies in the late 1970s, has been providing both


Figure 1-2

Examples of signs highlighting (a) water conservation and (b) reuse.


guidance and controversy in this area (Foster et al., 2000; Krayer von Krauss et al.,2005). The definition of precautionary principle used in the Third North Sea Conferencein 1990 was, “To take action to avoid potentially damaging impacts of substances thatare persistent, toxic, and liable to bioaccumulation even where there is no scientific evi-dence to prove a causal link between emissions and effects” (Harremoës et al., 2001). Atits core, the precautionary principle embodies the idea of “better safe than sorry,” but,undoubtedly, some people would argue that no progress will be made with this mindset.

Similar to sustainable development, the greatest difficulty with using the precautionaryprinciple as a policy tool is its extreme variability in interpretation. The principle canbe interpreted as calling for absolute proof of safety before any action is taken, or it maybe interpreted as opening the door to cost-benefit analysis and discretionary judgmentas stated in the Rio de Janeiro Declaration (United Nations, 1992; Foster et al., 2000).A challenging final question is: how to use uncertainty information in policy context?More research is required to answer this question (Krayer von Krauss et al., 2005).

1-3 CURRENT AND POTENTIAL FUTURE GLOBAL WATER SHORTAGES

The total volume of renewable freshwater in the global hydrologic cycle is several timesmore than is needed to sustain the current world population. However, only about 31 percentof the annual renewable water is accessible for human uses due to geographical and sea-sonal variations associated with the renewable water (Postel, 2000; Shiklomanov, 2000).On a global scale, annual withdrawals for irrigation are over 65 percent of the total with-drawn for human uses; 2,500 out of a total of 3,800 km3. Withdrawals for industry areabout 20 percent, and those for municipal use are about 10 percent (Cosgrove andRijsberman, 2000).

Countries of North Africa and the Middle East, especially Egypt and the United ArabEmirates, are among the countries with the lowest freshwater availability (see Figs. 1-3and 1-4). On the contrary, Iceland, Suriname, Guyana, Papua New Guinea, Gabon,Canada, and New Zealand are examples of the most water abundant countries, based onper capita water availability (WRI, 2000).

The implementation of water reclamation and reuse projects is driven mainly by exist-ing and projected water shortages in specific water-poor countries. Other factors suchas preventing saltwater intrusion into freshwater resources in coastal areas and prohibi-tion of wastewater effluent disposal into sensitive environments will certainly influencewater reuse decisions. The impacts associated with current and projected world popu-lation, water requirements, and potential global and regional water scarcity are consid-ered briefly in the following discussion.

The world population in 2002 was estimated at 6.2 billion with an annual growth rateof 1.2 percent, or 77 million people per year. To put the recent growth in perspective, theworld population in the year 1900 was only 1.6 billion and in 1950 it was 2.5 billion. It isprojected that the world population in 2050 will be between 7.9 billion and 10.3 billion(United Nations, 2003).

1-3 Current and Potential Future Global Water Shortages 15

Impact ofCurrent andProjected WorldPopulation


The rate of growth in industrialized countries is well under one percent per year. Indeveloping countries, however, the growth rate exceeds two percent per year, and insome parts of Africa, Asia, and the Middle East it exceeds three percent per year. As aresult, over 90 percent of all future population increases will occur in the developingworld (United Nations, 2003). Six countries currently account for half of the annualpopulation growth: India, China, Pakistan, Nigeria, Bangladesh, and Indonesia. Thepopulation in the United States was estimated at about 285 million in 2001 and wasgrowing at an annual rate of about one percent (U.S. Census Bureau, 2003).

UrbanizationIn 1950, New York was the only city in the world with a population of more than10 million. The number of cities with more than 10 million people increased to 5 in 1975and 17 in 2001, and is expected to increase to 21 cities in 2015. The world’s urban pop-ulation reached 2.9 billion in 2000 and is expected to increase by 2.1 billion by 2030,just slightly below the world’s total population increase (United Nations, 2002). Thepopulation of cities with 10 million inhabitants or more in 1950, 1975, 2001, and 2015is listed in Table 1-4. It is projected that Asia and Africa will have more urban dwellersthan any other continent of the world, and Asia will contain 54 percent of the world’surban population by 2030.

Although urbanization is more prominent in the developing world, urban populationsin developed countries are also expanding. In the United States, the average annual


Figure 1-3

Transporting waterin buckets near thepyramid inSaqqara, Egypt(Coordinates:29.871 N,31.216 E). Thelimited availabilityof water infrastruc-ture is common inmany parts of theworld.


population growth in metropolitan areas (cities and suburbs) between 1990 and 1998 was1.14 percent, while nonmetropolitan areas grew at a slower rate of 0.88 percent, reflectingpopulation shifts from rural to urban areas. Of the country’s total population in 1998, 28.1percent lived in metropolitan areas with five million or more people. Among urban areaswith five million or more people, the Los Angeles-Riverside-Orange County area and theSan Francisco-Oakland-San Jose area in California grew most rapidly between 1990 and1998—reflecting an annual increase of 1.08 percent, slightly lower than the growth rateof all U.S. metropolitan areas (Mackun and Wilson, 2000). Metropolitan areas in theUnited States with populations of five million or more are shown in Table 1-5.

Urbanization intensifies the pressures of population growth on water resources due toimbalances between water demands and the proximity of water sources. In addition,significant differences exist in water use patterns between rural, agricultural, and urbanareas. Because of this, population growth and urbanization will pose significant chal-lenges for water resources management throughout the world.

Irrigation Water UseThe expansion of the aerial extent of irrigated land-use due to population growth is oneof the most important contributors to the increase of total water use in the world. In 1995,over 65 percent of the total global water withdrawal for human uses was for irrigation,


2

Physical water scarcity

Economic water scarcity

Little or no water scarcity

Not estimated

Figure 1-4

Projected global water scarcity in 2025 (Adapted from IWMI, 2000). In the global scale, countriesof North Africa and the Middle East, Pakistan, India, and the northern part of China are projectedto face severe water scarcity.


which includes both agricultural and nonresidential landscape applications. Irrigationconsumes a large volume of water through evaporation from reservoirs, canals, and soiland through incorporation into and transpiration by crops. Consumptive use is the por-tion of withdrawn water that is evaporated, transpired, incorporated into products orcrops, consumed by humans or livestock, or otherwise removed from the immediatewater environment. Depending on the technology and management, consumptive useassociated with irrigation can range from 30 to 90 percent of the total water withdrawn(Cosgrove and Rijsberman, 2000).

Applied water that is not consumed either recharges groundwater or contributes todrainage or return flows. This water can be—and often is—reused, but, because returnflows tend to have higher salt concentrations and are likely to be contaminated withnutrients, sediments, pesticides, and other chemicals, beneficial reuse of this water haslimited applications unless it is treated prior to use.


Table 1-4

The population of cities and metropolitan areas with 10 million inhabitants or more, for 1950, 1975,2001, and 2015a

1950 1975 2001 2015

Population, Population, Population, Population,City millions City millions City millions City millions

New York 12.3 Tokyo 19.8 Tokyo 26.5 Tokyo 27.2

New York 15.9 Sao Paulo 18.3 Dhaka 22.8

Shanghai 11.4 Mexico City 18.3 Mumbai 22.6

Mexico City 10.7 New York 16.8 Sao Paulo 21.2

Sao Paulo 10.3 Mumbai 16.5 Delhi 20.9

Los Angeles 13.3 Mexico City 20.4

Calcutta 13.3 New York 17.9

Dhaka 13.2 Jakarta 17.3

Delhi 13.0 Calcutta 16.7

Shanghai 12.8 Karachi 16.2

Buenos Aires 12.1 Lagos 16.0

Jakarta 11.4 Los Angeles 14.5

Osaka 11.0 Shanghai 13.6

Beijing 10.8 Buenos Aires 13.2

Rio de Janeiro 10.8 Metro Manila 12.6

Karachi 10.4 Beijing 11.7

Metro Manila 10.1 Rio de Janeiro 11.5

Cairo 11.5

Istanbul 11.4

Osaka 11.0

Tianjin 10.3

aAdapted from United Nations (2002).


Domestic and Industrial Water UsesConversion of farmland into residential and industrial areas results in a decrease in agri-cultural water use and a concurrent increase in domestic and industrial water uses. Alarge share of the water used by households, services, and industry—up to 90 percent inareas where total water use is high—is returned as wastewater. While a large proportionof the water used in domestic and industrial water is collected as wastewater, water isin such a degraded state that treatment is required before it can be discharged or reused.

Globally, the water resources in various regions and countries are expected to faceunprecedented pressures in the coming decades as a result of continuing populationgrowth and uneven distributions of population and water. Although the number of per-sons served has increased, about 1.1 billion people, or about 18 percent of the worldpopulation lacked access to clean drinking water, and 2.4 billion did not have adequatesanitation services in 2000 (WHO, 2000). Surging populations throughout the develop-ing world are intensifying the pressures on limited water supplies. The concentration ofpopulations within urban areas further exacerbates the disparity between water demandand regional water availability.

A country is considered water-scarce when its annual supply of renewable freshwater isless than 1,000 m3 per capita (Falkenmark and Widstrand, 1992; Falkenmark and Lindh,1993). Such countries can expect to experience chronic and widespread shortages ofwater that hinder their development and welfare. Globally, water scarcity is resulting ina host of crises, such as food shortages, regional water conflicts, limited economicdevelopment, and environmental degradation (Postel, 2000). These issues have putfreshwater availability at the forefront of state, national, and international efforts inrecent decades.


PotentialGlobal WaterShortages

Water Scarcity

Table 1-5

Metropolitan areas in United States with population of 5 million or more: 1990 to 1998a

Populationchange 1990 to 1998

Metropolitan area 1998 population Number Percent

New York-Northern New Jersey-Long Island, NY-NJ 20,126,150 558,939 2.9

Los Angeles-Riverside-Orange County, CA 15,781,273 1,249,744 8.6

Chicago-Gary-Kenosha, IL-IN-WI 8,809,846 570,026 6.9

Washington-Baltimore-Northern Virginia, DC-MD-VA 7,285,206 558,811 8.3

San Francisco-Oakland-San Jose, CA 6,816,047 538,522 8.6

Philadelphia-Wilmington-Atlantic City, PA-NJ-DE 5,988,348 95,329 1.6

Boston-Worcester-Lawrence-Southern Maine and 5,633,060 177,657 3.3New Hampshire, MA-NH-ME

Detroit-Ann Arbor-Flint, MI 5,457,583 270,412 5.2

aAdapted from Mackun and Wilson (2000). Original source: U.S. Census Bureau, Population Estimates Program.


Two types of water-scarce countries can be identified: (1) the countries with physicalwater scarcity which will not have sufficient water to meet their future agricultural,domestic, industrial, and environmental needs even with the highest feasible efficiencyand productivity of water use, and (2) the countries with economic water scarcity: coun-tries that have sufficient water resources but lack the monetary resources needed toaccess or use these resources or face severe financial and development capacity prob-lems. These countries will need to increase water supply by 25 percent or more over1995 levels through additional storage and conveyance facilities to meet their waterdemands in 2025. The projected global water scarcity in 2025 is depicted on Fig. 1-4.Countries of North Africa and the Middle East, Pakistan, India, and the northern part ofChina are projected to face severe water scarcity (IWMI, 2000).

While the data presented on Fig. 1-4 provide a global perspective, it is difficult to applythat information on a regional or watershed scale. For example, about one-half of thepopulation of China lives in the wet region of southern China, mainly in the Yangtzebasin, while the other half lives in the arid north, mainly in the Yellow River basin. Thisis also true for India, where about 50 percent of the population lives in the arid north-west and southeast, while the remainder lives in fairly wet areas (IWMI, 2000). In manycountries, the distance between available sources of water and population centers is toofar to allow for moving water from the source to the needed area due to the lack ofresources to construct, operate, and maintain the extensive infrastructure that would berequired. In addition, there may be environmental, social, and economic constraints thatlimit the overall feasibility of transporting water. Thus, much more attention needs tobe paid to the governance of water to ensure that sustainable water supplies will beavailable through the twenty-first century (Rogers, et al., 2006). The value of imple-menting water reclamation and reuse is recognized by many in the context of sustain-able water resources management because municipal wastewater is produced at thedoorstep of the metropolis where water is needed the most and priced the highest.

A comparison of the average regional consumptive use and renewable water supply inthe United States is depicted on Fig. 1-5. The renewable water supply is the sum of pre-cipitation and imports of water, minus the water not available for use through naturalevapotranspiration and exports. Renewable water supply is a simplified upper limit tothe amount of water consumption that could occur in a region on a sustained basis.Requirements to maintain minimum flows in streams leaving the region for navigation,hydropower, fish, and other instream uses limit the amount of the renewable supplyavailable for use. Also, total development of a surface-water supply is never possiblebecause the extent of evaporative losses increases as more reservoirs are constructed.Nevertheless, the renewable supply compared to consumptive use is an index of thedegree to which the resource has already been developed (USGS, 1984; Adams, 1998).

Water resources regions having potential limitations in water supply with respect to ade-quacy and dependability are the Rio Grande Region, Missouri, Texas-Gulf, the Upperand Lower Colorado River Basin, Great Basin, and California as depicted on Fig. 1-5.From the water supply point of view, several major regions of the country are using waterin excess of their presently sustainable water resources. Some areas are entirely depend-ent on groundwater mining. Other areas, where surface waters are used, have been able


PotentialRegional WaterShortages inthe ContinentalUnited States


to satisfy growing demands by means of the relatively high yields from normal and wet-year stream flows. Identified water resources issues from various regions are summarizedbelow based on the U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 2250 (USGS, 1984).

Central Great PlainsThe Central Great Plains relies on water imported to the region. The main transbasinwater diversions are the tunnels drilled through the Rockies to bring supplies of waterfrom the Colorado River to the Great Plains. Irrigated agriculture is a main end use inthis region, and this demand is increasing (although in some areas water use is shiftingfrom agriculture to urban development). The biggest regional issue is the lack of surplus


Figure 1-5

Comparison of average consumptive use and renewable water supply for the 20 water resourcesregions of United States (Adapted from USGS, 1948; updated using 1995 estimates of water use).The number in each water resource region is consumptive use/renewable water supply in 106 m3/d,respectively, or consumptive use as a percentage of renewable supply as shown in the legend.


capacity in regional water supplies. For example, water from the Arkansas River servesmultiple uses as it passes through the individual states. The resulting conflicts over allo-cation of limited groundwater and surface water supplies have led to a number of law-suits in the region.

Eastern MidwestThe Eastern Midwest includes some of the largest river systems in the nation, and this regionis also strongly affected by drought and flood. Drought brings on low flow and depletion ofgroundwater. Flooding causes crop and property damage, erosion, and sedimentation. Inaddition, agricultural runoff from the region is causing hypoxia (a reduction in aquatic oxy-gen concentration to levels where life cannot be sustained) within the Gulf of Mexico.However, floods help the fish population by diluting agricultural runoff and increasing theconcentration of dissolved oxygen. Generally, the region has plenty of water, but the effi-ciency of water distribution varies seasonally, resulting in water shortages during droughts.

Great LakesThe Great Lakes, while making up 95 percent of the fresh surface water in the UnitedStates, are a shared resource with Canada. The potential for degradation in water quan-tity, quality, associated ecosystems, and coastline is a concern for both nations.Regional needs include a serious consideration of sustainability, the development of arobust water management plan including groundwater supplies, and an assessment ofwater quality and ecosystem impacts on the 121 watersheds around the Great Lakes.

Metropolitan East Coast, New York CityAlthough many communities in this region have their own water supply systems, they aregenerally small compared to that for New York City. The quality of discharged effluentfrom these communities has improved significantly over time. In general, new institutionalforms and changes are needed as growth is occurring and to cope with degraded waterquality and growing water demand, along with needs for new infrastructure systems.

Mid-AtlanticThe Middle Atlantic region is an area with significant climate variability and large vul-nerabilities. During the past few decades, the region has experienced both severedrought and flooding produced by winter storms and summer hurricanes. The regionincludes several metropolitan areas which rely on water systems that are highly sensi-tive to climate variation. A large portion of the population obtains water from privatewells. As a result, water management in dry periods is a major issue for this region.

Rio GrandeWater shortage is a concern for the entire region, yet at the same time the region is expe-riencing rapid urban and population growth. With the expanding population in theregion aquifers are being depleted rapidly. Conflicts are arising between NativeAmerican tribes and the rest of the community, resulting in legal battles in many cases.Rio Grande river water along the Mexican border is being allocated to agriculture, yetno drought management plan is in place. The ecology of the region is also threateneddue to instream flows as low as 20 percent of historical levels. One potential answer tosupply problems is increased efficiency of agricultural water use.



Southeast, including the Atlantic CoastThis region has abundant water, but water management policy is critical because of thestrong pressure for further development in the region. Demographic impacts also playan important role in water management and use in this area because of the high popu-lation densities along the coast and because of large seasonal swings in population.Agriculture, forestry, and ecological systems are identified as the main areas of con-cern, especially with respect to water quality and availability. In addition, some healthhazards are also associated with contaminated water resources.

The State of Florida receives about 1400 mm of rain on an annual basis, however mostof the precipitation occurs over a three to four months period (rainy season). Theremainder of the year is relatively dry. Water use patterns are inverse to rainfall withhigher water usage occurring during the dry season (winter) and lower water usageoccurring during the rainy season (summer). Shifts in land use patterns from agricultureto urbanization have resulted in an imbalance between water availability and water use.In addition, seasonal population shifts due to tourism and retirement communitiesimpose further pressures on water resources during the dry season. Overdrafting ofgroundwater has also resulted in land subsidence. There is a critical need for alternativereliable water sources to meet water demands associated with population increases pro-jected to occur in the future.

Preventing Crises and Conflict in the WestChronic water supply problems in the West are some of the greatest challenges theUnited States will be facing in the coming decades. The U.S. Department of the Interior(2003) published a report entitled, Water 2025: Preventing Crises and Conflict in theWest, which describes the issues that are driving major conflicts between water users inthe West. The specific competing issues described in this report are (1) the explosivepopulation growth in western urban areas, (2) the emerging need for water for environ-mental and recreational uses, and (3) the national importance of the domestic produc-tion of food and fiber from western farms and ranches. Water 2025 provides a basis fora public discussion of the realities that face the West so that decisions can be made atthe appropriate level in advance of water supply crises.

1-4 THE IMPORTANT ROLE OF WATER RECLAMATION AND REUSE

Water reclamation and reuse involves considerations of public health and also requiresclose examinations of infrastructure and facilities planning, wastewater treatment plantsiting, treatment process reliability, economic and financial analyses, and water utilitymanagement involving effective integration of water resources and reclaimed water.Whether water reuse will be appropriate depends upon careful economic considera-tions, potential uses for the reclaimed water, public health protection, stringency ofwaste discharge requirements, and public policy where the desire to conserve ratherthan develop available water resources may override other obstacles. In addition, thevaried interests of many stakeholders, including those representing the environment,must be considered.

1-4 The Important Role of Water Reclamation and Reuse 23


The principal categories of water reuse applications for reclaimed water originatingfrom treated municipal wastewater are shown in Table 1-6, in descending order of vol-ume of use. The majority of water reuse projects are for nonpotable applications suchas agricultural and landscape irrigation and industrial uses (see Figs. 1-6 and 1-7).Groundwater recharge can be designed for indirect potable reuse where groundwater isrecharged with reclaimed water and replenishes portions of potable groundwater. Thedetailed discussions on the technical aspects of water reuse applications are given inPart 4 of this textbook.

Integrated water resources planning is a process that promotes the coordinated develop-ment and management of water, land, and related resources to maximize the resultant eco-nomic and social welfare in an equitable and sustainable manner. A framework to comparecompeting interests, including those of future generations, does not currently exist in watermanagement and planning. A new definition of sustainable water development is also


Table 1-6

Water reuse categories and typical applications

Category Typical application

Agricultural irrigation Crop irrigationCommercial nurseries

Landscape irrigation ParksSchool yardsFreeway mediansGolf coursesCemeteriesGreenbeltsResidential

Industrial recycling and reuse Cooling waterBoiler feed Process water Heavy construction

Groundwater recharge Groundwater replenishment Salt water intrusion control Subsidence control

Recreational/environmental uses Lakes and pondsMarsh enhancementStreamflow augmentationFisheriesSnowmaking

Nonpotable urban uses Fire protectionAir conditioningToilet flushing

Potable reuse Blending in water supply reservoirsBlending in groundwaterDirect pipe to pipe water supply

Types of WaterReuse

IntegratedWaterResourcesPlanning


needed that expands the traditional supply and demand approach and encompasses envi-ronmental and social issues. Suitable methodology to assess various aspects of sustain-ability is needed especially for detailed engineering analysis.

Although the immediate drivers behind water reuse may differ in each case, the overallgoal is to close the hydrologic cycle on a much smaller, local scale. In this way, the usedwater (wastewater), after proper treatment, becomes a valuable resource literally “at thedoorstep of the community” instead of being a waste to be disposed. In many cases,water reuse is practiced because other sources of water are not available due to physical,political, or economic constraints and further attempts to reduce consumption are notfeasible. An important breakthrough in the evolution of sustainability for water resourceswas achieved when water reclamation and reuse were introduced as options to satisfywater demand. Water reclamation and reuse are also the most challenging options, tech-nically and economically, because the source of water is normally of the lowest quality.As a result, extensive treatment is commonly applied, often beyond pure requirements


Figure 1-6

Irrigation with reclaimed water: (a) fodder, (b) vegetable crops, (c) golf course irrigation, Crete, Greece, and(d) landscape (front yard) irrigation.


stemming from the final water use, with a goal of alleviating health concerns to helpmake the water reuse option palatable to the public. The requirements for reclaimedwater (e.g., advanced treatment and a separate distribution system), however, make waterreuse costly, thus, limiting its wider use (Hermanowicz, 2005).

Substituting Reclaimed Water for Nonpotable UsesA growing water resource management trend worldwide is to prioritize the use of waterbased on availability and quality. Preferentially, the emphasis is on preserving the highestquality water sources for drinking water supplies by using an alternative source such asreclaimed water for applications that have less significant health risks such as irrigatingcroplands and golf courses. Increasing water productivity for irrigation is an urgent needespecially in regions of high water vulnerability. The integration of water reclamation andreuse into water resources management allows for preservation of higher quality watersupplies by substituting reclaimed water for direct nonpotable applications.


Figure 1-7

Nonirrigation use of reclaimed water: (a) evaporative cooling towers, (b) commercial car washing,(c) groundwater recharge, and (d) recreational impoundment.


Water Use PatternsTo assess the role of water reclamation and reuse and provide a framework for evaluat-ing water reuse feasibility, it is important to correlate major water use patterns withpotential water reuse applications. For example, in urban areas, industrial, commercial,and nonpotable urban water requirements account for the majority of water demand. Inarid and semiarid regions, irrigation is the dominant component of water demand. Waterrequirements for irrigation applications tend to vary seasonally whereas industrial waterneeds are more constant. The degree of water reuse for a given watershed depends onthe water demand patterns in commercial, industrial, and agricultural applications withinthe watershed. Seasonal variations in water reuse, needs for reclaimed water storage,and distribution facilities are discussed in Chap. 14.

A dramatic change has occurred in the water resources development and managementover the past three decades. Whereas twentieth century engineers and managers weretrained to build dams, reservoirs, and water and wastewater treatment facilities, today’swater professionals are confronted with the complex task of assessing the sustainabilityof water and its impact on society and the environment. In addition to considering tech-nical and economic aspects of water management projects, today’s water professionalsare becoming the stewards of water resources for the current and future needs of humansand the environment.

For more than a quarter century, a recurring thesis in environmental and water resourcesengineering has been that improved municipal wastewater treatment could provide atreated effluent of such quality that it should not be wasted but put to beneficial use (seeFig. 1-8). This conviction coupled with the vexing problems of increasing water short-ages and environmental pollution, provides a realistic framework for consideringmunicipal wastewater as a water resource in many parts of the world. Water pollutioncontrol efforts have made treated effluent from municipal wastewater treatment plantsa viable alternative for augmentation of the existing water supply, especially when com-pared to increasingly expensive and often environmentally destructive development ofnew water resources.

An important determinant of the potential applications and treatment requirements forwater reuse is the quality of water resulting from various municipal uses. A conceptualcomparison of the extent to which water quality changes through municipal applicationsis illustrated on Fig. 1-9. Water treatment technologies are applied to source water suchas surface water, groundwater, or seawater to produce drinking water that meets appli-cable drinking water regulations and guidelines. Conversely, municipal water usesdegrade water quality by absorbing and accumulating chemical or biological contami-nants and other constituents. The quality changes necessary to upgrade the resultingwastewater then become the basis for wastewater treatment. In practice, treatment is car-ried out to the point required by regulatory agencies for protection of the environment,including aquatic ecosystems and preservation of beneficial uses of receiving waters.

As the quality of treated water approaches that of unpolluted natural water, the practi-cal benefits of water reclamation and reuse become evident. The levels of treatment andthe resultant water quality endow the water with economic value as a water resource.


PersonnelNeeds/SustainableEngineering

Treatment andTechnologyNeeds


As more advanced technologies are applied for water reclamation, such as carbonadsorption, advanced oxidation, and membrane technologies (see Chaps. 9 and 10), thequality of reclaimed water can meet or exceed the conventional drinking water qualitystandards by all measurable parameters. This high quality water for indirect potablereuse was termed repurified water in the case of San Diego, California and NEWater inthe case of Singapore (see Chap. 23). Today, technically proven water reclamation orwater purification processes exist to provide water of almost any quality desired,including ultrapure water for precision industries and medical uses.

Often, reclaimed water system design is approached in the same way as conventionalpotable water system design. However, special issues arise from the water quality, relia-bility, variation in supply and demand, and other differences between reclaimed water andfreshwater. Engineering issues for a water reclamation and reuse project generally fall intothe following categories: (1) water quality, (2) public health protection, (3) wastewatertreatment alternatives, (4) pumping, storage, and distribution system siting and design(see Fig. 1-10), (5) on-site conversions at water reuse sites, such as potable and reclaimedwater plumbing separation, (6) matching of supply and demand for reclaimed water, and(7) supplemental and backup water supplies. Many aspects of these issues are addressedthroughout this textbook.


Chlorinecontact basin

Primaryclarifiers

Finalclarifiers

BNRreactors

Septagereceiving

Dewateredbiosolids

storage pond

Liquid biosolidsstorage lagoons

Anaerobicdigesters

Gritremoval

Dechlorination,postaeration,

and effluent pumping

Influent pump station andscreening

Gravity thickenersand gravity belt

thickener building

Figure 1-8

Overview ofHarford County,Maryland, SodRun biologicalnutrient removal(BNR) wastewatertreatment plant(Coordinates:39.426 N,76.219 W). Thecapacity of theplant is 76 × 103

m3/d (20 Mgal/d).

Infrastructureand PlanningIssues


It is instructive to examine population growth patterns in the western United States andconsider their implications on water reuse infrastructure and planning issues. The coun-ties with the highest population growth rate, up to 60 percent above the average, werecharacterized by low-to-medium population density (around four people/km2). In con-trast, the counties with high population densities (large cities and densely populatedsuburbs) and those with very low population densities grew at a much lower rate, some-times even losing people. Such high growth rates at relatively modest population den-sities result in significant challenges for water supply, wastewater disposal, and, moreimportantly, water reuse. At these population densities, individual solutions such as


High qualtiysurface or

groundwater

Drinkingwater

Wastewater

Treatedwastewater

Reclaimedwater

Watertreatment

Sourcewater

Municipal andindustrial use

Conventionalwastewatertreatment

Advancedwastewatertreatment

Rel

ativ

e w

ater

qua

lity

and

clas

sific

atio

n

Time sequence (no scale)

Figure 1-9

Water qualitychanges duringmunicipal uses ofwater in a timesequence and theconcept of waterreclamation andreuse.

(a) (b)

Figure 1-10

Infrastructure is essential in successful water reuse applications: (a) Irrigation pumps and (b) storagereservoir.


wells for water supply, septic tanks and leach fields for wastewater treatment and dis-posal may no longer be feasible. Yet, traditional communal solutions involving pipelinesand collection systems become very expensive due to long distances between individ-ual users (Hermanowicz and Asano, 1999; Anderson, 2003).

Providing the municipal infrastructure is costly. The costs will be unevenly distributed(in the absence of subsidies) with less densely populated communities liable for muchhigher per capita expenses. Higher costs for larger, less densely populated communitiescombined with the demographic trend toward modest population densities are likely tostrain financially future water projects. It must also be recognized that, until recently,most of the water reclamation and reuse projects have been implemented from central-ized municipal wastewater treatment facilities with treatment and disposal requirementsthat were developed since the late 1970s.

To alleviate the needs for large infrastructure construction, concepts and technologieshave advanced using satellite water and wastewater treatment, and decentralized andonsite systems. Topics related to water reclamation and reuse in satellite, decentralized,and onsite systems are discussed in detail in Chaps. 12 and 13.

Ultimately, after appropriate treatment, wastewater collected from cities must be returnedto the land or water. The complex question of which contaminants in urban wastewatershould be removed to protect the environment, to what extent, and where they should beplaced must be answered in light of an analysis of local conditions, environmental andhealth risks, scientific knowledge, engineering judgment, economic feasibility, and publicacceptance. Planning for water reuse is discussed in detail in Chap. 25.

1-5 WATER RECLAMATION AND REUSE AND ITS FUTURE

The social, economic, and environmental impacts of historic water resources develop-ment practices and the inevitable prospects of water scarcity are driving the shift to anew paradigm in water resources management. The new approach incorporates theprinciples of sustainability, environmental ethics, and public participation.

Sustainable water resources management emphasizes whole-system solutions to meetthe water needs of present and future generations reliably and equitably. Achieving sus-tainable water resources management is dependent upon a clear understanding of the dis-tribution and availability of water resources in the hydrologic cycle and the effect thathuman activities may have on the environment. Sustainable water resources managementseeks to design integrated and adaptable systems, increasing efficiency of water use, andmaking continuous efforts toward protecting ecosystems (Baron et al., 2002).

Environmental ethics plays a significant role in sustainable water resources managementby bringing equity into consideration in the context of societal needs and environmentalstewardship. Public participation in planning and project development is essential toidentify community priorities and concerns, which include not only equity but alsogrowth impacts, cost, and public safety.



While the world’s water problems may loom high, steady progress in water reclamationand reuse has been made since the 1970s. To make full use of the water resource creat-ed by reclaimed water, several challenges must be met. These include institutional andsocial obstacles such as regulatory developments and public acceptance. Technical andeconomic challenges also must be addressed. Important issues related to the future ofwater reclamation and reuse are summarized in the following paragraphs.

While water reclamation and reuse is a sustainable approach and can be cost-effective inthe long run, the additional treatment of wastewater beyond secondary treatment for reuseand the installation of reclaimed water distribution systems can be costly and energy-intensive as compared to such water supply alternatives as imported water (interbasintransfer of water) or groundwater. Furthermore, institutional barriers as well as varyingagency priorities can make it difficult to implement water reuse projects in some cases.

The public’s awareness of sustainable water resources management is essential; thus,planning should evolve through a community value-based decision-making model. It isimportant that water reuse is placed within the broader context of water resources man-agement and other options such as desalting to address water supply and water qualityproblems. Community values and priorities are then identified to guide planning fromthe beginning in the formulation and selection of alternative solutions.

To date the major emphasis of water reclamation and reuse has been on nonpotable appli-cations such as agricultural and landscape irrigation, industrial cooling, and in-buildingapplications such as toilet flushing in large commercial buildings. Indirect and directpotable reuse options raise more public concern and uncertainty. In any case, the value ofwater reuse is weighed within a context of larger public issues. Water reuse implementa-tion continues to be influenced by diverse factors such as opportunity and necessity;drought and reliability of water supply; growth versus no growth; urban sprawl, trafficnoise, and air pollution; and the perception of reclaimed water safety, aesthetics, politicalwill, and public policy governing sustainable water resources management.

Due to land use practices and the increasing proportion of treated wastewater dischargedinto the nation’s waters, freshwater sources of drinking water now contain many of thesame constituents of public health concern that are found in reclaimed water. Much of theresearch that addresses direct and indirect potable water reuse is becoming equally relevantto unplanned indirect potable reuse (de facto indirect potable reuse) that occurs naturallywhen water sources containing wastewater discharges are used as a source for drinkingwater supply. Because of the research interest and public concerns, emerging pathogensand trace organic constituents including disinfection byproducts, pharmaceutically activecompounds, and personal care products have been investigated and reported on extensive-ly with regard to public water sources. However, the ramifications of many of these con-stituents in trace quantity are not well understood with respect to long-term health effects(see Chap. 5).

Cost-effective and reliable water reclamation technologies are vital to successfulimplementation of water reuse projects. Comprehensive research on advanced treat-ment technologies and their combinations, including membrane processes, advancedoxidation, and reliable disinfection is essential (see Fig. 1-11).

1-5 Water Reclamation and Reuse and Its Future 31

ImplementationHurdles

Public Support

AcceptanceVariesDepending onOpportunityand Necessity

Public WaterSupply fromPolluted WaterSources

Advances inWaterReclamationTechnologies


The incentives for a water reclamation and reuse program make perfect sense to tech-nical experts—a new water source, water conservation, economic advantages, environ-mental benefits, government support, and the fact that the cost of wastewater treatmentmakes the product too valuable to “throw away” or dispose. So why hasn’t the conceptbeen embraced and supported wholeheartedly by the community? (Wegner-Gwidt,1998). The human side of politics, public policy, and decision-making associated withtechnological advances are not always in concert with technical experts and technolog-ical advances. As technology continues to advance and the reliability and safety ofwater reuse systems is widely demonstrated and public policy and perception changesto embrace these technological advances, water reclamation and reuse will continue toexpand as an essential element in sustainable water resources management.

PROBLEMS AND DISCUSSION TOPICS

1-1 What role has water played in the historic development and decline of civilizationssuch as Mesopotamia? Cite a minimum of three references and summarize your findings.

1-2 Review three articles that deal with renewable water resources and compare thedefinitions given in the articles to the definition given in the working terminology in thischapter. Discuss the reasons for any differences.

1-3 Discuss what temporal and geographic factors affect “renewable water resources”in the region in which you live.


(a) (b)

Figure 1-11

Advanced treatment system consisting of (a) reverse osmosis membrane process, and(b) ultraviolet disinfection system.

Challenges forWaterReclamationand Reuse


1-4 What impact does the development of megacities have on renewable waterresources?

1-5 Discuss briefly the geopolitical implications of the global distribution of water.Cite three references in your response.

1-6 A much quoted definition of sustainable development was presented in theBrundtland Commission’s report Our Common Future (WCED, 1987, also availableonline). However, the question of what is to be sustained, how, and for whom, has beendebated extensively for the past two decades. Discuss briefly the elements of sustain-able water resources management with respect to equity and interdependence.

1-7 What is your answer to the opinion that water conservation practices are unnec-essary because future generations will be able to work out new solutions for any watershortages, should they develop.

1-8 Using reclaimed water is technically, economically, and socially challengingbecause the source of water is municipal wastewater. Discuss the engineering, social,and economic factors that can be used to justify water reclamation and reuse.

1-9 The incentives for a water reuse program make perfect sense to technical experts—a new water source, water conservation, economic advantages, environmental benefits,government support, and the fact that the cost of wastewater treatment makes the prod-uct too valuable to “throw away” or dispose. So why hasn’t the concept been embracedand supported wholeheartedly by the community?

1-10 Currently, in the United States, the highest rates of water reuse occur inCalifornia and Florida, even though these states have widely different precipitation pat-terns. Compare regional factors that influence the potential for implementing waterreuse.

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References 35


Name Index

Abbaszadegan, M., 128Abe, A., 119, 124ABT Umwerttechnologies

GmbH, 792Adams, A. P., 1115, 1134, 1141, 1165Adams, C. D., 119, 124Adams, D. B., 20, 33Adams, E. Q., 541, 595Adamson, K. C., 1040Addiss, D. G., 127Adham, S., 334, 371, 372, 481, 508, 522,

523, 1343Aertgeerts, R., 181, 187Ahn, K. H., 487, 522Aieta, E. M., 127, 722Aiken, G., 597AIRVAC, 811, 827Akiyoshi, E., 1101, 1202, 1498Al-Attar, M. H., 1502, 1506Alavanji, M., 124, 126Al-Awadhi, N., 1506Al-Ghusain, I., 1040Allaway, W. H., 969, 1038Al-Mutairi, N. Z., 1040Al-Sulaimi, J., 1506Alt, S., 523Alum, A., 128Alvarez-Cohen, L., 118, 124,

125, 128Aly, O. M., 1124, 1166Amato, T., 459Ambrose, R. B., 1344American Society for Testing and

Materials (ASTM), 479, 522American Society of Civil Engineers

(ASCE), 9, 33American Society of Heating,

Refrigerating, and Air-ConditioningEngineers (ASHRAE),1140, 1165

American Water Works Association(AWWA), 60, 67, 86, 124, 389,448–450, 453, 459, 522, 736, 762,832, 837, 856, 858, 859, 862,881–883, 898, 906, 909, 912, 915,926, 930, 945, 1176, 1186, 1201,1386, 1389, 1394, 1396, 1432

American Water Works AssociationResearch Foundation (AWWARF),738, 762, 903, 926, 1257, 1271,1280, 1300

Ames, B. N., 253Ampt, G., 1260, 1301Amy, G. L., 597, 1302Anabela, D., 371Andersen, A., 287, 293Anderson, D. L., 802, 827Anderson, J. M., 30, 33, 59, 66, 293,

1386, 1432Anderson, R. E., 557, 594, 595Ando, T., 125Andre, J., 1166Andrews, S. A., 596Angelakis, A. N., 39, 41, 58, 66, 181,

187, 952, 1038Angelotti, R. W., 1323, 1326, 1327, 1342Angermeier, P. L., 34Anselme, C., 522Applet, S., 722Applied Process Technologies, Inc.,

573, 591Aqua Aerobic Systems, Inc., 419,

420, 423Aqua Services and Engineering, 1357Aranda, J., 1110, 1165Arant, G., 1432Ares-Mazas, M. E., 129Arizona Nuclear Power Project,

Water Use, 1489, 1498Arora, H., 595

Arrowood, J., 722Arrowood, M. J., 127Art, M., 595Arthur, J., 180, 187Asano, T., 9, 13, 30, 33, 34, 43, 48, 58,

60, 66, 67, 68, 120, 124, 127, 235,251, 254, 459, 755, 756, 762, 933,945, 950, 952, 953, 1008, 1018,1038, 1039, 1040, 1041, 1110, 1136,1140, 1165, 1166, 1193, 1201, 1202,1248, 1255, 1300, 1301, 1342, 1390,1391, 1393, 1399, 1401, 1403, 1406,1407, 1409, 1417, 1432, 1442, 1497,1498, 1460, 1489, 1501, 1504, 1506,1507, 1508, 1520, 1521

Ashbolt, N. J., 225, 235, 251, 254Assink, J. W., 1141, 1165Atasi, K. Z., 596Audic, J. M., 720Aulicino, F. A., 124Austep s.r.l., Italy, 397, 450, 479, 500Australian Bureau of Statistics, 953, 1039Avraham, O., 1040Ayers, R. S., 956, 963, 966, 967, 973,

989, 1010, 1039, 1042Azov, Y., 58, 68

Babcock, R., Jr., 333, 334, 371Bachir, S. I., 1040Backs, B., 596Badger, P. G., 251, 253Baetens, D., 1107, 1165Baez, S. O. P., 1040Bahri, A., 58, 61, 67, 68, 204, 1040,

1505, 1506Baird, R. B., 60, 67, 1497Baker, M. J., 802, 827Balbus, J., 253Bales, R. C., 1397, 1432Barber, L. B., 115, 124, 1243, 1461

1529

The following convention was used for the citation of authors of articles or reports in this textbook. Where a single author is involved, thecitation is given as (Asano, 2001); where two authors are involved, the citation is given as (Asano and Tchobanoglous, 2006); and where threeof more authors are involved, the et al. notation is used (Asano et al., 2001). However, to recognize the contributions of all of the authors ofarticles or reports, not cited in the text, but appearing in the end of chapter reference lists, they are all listed in this name index. Individualsor organizations that provided photographs and other graphics are also cited. Where both an abbreviation and spelled out name have beenused in the text, the full name is spelled out in the name index followed by the abbreviation in parentheses. Where there is a discrepancy inthe usage of initials for the same author, the most complete form of the name (known to the writers of this textbook) has been used (e.g.,Crites, R. W. is used for Crites, R.).

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Barber, N. L., 68, 1040, 1166, 1201Barcina, I., 720Barenti, J., 1243Barhorst, T. A. S., 126Barker, P. L., 344, 371Barlaz, M. A., 129Barnard, J. L., 324, 371Barnett, S. R., 1028, 1030, 1039Baron, J. S., 9, 30, 34Barry, K., 1040Bartell, S., 253Bartram, J., 180, 187Barty-King, H., 39, 41, 43, 67Barwick, R. S., 84, 85, 124Basset, C., 1506Batchley, E. R., 691, 718Bates, K., 1243Bauer, D., 1343Baumann, D. D., 7, 34Baumann, L. C., 113, 124Beach, M. J., 124, 126, 127, 129Beaudet, B. A., 550, 595Bebee, J., 1165Beck, M. B., 34Beck, R. W., 491, 522Beckett, M., 1165Beecher, J. A., 1385, 1432Beek, R. W., 522Beerendonk, E. F., 720Bell, G. E. C., 1110, 1165Bellamy, B., 597Bellar, T. A., 113, 124, 650, 718Belosevic, M., 125Bender, M. D., 1319, 1342Benefield, L. D., 495, 522Bennett, E. R., 1362, 1377Bennett, J. V., 86, 124Bens, M. S., 127Bentem, A. G. N., 372Berg, J. D., 722Berger, P. S., 125Bernstein, D. L., 254Bérubé, P. R., 572, 595Beverly, S. D., 1313, 1342Biederman, E. M., 1432Bilello, L. J., 550, 595Biomicrobics, Inc., 792Birks, R., 1201Bixio, D., 58, 67Black and Veatch, 1124, 1165Black, S. E., 128Blackburn, B. G., 84, 124, 129Blackmer, F., 638, 718Blackson, D. E., 1489, 1497Blair, K. A., 127Blair, S., 371Blancq, S. M., 254Blatchley, E. R., 718Block, D. E., 253Blowes, D. W., 827Blume, T., 673, 718Blumenthal, U. J., 62, 67, 188, 954, 1039

Bock, E., 828Bogaerts, W. F., 1140, 1165Bohart, G. S., 541, 595Boland, J. J., 34Bolton, J. R., 125, 577, 578, 583, 595, 597Bone, K., 925, 926Bonné, P. A. C., 590, 595Bonner, V. R., 1319, 1342Bonnet, L., 189Bonomo, L., 58, 67Bontoux, L., 66, 67, 1038Booher, L. J., 999, 1039Boone, G., 1343Borden, R. C., 129Borenzstajn-Roten, Y., 189Borg, C., 596Borzlleca, J. F., 1377Bosch, R., 899Bostjancic, J., 1003, 1039Botrel, T. A., 1039Bounds, T. R., 790, 807, 809, 827Bourgeous, K., 315, 363, 406, 436,

437, 459, 459, 489, 522Bourke, M., 596Bouwer, H., 7, 34, 117, 124, 1248,

1260, 1264, 1268, 1269, 1278, 1284, 1288, 1301

Bowen, H., 969, 1039Braden, J. B., 9, 3434Bradley, D. J., 125Bradley, P. M., 129Bratby, J. R., 354, 355, 371Brennan, D., 827Bresee, J. S., 125Brighty, G., 1243Brindle, K., 372, 523Brissaud, F., 58, 67, 1506Brongers, M. P. H., 1147, 1148, 1165Brooke, J. M., 1125, 1167Brooks, M. A., 1342Brown, G. K., 124Brown, S. K., 129Bruce, G., 1378Brumelis, D., 723Brunner, G. W., 1319, 1342Brusseau, M. L., 253Bruvold, W. H., 1439–1441, 1444,

1446, 1460Buchanan, B., 1074Buckingham, P. L., 596Bucks, D. A., 1067, 1068, 1099,

1100, 1040Buechler, S., 61, 67Buisson, H., 371Buitrón Méndez, G., 597Bukhari, Z., 124Burden, R. P., 719Buring, J. E., 207, 252Burton, F. L., 129, 291, 293, 294, 371,

372, 460, 524, 597, 722, 762, 828,899, 945, 1041, 1100, 1343

Bush, E. O., 126

Buswell, A., 494, 523Butler, J. D., 1100Butterfield, C. T., 632, 633, 638, 718, 723Buxton, G. V., 567, 595Buxton, H. T., 1243, 1461

Cabal, A., 722Caccio, S. M., 87, 124Cairns, W., 127Calderon, R. L., 81, 124, 125, 127, 129California Department of Health Services,

1517, 1519, 1520, 1521California Department of Health, 165,

187, 1511, 1514, 1520California Department of Public Health,

1510, 1520, 1521California State Board of Health, 1521California State Water Resources

Control Board (CSWRCB), 48, 67,1511, 1521

Caliskaner, O., 395, 459Camann, D. E., 148, 187, 188Campbell, A. T., 128Camper, A., 1166Campos, C., 597Canadian Mortgage and Housing

Corporation, 822Canter, K. P., 114, 124, 126, 219, 252Cararo, D. C., 986, 1039Caretti, C., 672, 673, 718, 720Carley, R. L., 1374, 1376Carnahan, R. P., 128Carns, K. E., 721Carr, R. M., 59, 62, 67, 184, 188Carrow, R. N., 971, 1039Casson, L. W., 129Castelazo, M., 930, 945Casteline, J. M., 945Castell-Exner, C., 1290, 1302Cater, S. R., 577, 583, 595Cave, L., 1508Cearley, D., 1161, 1165Celenza, G. J., 441, 442, 444, 459, 468,

473–476, 522Center for Disease Control and Prevention

(CDC), 87, 89, 91, 124, 1165Center for Paper Business and Industry

Studies, 1147, 1165CH2M Hill, Inc., 112, 125, 1362, 1376Chakrabarti, C., 69Chambers, C. W., 718Chandler, D. P., 82, 129Chang, A. C., 34, 114, 124, 968, 969,

1039, 1040, 1497Chang, C., 1460Chang, M., 460Chang, S. L., 719, 1377Chapin, D. H., 596Chapman, H. D., 969, 1039Chapman, R. S., 1319, 1342Chappell, C. L., 253Chapra, S. C., 1319, 1342

1530 Name Index


Name Index 1531

Charnley, G., 194, 205, 206, 251Chauret, C., 87, 125Chen, C. L., 44, 67, 1488, 1497Chen, D., 673, 718Chen, N., 124, 129Chen, W. R., 572, 595Cheremisnoff, N. P., 1136, 1137, 1165Cheremisnoff, P. N., 1136, 1137, 1165Cherry, J. A., 1288, 1301Chick, H., 609, 718Chick, S. E., 253Chiemchaisri, C., 330, 371Childs, W. D., 492, 522Chin, A., 572, 595Chinn, R., 720Choi, E., 253Chow, B. M., 722Christiansen, L. B., 1243Chu, K. H., 125Cikurel, H., 1040City of Orlando, FL, 1023, 1039City of Roseville, CA, 1074City of San Diego, CA, 839, 1306,

1329–1334, 1342, 1347, 1376, 1388, 1390, 1432, 1447, 1460

City of San Francisco, CA, 910, 926City of San Luis Obispo, CA, 1236,

1237, 1242City of Sapporo, Japan, 150, 1200City of St. Petersburg, FL, 837, 1089,

1091, 1093, 1099Clancy, J. L., 89, 125Clark, R. M., 46, 67Clarke, D., 1040Clarke, N. A., 1377Cleasby, J. L., 412, 459Cleaver-Brooks, 1142, 1165Clement, J., 1113, 1119, 1165, 1166Clescerl, L., 1124, 1165Clifford, D. A., 535, 595Clough, J. S., 1343Cochran, K. W., 188Cockerham, L. G., 200, 251Cohen, B., 1504, 1507Cohen, J. M., 538, 595Cohn, P. D., 83, 86, 87, 90, 92, 125Cole, E., 129Colford, J. M., 251, 252Collins, H. F., 640, 718Cologne, G., 1395, 1397, 1406, 1432Comer, E. A., 1344Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial

Research Organization (CSIRO),Australia, 1294

Condie, L. W., 1377Conlon, W. J., 1342Cook, P., 1161, 1165Cooling Technology Institute (CTI),

1138–1140, 1165Cooper, E., 919, 922, 926Cooper, P. F., 39, 41, 43, 67Cooper, P. K., 720

Cooper, R. C., 80, 92, 125, 225, 227, 251,253, 254, 697, 718, 1041, 1498

Cooper, W. J., 113, 125Cornel, P., 372Corona-Vasquez, B., 721Cort, R. P., 1041, 1498Cosgrove, E. G., 690, 721Cosgrove, W. J., 15, 18, 34Cote, P., 353, 371Cothern, C. R., 205, 251Cotruvo, J. A., 215, 251, 1520Council of Environmental Quality (CEQ),

1393, 1432, 1443, 1460Couto, H. J. B., 450, 459Cox, M., 125Crabtree, K. D., 252Craig, M., 1497Craik, S. A., 87, 89, 125Craun, G. F., 81, 86, 87, 91, 124, 125,

126, 127, 129Crawford, G., 333, 334, 355, 357, 361,

364, 371Crites, R. W., 99, 125, 284, 289, 293,

387, 437, 459, 621, 719, 766, 771,775, 777, 779, 785, 790, 804, 807,809, 811, 814, 821, 827, 905, 926,957, 1021, 1039, 1212, 1214, 1220,1242, 1316, 1342, 1480

Crittenden, J. C., 80, 81, 98, 99, 125, 450,458, 459, 490, 491, 509, 522, 529,531, 536, 541, 550, 552, 563, 566,568, 570, 573, 574, 575, 577, 578,580, 583, 595, 597, 605, 645, 646,650, 683, 719, 1201

Croman, N., 1432Crook, J., 48, 67, 97, 101, 125, 140,

143, 188, 254, 522, 915, 926, 938,945, 1091, 1100, 1186, 1188, 1201,1255, 1301, 1444, 1446, 1460, 1511,1520, 1521

Cross, P., 1023, 1024, 1026, 1027, 1039,1493, 1497

Crozes, G. F., 487, 522Culp, R. L., 1377Cunningham, K. M., 194, 252Cunningham, T., 372Current, W. L., 88, 125

Dabiri, A. E., 492, 522Dahm, C. N., 34Daigger, G., 371Dalton, D., 459Daniel, U., 1160, 1194, 1195, 1201Danielson, R. E., 251, 253, 254Darby, J. L., 459, 522, 687, 710, 719,

721, 827, 828Daugherty, J. I., 1297, 1301Daughton, C. G., 214, 251, 1442, 1460Davis, J. P., 127Davis, J. R., 1117, 1126, 1135,

1140, 1165Davis, L. E., 494, 523, 1125, 1167

Davis, W. B., 1039Davis, W. Y., 34De Batz, S., 1343de Fur, P. O., 126De Giacomo, M., 124De Koning, J., 67De Lat, J., 722Dean, R. B., 78, 125, 1348, 1351, 1377DeBacker, E., 128Debroux, J., 597DeCarolis, J. F., 334, 371Deeb, R. A., 120, 125DeGeorge, J., 254DeGraeve, G. M., 671, 723Del Porto, D., 787, 827Delneky, G., 1497DeLorenze, G., 129Dennis, K., 1040DeOreo, W. B., 34Department of Health and Aged Care,

Australia, 1377Derthorn, R. T., 596Deshbhratar, P. B., 69Deshmukh, S. S., 1301Deventer, H. C., 1141Devitt, D. A., 1100Devol, M., 372Di Pasquale, W. J., 1499, 1506Diamadopoulos, E., 66Diamond, R. A., 1101, 1202, 1498Dickey, G. L., 1041Dickson, J., 128Dillon, P. J., 1040, 1042, 1270, 1293,

1294, 1301, 1499, 1506Dimotsis, G. L., 553, 595DiSimone, K., 1235–1237, 1242Dobbs, R. A., 538, 595Dold, P. L., 344, 371Dong, X., 718Donnell, B. P., 1342Doorenbos, J., 990, 1039Dore, M., 722Dosemeci, M., 124, 126Dow, D., 827Drewes, J. E., 1273, 1275, 1276, 1301Drost, Y. C., 126, 1301Dryden, F. D., 44, 67, 1488, 1497du Pisani, P. L., 1353–1355, 1358, 1360,

1361, 1377, 1503, 1506Dudely, R. H., 227, 251Dulbecco, R., 683, 719Dunbar, Professor, Dr., 788, 827Dupont, 479, 522Durán Moreno, A., 597Duranceau, S. J., 1167Duran-Oreiro, D., 129Dussert, B. W., 125Dziegielewski, B., 34Dzurik, A., 1394, 1395, 1432

Eaton, D. L., 219, 251Echigo, S., 720


Eching, S., 1041Eckenfelder, W. W., Jr., 493, 522, 595Ecosan, 787, 827Eddy, H. P., 39, 41, 43, 60, 68Edraki, M., 1010, 1039Edwards, M., 1124, 1166Edzwald, J. K., 449, 450, 459Eisenberg, J. N. S., 199, 229, 231, 239,

249, 251, 252, 253, 254Ekster, A., 639, 719Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI),

476, 522, 677, 719Eliassen, R., 401, 460Elovitz, M. S., 565, 595Emerick, R., 459, 616, 687, 688, 690,

691, 710, 719, 803, 827EnerCon Consultancy Services,

1145, 1166Engelbrecht, R. S., 722Engineering-Science, 140, 188, 1018,

1039, 1489, 1497, 1516, 1521Englehardt, J., 202, 249, 252Ennever, F. K., 254Enslow, L. H., 639, 719EOA Inc., 252Erdal, Z., 293Ershow, A. G., 219, 252Eschweiler, H., 722Espinoza, C. A., 1040Esposito, K. M., 287, 293Etienne, J., 1166Etnier, C., 787, 804, 827European Economic Community

(EEC), 67Evans, J. C., 596Exall, K., 1499, 1506

Faber, B., 699, 720Fair, G. M., 39, 67, 632, 633, 647, 719Fairfax County Water Authority (FCWA),

VA, 1326, 1328, 1342Falconnet, P. A., 1166Falkenmark, M., 19, 34Fallowfield, H., 1432Fan, M., 676Fane, S., 827Fankhauser, R. L., 90, 125Fannin, K. F., 148, 188Farrah, S. R., 128Faruqui, N., 62, 67Fattal, B., 189Faubert, G., 127Faust, S. D., 1124, 1166Fay, R. C., 566, 596Fayer, R. G., 88, 125Feacham, R. G., 97, 102, 125Feigin, A., 998, 999, 1039Fell, C. J. D., 1168Ferguson, D., 1101, 1202, 1498Ferguson, F., 1168Ferguson, J., 1121, 1125, 1166Fernandez, A., 356, 361, 371

Ferrand, F., 720Ferron, S., 596Fewtrell, L, 187, 188Fiksdal, L., 720Finch, G. R., 125, 666, 719Fleischer, E. J, 371Fleming, P. A., 1485, 1497Filter Loading Evaluation for Water Reuse

(FLEWR), Monterey, CA, 459Flinker, P., 827Florida Department of Environmental

Protection (FDEP), 165, 168, 188, 264

Flynn, M. P., 721Foellmer, J., 251Fonseca, A. N., 371Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO),

1501, 1506Ford, G. I., 828Foster, H. B., 1511, 1513, 1521Foster, K. R., 15, 34Foussereau, X., 459, 523Fox, K. R., 127Fox, P., 124, 1273, 1275, 1278,

1294, 1301, 1302Frankel-Conrat, H., 90, 125Freeman, A. W., 68Freeman, S., 474, 522Freeze, R. A., 1288, 1301French, O. F., 1040Friedberg, E. R., 683, 719Friedlander, P., 679Friedler, E., 1500, 1507Friedman, D., 596Friedman, M., 898Froelich, E. M., 533, 595Fuerst, J., 828Fuhs, G. W., 227, 252Fulton, A., 1040Funamizu, N., 1199, 1201 Furlong, E. T., 127, 1243, 1461

Gable, J., 1277, 1301Gagliardo, P., 478, 522, 1183, 1185,

1201, 1343Gaines, B., 371Gallagher, T. M., 1342Ganesan, A. K., 720Garbertt, M., 1165Garcia, L. S., 88, 125Gard, S., 640, 719Gardner, E. A., 1039Garelick, H., 125Gator, A. G., 952Gaulke, L. S., 786, 827, 1193, 1201Gavaghan, P. D., 129Gearheart, R, 1233Gee, D., 34Gehr, R., 672, 673, 683, 711, 718,

719, 720, 723Gehringer, P., 722Gennaccaro, A. L., 89, 125

George, M. R., 971, 1039Gerba, C. P., 80, 82, 86, 90, 91, 102, 126,

127, 129, 189, 235, 245, 252, 253,254, 596, 718, 1280, 1301, 1302

Gerges, N. Z., 1039Gerston, J., 1153, 1166Getches, D. H., 937, 945, 1393, 1432Geyer, J. C., 39, 67, 632, 647, 719Giap, L. C., 1334, 1342Giese, T. P., 356, 359, 371Gij, J., 828Gilbert, R. G., 985, 1040, 1099, 1301Gill, G., 1077, 1100Gillogly, T., 522, 523Gilmour, R. A., 128Gingras, M. B., 1101, 1202, 1498Ginn, T., 719Girard Industries, 884Gittinger, J. P., 1413, 1423, 1432,

1525, 1527, 1528Glass, R. I., 125Glaze, W. H., 571, 574, 596Gleick, P. H., 8, 9, 34Göbel, A., 596Godman, R. R., 903, 926Goebel, R. P., 253Gold, A., 827Gonzales, R. M., 1167Gordis, L., 208, 211, 252Gordon, H., 1302Gori, R., 720Gosselink, J. G., 1210, 1243Gotor, A. G., 1040Goveia, M., 253Goyal, S. M., 1280, 1301Grabow, W. O. K., 126Gradus, M. S., 127Grady, C. P. L., Jr., 344, 371Graham, J., 1040Grattan, S. R., 971, 976, 1040, 1100Green, S., 595Green, W. H., 1260, 1301Greenstock, C. L., 567, 595Gregory, R. S., 1386, 1432Grieve, C., 1100Grizzard, T. J., 371Grobicki, A. M. W., 1504, 1507Grobler, G. J., 68, 1377, 1507Grogan, T., 1410, 1432Gross, M., 803, 827Gujer, W., 371Gullick, R. Q., 119, 126Gunn, G. A., 1323, 1343Gurr, C. J., 1306, 1342

Haag., W. R., 670, 719Haarhoff, J., 1503Haas, C. N., 126, 189, 199, 201, 202, 225,

227, 235, 252, 254, 611, 640, 719Hach Company, 384, 459Haddad, B. M., 1442, 1460Haider, T., 722

1532 Name Index


Name Index 1533

Hairston, N. G., 34Hale, R. C., 117, 126Hall, E. L., 611, 719Hallenbeck, W. H., 194, 252Halling-Sorensen, B., 293Hammann, D., 555, 596Hamoda, M. F., 952, 1040Hamrick, J., 1343Hanawalt, P. C., 684, 720Hand, D. W., 125, 459, 522, 553,

595, 719, 1201Hanemann, W. M., 34Hansen, E., 522, 523Hanson, R. B., 1040, 1041Hantush, M. S., 1264, 1301, 1523Hanzon, B., 618, 621, 720Harding, H. J., 187Hargy, T. M., 125Harivandi, M. A., 1072, 1073, 1100Harremoës, P., 14, 15, 34Harrhoff, J., 123, 126, 1353, 1377, 1507Harries, J. E., 1243Hart, F. L., 646, 720Hartfelder, J., 720Hartley, T. W., 1442, 1460Hartling, E. C., 1393, 1432, 1442, 1449,

1460, 1461, 1490, 1497Harvey, E., 126Hattingh, W., 68, 1507Hauch, P., 596Hauser, G. E., 1342Havelaar, A. H., 93, 126, 181, 189, 200,

226, 236, 254, 1280, 1301Hayes, M., 1165Hazbun, A. E., 1096, 1100HDR Engineering, 236, 252, 1094, 1100Heberer, T., 1277, 1301Hein, H., 524Hekimain, K. K., 251Heller-Grossman, L., 128Hemken, B., 1494, 1497Hemming, J., 1378Hennekens, C. H., 207, 252Henze, M. C., 344, 371Henze, M., 34Herman, W. H., 129Hermann, N., 596Hermanowicz, S. W., 7, 26, 30, 34, 372Herr, G. K., 1101, 1202, 1498Herrero, A. M., 1504, 1507Hertog, W., 67Herwaldt, B. L., 127Hiasa, M., 372Higgins, M. J., 371Hightower, M. M., 288, 293Hijfnen, W. A. M., 689, 720Hildesheim, M. E., 114, 124, 126Hill, R. R., 119, 126 Hill, V., 124, 129Hills, D. J., 1100, 1039Hills, F. J., 1017, 1040 Hills, S., 1201

Hirata, T., 721Hlavsa, M. C., 87, 88, 126Hobbs, N., 1361, 1362, 1378Hodgson, E., 212, 252Hofman, J. A. M. H., 595Hoigne, J., 670, 719Holbrook, R. D., 355, 360, 371Holliman, T. R., 903, 915, 926Hom, L. W., 640, 720Homberg, S. D., 124Hopkins, B., 129Hoppin, J., 194, 252Horne, A., 899Horvath, R. W., 722House, M. A., 1393, 1432,

1447, 1460Howe, K. J., 125, 459, 522, 595,

719, 1201Howerton, S., 1166Howles, S. R., 1039Hoxie, N. J., 127Hu, J. Y., 1343Hu, L. Y., 1507Hu, S., 595Hubbard, A. H., 252Hubele, C., 597Huber Technologies, 337Huber, M. M., 565, 596Huesemann, M. W., 7, 34Huffman, D. E., 81, 90, 91, 117, 126Huitric, S. J., 720, 722Hulsey, R. A., 721Hultquist, R. H., 188Humphrey, C. D., 125Hunter, G. L., 721, 1166Hunter, G., 665Hunter, P. R., 80, 126, 188Huston, J. L., 1042Huston, S. S., 1106, 1132, 1166,

1040, 1042Hutchinson, S. L., 119, 126Hutson, S. S., 46, 47, 68, 1171,

1172, 1201Hyde, C. G., 1485, 1497Hyde, J., 1101, 1202, 1498Hydrotech, 419

Icekson-Tal, N., 952, 1040Iida, M., 1201Ikeda, M., 762, 1201Infilco Degremont, Inc., 679Ingram, P. C., 1450, 1452, 1460Institute of Medicine (IOM), 206, 252International Association of Plumbing

and Mechanical Officials (IAPMO),908, 909, 914, 926, 1176, 1201

International Atomic Energy Agency(IAEA), 484, 491, 523

International life Sciences Institute (ILSI),225, 226, 252

International Organization ofStandardization (ISO), 1110, 1166

International Water Management Institute(IWMI), 17, 20, 34, 62

Irvine Ranch Water District (IRWD), CA,891, 898, 915, 926, 1181, 1201

Isaäcson, M., 59, 68, 1504, 1507Israel, K. E., 1041

Jacangelo, J. G., 127, 522Jackson, E., 1499, 1507Jackson, M. H., 128Jackson, R. D., 1284, 1301Jackson, R. B., 34Jacobs, E. P., 480, 523Jacquez, G., 253Jagger, J. H., 690, 720Jakubowski, W., 129Jalali, Y., 653, 654, 720, 722James, L. D., 1406, 1407, 1412–1414,

1423, 1432Janbakhsh, A., 1243Janex, M. L., 720Japan Sewage Works Association (JSWA),

59, 68, 755, 762, 1172, 1175, 1199,1201, 1501, 1507

Jaques, R. S., 1041, 1498Jarraud, S., 1166Jeffcoat, S., 1231, 1243Jefferson, B., 371, 372Jefferson, B., 523Jeffs, G. E., 126Jekel, M., 1276Jenkins, D., 372, 495, 496, 523,

1120, 1167Jennsen, P. D., 828Jeran-Aero Graphics, 839Jetten, M., 828Jim, K., 1165Jimenez, B., 58, 68, 127Jobin, J., 827Jobling, S., 1225, 1243, 1521Joffe, J., 640, 719Johannessen, J., 1101, 1202, 1498Johansson, L., 802, 827Johns, F. J., 1377Johns, M. M., 126Johnson, B. H., 1342Johnson, B., 1302Johnson, D. E., 148, 187, 188Johnson, J. D., 690, 721Johnson, L. J., 1186, 1201Johnson, R. M., 1040Johnson, T. L., 288, 293Johnson, W. D., 54, 68, 1086–1092,

1100, 1453, 1486, 1461, 1497Johnston, C. A., 34Johnston, D. S., 827Joly, P., 1139, 1166Jones, C. A., 1166Jones, R. D., 1243Jones, S., 803, 827Jopling, W. F., 41, 43, 45, 68, 1485,

1498, 1509, 1511–1513, 1521


1534 Name Index

Jordan, L. A., 1070, 1100Joss, A., 596Joubert, L., 766, 827Jowett, E. C., 802, 827Juanico, M., 953, 1011, 1042Juby, G., 439, 459Judd, C., 332, 372Judd, S., 332, 371, 372, 523Judkins, J. F., Jr., 522Juranek, D. D., 88, 126, 127Juwarkar, A. S., 69

Kadlec, R., 821, 827, 1212, 1243Kadlec, R. H., 1212Kamnikar, C., 1167Kanarek, A., 1500, 1507Kang, J. W., 571, 596Kappus, K. K., 87, 126Karim, M. R., 90, 126Karimi, A. A., 572, 596Karmeli, D., 1066, 1100Karra, S., 611, 719Kasower, S., 1461Kasperson, J. X., 1348, 1351, 1377Kasperson, R. E., 1348, 1351, 1377Katayama, H., 721, 1166Katehis, D., 806, 813, 827Katz, S. M., 1461Katzenelson, E., 189Kavanaugh, M. C., 118, 125, 128, 554, 596Kawamoto, K., 762, 1201Kawamura, S., 409, 459, 596, 646, 720Kawczynski, E., 523Kaye, R. B., 1168Kazmierczak, J. J., 127Keck, C. W., 206, 254Keeney, R. L., 1386, 1432Keller, J., 1066, 1100Kelly, C., 1243Kelly, L. M., 1302Kelly, L., 1445, 1461Kelner, A., 683, 720Kelty, C. A., 129Kenny, J. F., 68, 1040, 1166, 1201Keyes, C. G., 288, 293Keys, J., 34Kidmi, S., 189Kiefer, J. C., 34Kielen, N. C., 1003, 1041Kim, J., 720, 721Kimball, D. T., 188Kimball, P. C., 125Kimes, J. K., 509, 511, 523King, I., 1319, 1342King, P., 1508Kinner, C., 1101, 1202, 1498Kirby, S., 1243Kirkpatrick, W., 1041, 1489, 1497, 1498Kirmeyer, G. J., 885, 887, 898, 1121,

1125, 1165, 1166Kitis, M., 672, 720, 803, 827Kjartanson, K., 597

Klaassen, C. D., 209, 214, 251, 252, 253Klein, P., 925, 926Klime, D. E., 115, 126Knapton, A., 1301Knight, R., 821, 827, 1212, 1243Knowlton, D. R., 254Kobylinski, E., 1166Koch Industries, Inc., 339Koivunen, J., 673, 720Kolluru, R., 193–196, 205, 206, 253Kolpin, D. W., 115, 117, 127, 1225,

1243, 1442, 1461Kondolf, G. M., 1226, 1243Konnan, J. I., 251, 253Kontos, N., 120, 127, 1393, 1432Koo, H., 522Koopman, J. S., 231, 232, 253Koorse, S. J., 523Kopp, H., 35Korategere, V., 596Korhonen, L. K., 102, 127Korick, D. G., 89, 127Koundi, A., 1505, 1507Kracman, B., 952, 1028, 1030–1032,

1040, 1499, 1507Kramer, M. H., 84, 85, 88, 127Krasner, S. W., 113, 127, 651, 720Krause, S., 372Kraybill, H. R., 119, 127Krayer von Krauss, M. M. B. A., 15, 34Kree, D., 523Krieger, G. R., 211, 254Kriven, W., 1165, 1166Krogstad, T., 828Kroner, R. C., 124Kruidenier, L., 254Kshirsagar, D. G., 69Kubick, K. S., 1485, 1497Kubota Corporation, 336Kuenen, J. G., 1302Kuenen, S., 828Kulik, W., 1342Kuo, A. Y., 1343Kuo, J. F., 67, 720, 722, 1497Kurian, J., 62, 68Kutz, S. M., 102, 127Kuyk, D. D., 903, 926

La Chance, A. M., 127, 1497Lagona-Limon, C. I., 721LaGrega, M. D., 538, 596Lahnsteiner, J., 1353, 1355, 1358,

1377, 1503, 1507Laine, A., 371Laine, J. M., 522Lampert, G., 1377Lampert, Y., 189Lamphiear, D. E., 188Lance, J. C., 1301Landmeyer, J. E., 129Langelier, W., 494, 523, 1118, 1124, 1166Larsen, M. D., 356, 371

Larson, R., 699, 720Larson, T. E., 494, 523, 1125, 1166Lauer, W. C., 112, 127, 1361, 1362, 1364,

1367–1374, 1377, 1491, 1497Law, I. B., 1334, 1342, 1343, 1377,

1503, 1507Lawrence, D. P., 372Lazarova, V., 58, 68, 672, 720, 950, 952,

953, 985, 1015, 1193, 1040, 1201Lazenby, A., 899Le Clech, P., 371Le Gal La Salle, C., 1042LeBlanc, C., 679LeChevallier, M. W., 90, 126Lee, J., 1343, 1499, 1507Lee, K. C., 590, 596Lee, L. Y., 1343, 1507Lee, R. R., 1406, 1407, 1412–1414,

1423, 1432Lee, S. H., 84, 85, 124, 127, 129Leenheer, J. A., 124, 142, 188Lefevre, F., 672, 720Lehman, G., 467, 522, 523Leitner, G. F., 522, 1506Lekven, C., 827Lempert, G., 1353, 1355, 1358,

1503, 1507Leong, Y. C., 251Leslie, G., 471, 515, 523, 1343Leth, H., 722Letter, J. V., Jr., 1342Leverenz, H. L., 786, 803, 805, 828, 1039Levi, P. E., 212, 252Levine, A. D., 48, 60, 67, 68, 80, 378,

379, 380, 459, 1018, 1110, 1039,1140, 1165, 1166

Levy, D. A., 84, 85, 124, 127, 129Levy, J. A., 125Lewis, B. L., 252Lewis, D. R., 971, 1040Lewis, G. H., 1116, 1166Lewis, R., 355, 364, 371Liberti, L., 672, 720Lichtenberg, J. J., 124, 650, 718Lien, L., 470, 523Lim, H. C., 371Lin, A. Y-C., 115, 127, 1342Linden, K. G., 87, 127, 567, 573, 578,

586, 595, 596, 690, 720, 722Linder, S., 125Lindh, G., 19, 34Linstedt, K. D., 1362, 1377Lisk, D. J., 969, 1040Lisle, J. T., 88, 127Little, T. M., 1017, 1040Liu, Y. A., 1107, 1108, 1166Llamas, M. R., 35Lodewage, L., 1101Löffler, D., 596Logan, B. E., 119, 127Loge, F., 459, 719Logsdon, G. S., 412, 459


Name Index 1535

Lohman, L. C., 1373, 1377, 1439, 1440, 1461

Lombardo, P., 802, 828Long, S. C., 673, 721Loomis, G., 827Loper, S. W., 595López Ramirez, J. A., 1342, 1504, 1507Lopez, A. D., 181, 188Lopez, A., 720Lorenz, W., 372Lorenzo-Lorenzo, M. J., 129Losch, H. J., 372Lothrop, T., 1497Loucks, D. P., 9, 34Love, N. G., 371Loyer, M., 371Lozier, J., 371Lu, H., 524Lubello, C., 672, 673, 718, 720Lubin, J., 124, 126Ludlum, R., 1003, 1039Ludwig, A., 777, 818, 828Luft, P., 595Luiz, F., 371Lumia, D. S., 68, 1040, 1166, 1201Lumsden, L. L., 41, 68Lund, E., 78, 125, 1348, 1351, 1377Lutchko, J. R., 596Lykins, B. W., Jr., 595Lynch, A., 293Lynch, C. F., 124, 126Lynch, S. T., 288, 293Lyon., S. A., 214

Maas, E. V., 971, 974, 976, 1040, 1053, 1100

MacDonnell, L. J., 945MacGarvin, M., 34MacIntyre, D. F., 1342Mack, J., 597MacKenzie, D. C., 961, 1040MacKenzie, W. R., 88, 127Mackun, P. J., 17, 19, 34MacLaggan, P. M., 1395, 1397,

1406, 1432MacLeod, M., 1166Macler, B. A., 185, 188 Maddaus, W. O., 8, 34Madore, M. S., 88, 127Maeda, M., 755, 756, 759, 762,

1193, 1201, 1506Maehlum, T., 828Maggi, L. J., 459Magnuson, M. L., 129Mahar, E., 572, 596Mahmood, T., 372Maier, R. M., 596Maier, R. M., 92, 127, 588Makri, A., 236, 253Malcolm Drew Agricultural Research

Council, 960Malcolm Pirnie, Inc., 1165

Malcolm, R. L., 128Malley, J. P., 673, 720Manka, J., 128Mann, J. G., 1107, 1108, 1166Mansfield, D. M., 1494, 1497Mantovani, P., 13, 34, 827, 1495, 1497Mara, D. D., 62, 67, 68, 125, 180,

188, 1039Marcino, S. A., 287, 293Marecos do Monte, M. H. F., 58, 66,

68, 1038Marias, G. v. R., 371Marinas, B. J., 597, 720, 721, 722Marks, J., 1393, 1432Markus, M. R., 1301Marsalek, J., 1506Marshall, M. M., 125Marshall, W. E., 126Martel, K. D., 898Martikainen, P. J., 102, 127Martin, J. L., 1318, 1319, 1322,

1340, 1344Martin, N., 683, 711, 720Martin, R. R., 1003, 1039, 1040, 1301,

1507Martinez, I., 718Martínez-Cortina, L., 35Massarani, G., 459Masschelein, W. J., 128Matsuo, T., 371, 372Matyac, S., 1041Maupin, M. A., 68, 1040, 1166, 1201Maurin, M., 1166Maya, C., 89, 127Mayer, P. W., 8, 34Mayer, T. G., 827Mazas, E. A., 128Mcardell, C. S., 596McBride, G., 201, 202, 227, 253McCann, J., 211, 253McCarty, P. L., 597, 800, 828, 1167McCoy, J., 1126, 1128, 1136, 1166McCutcheon, S. C., 126, 1318, 1319,

1322, 1342, 1343McEwen, B., 1312, 1323, 1343McFeters, G. A., 102, 128McGarvey, F., 553, 595, 596McGauhey, P. H., 136, 188McGechan, M. B., 971, 1040McGuire, M. J., 127McIntyre, R., 1129, 1166McKay, W. A., 129McKee, J. E., 134, 188McKenzie, D. C., 1040McLaughlin, M. R., 126McManus, K., 1451McMurray, J., 566, 596McQuarrie, J. P., 293McVicker, R. R., 1101, 1202, 1498Mead, J. R., 127Mechalas, B. J., 251Medema, G. J., 254, 720

Megregian, S., 718Mekorot Water Company Ltd., 61, 1252Melbourne Water, 1507Melin, T., 67Melo, M. V., 459Merlo, R. P., 361, 372, 522Merrill, D. T., 499, 523Messner, M. J., 202, 253Metcalf & Eddy, 1480Metcalf, L., 39, 41, 43, 60, 68Metzler, D. F., 1348–1352, 1377Meyer, J. L., 1041Meyer, M. T., 127, 1243, 1461Meyer, T. E., 1166Michail, M., 1500, 1507Micheli, E. R., 1226, 1243Mickley, M. C., 509, 513, 514, 518, 523Middlebrooks, E. J., 1242Middleton, F. M., 1377Mierzwa, A. J., 1147, 1148, 1165Mikkelsen, D. S., 1010, 1041Millan, M., 1460Millar, H., 827Miller, D. G., 1158, 1161, 1166Miller, G., 899Miller, J., 1302Miller, K. J., 1378, 1498Milliken, J. G., 1377Mills, R. A., 1390, 1391, 1399, 1401,

1403, 1406, 1407, 1409, 1417, 1432Miltner, R. S., 129Minear, R., 720Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and

Transport (MLIT), Japan, 755, 756,762, 1178, 1202

Ministry of National Infrastructures,Israel, 1500, 1507

Mitani, H., 721Mitch, W. A., 118, 128Mitchell, C. A., 827Mitsch, W. J., 1210, 1243Mitta, P., 372Mohr, T. K. G., 119, 128Monroe, S. S., 125Montgomery Consulting Engineers, Inc.,

J. M., 619, 721Monto, A. S., 188Moore, L. A., 129Moreland, J. L., 1489, 1498Morel-Seytoux, H. J., 1260, 1301Morita, S., 721Morrill, A. B., 647, 721Morris, J. C., 611, 624, 719, 721Morris, R. L., 1100Morris, S., 1243Mortensen, K., 1201Mosher, J., 945Mourato, D., 359, 372Moyer, N. P., 86, 128Mujeriego, R., 58, 67, 68, 1165, 1504,

1507, 1508Mulder, A., 1278, 1302


Murray, C. J. L., 181, 188Murray, D., 720Murthy, S. N., 371Myers, B. A., 1377

Nakada, K., 762, 1201Nakayama, F. S., 1068, 1100, 1040, 1099Nashikkar, V. J., 69Nasr, J., 62, 69Nasser, A. M., 1280, 1302National Academy of Sciences (NAS),

211, 253, 1166, 1371, 1377National Fire Protection Association

(NFPA), 899National Institutes of Health (NIH),

214, 253National Pollutant Inventory (NPI),

Australia, 1166National Research Council (NRC), 80, 81,

87, 93, 94, 97, 115, 117, 128, 150,156, 179, 188, 189, 196, 197, 199,226, 253, 967, 1040, 1255, 1302,1323, 1335, 1343, 1375, 1377

National Water Research Institute (NWRI)and American Water WorksAssociation Research Foundation(AWWARF), 700, 721

National Water Research Institute(NWRI), 144, 189, 695, 700, 721, 1517, 1497, 1521

Nayyar, M. L., 910, 926, 1186, 1202Nealy, M. K., 127, 1497Neis, U., 673, 718Nellor, M. H., 1301, 1490, 1497, 1521Nelson, J. O., 34Nelson, K. L., 80, 126, 417Nerenberg, R., 288, 293, 590, 596Neuman, D. S., 1100Neuman, S. P., 1260, 1302Newsome, S., 251Ng, H. Y., 1343, 1507Niang, S., 67Nicholson, B. C., 1034, 1035, 1040Noel, J. S., 125Nolan, M., 1243Noran, P. F., 898Notarnicola, M., 720Novak, J. T., 371Noyes, T. I., 124Nunez, A. A., 1494, 1497, 1498Nurizzo, C., 67

Oberg, C., 720O’Brien, W. J., 677, 721O’Connell, S., 720Odendaal, P. E., 59, 68, 1353, 1356, 1377,

1503, 1504, 1507Oemcke, D., 1432Office of the Federal Register, 1413, 1432Office of Water Recycling, California

State Water Resources ControlBoard, 1387, 1406, 1432

Ogoshi, M., 762, 1202, 1501, 1507, 1508Oguma, K., 683, 721, 1140, 1166Ohgaki, S., 460, 721, 1166Okhuysen, P. O., 253Okun, D. A., 34, 39, 41, 43, 68, 144, 189,

832, 899, 907, 926, 944, 945, 1186,1202, 1497

Oldewage, L., 1202, 1498Oliver, B. G., 690, 721Olivier, M., 422, 424, 459Olivieri, A. W., 80, 92, 125, 227, 233,

236, 239, 251, 253, 254Oman, S. D., 1280, 1302O’Melia, C. R., 401, 459Ong, S. L., 1336, 1343, 1503, 1507Ongerth, H. J., 41, 43, 45, 60, 68, 1485,

1498, 1509, 1512, 1521Ongerth, J. E., 60, 68Ontario Ministry of the Attorney General,

Canada, 1310, 1343Opitz, E. M., 34Orang, M., 1041Orange County Sanitation District

(OCSD), CA, 96, 118, 128Orange County Water District (OCWD),

CA, 50, 1296, 1297, 1298, 1302Oravitz, J. L., 595Oregon Health Division, 87, 128Orenco Systems Inc., 284, 776, 789, 792Orlob, G. T., 1243Oron, G., 979, 1500, 1507Orta de Velasquez, M. T., 673, 721Otis, R. J., 827Ott, E. M., 125Ottson, J., 251Oueslati, F., 1506Ouki, S. K., 554, 596Owens, J., 721Ozaki, M., 762, 1202, 1508

Padre Dam Municipal Water District(PDMWD) staff, CA, 932, 1238, 1240

Page, A. L., 124, 968, 969, 1039, 1040Pagliaro, T., 1126, 1142, 1143, 1147, 1167Palmer, C. M., 1377Pan, G., 124Panchapakesan, B., 1149, 1167Pankow, J. F., 495, 496, 523Papadopoulos, I., 1040Paperloop, 1148, 1167Paranjape, S., 437, 459, 478, 523Paranychianakis, N. V., 66Parashar, U. D., 125Park, K., 1319, 1343Park, R. A., 1319, 1343Parker, D., 371, 1165Parker, J. A., 687, 721Parkin, G. F., 597, 1167Parkin, R., 253, 254Parnell, J. R., 54, 68, 1054, 1086–1092,

1100, 1453, 1461, 1486, 1497

Parsons, F. Z., 125Parsons, J. J., 1101, 1202, 1498Pastor, S., 720Pataky, K., 827Patania, N. L., 127Patel, M. V., 1301Patel, M., 597Paton, C. A., 128Paustenbach, D. J., 195, 197, 253Pavelic, P., 1040, 1301Payment, P., 719PBS&J, 1439, 1447, 1461Pearce, B., 371, 1201Pearce, G., 474, 523Pearce, N., 209, 253Pearson, H., 180, 188Peasey, A., 67, 1039Peeters, J. E., 88, 128Pekkanen, J., 209, 253Pelletier, G. J., 1342Penny, J. P., 372Pepper, I. L., 127, 200, 253, 596, 718Pereira, W. E., 124Perlman, H. A., 69, 1202Pernitsky, D., 597Perry, J., 459Perz, J. F., 236, 254Pescod, M. B., 981, 985, 990, 1040Peters, J. H., 1290, 1302Peterson, D. E., 127Petterson, S. R., 235, 251, 254, 1041Pettygrove, G. S., 1008, 1039Peyton, D. E., 1270, 1302Pezzey, J., 7, 35Phelps, C., 459Phillips, P. J., 293Pidsley, D., 1301Pierce, R. R., 69, 1202Pierson, G., 1165, 1166Pineo, D., 1243Pinkston, K. E., 566, 596Pisigan, R. A., 1119, 1167Pitblado, R., 253Pitt, P., 1497Plastic Pipe Institute (PPI), 860, 899Pleus, R., 1378Plumlee, M. H., 127, 1342Plummer, J. D., 673, 721Poff, N. L., 34Ponimepuy, M., 720Pontius, F. W., 509, 511, 523Poon, J., 1343Porco, T. C., 252Postel, S. L., 15, 19, 35Potts, E. A., 1486, 1498Powelson, D. K., 1280, 1302Pozio, E., 124 Pozos, N., 596Praderie, M., 371Prettyman, R., 1302Prevost, R. J., 188Pribil, W., 722

1536 Name Index


Name Index 1537

Prince William Conservation Alliance,VA, 1328, 1343

Process Applications, Inc., 665Proctor, M. E., 127Proctor, W. D., 1342Pruitt, W. O., 990, 1039Prüss, A., 181, 189Ptacek, C. J., 827Public Utilities Board Report, Singapore,

1503, 1507Puckorius, P. R., 1125, 1167Pyne, R. D. G., 1293, 1302

Qualls, R. G., 687, 690, 721Quay Technologies, Ltd., 676Queensland Government, Australia, 1377Queensland Water Recycling Strategy,

Australia, 13, 35, 1499, 1507Quinian, E., 899Quintero-Betancourt, W., 126Quiroga Alonso, J. M., 1342, 1507

Radcliffe, J. C., 59, 68, 1172, 1175, 1202,1439, 1461, 1495, 1498, 1499, 1508

Rai, R. P., 69Rainville, D., 1077, 1100Rajal, V. B., 1343Rakness, K. L., 563, 596, 662, 665,

666, 721Randall, C. W., 372Randall, M. J., 1116, 1166Rauschkolb, R. S., 1010, 1041Ravetz, J., 34Ravina, I., 1039Reagan, K. M., 127Reardon, R., 459, 523Rebhun, M., 113, 117, 128, 1011, 1041Reckhow, D. A., 113, 128, 568, 597Recycled Water Task Force (RWTF), CA,

1393, 1433Reddy, P. S., 595Redman, J. A., 596Redwood, M., 67Reed, S. C., 1242Rees, H. B., 1165Refling, D. R., 372Regli, S., 185, 188, 189, 225, 227,

235, 252, 254Reiber, S., 1121, 1125, 1167Reinhard, M., 127, 1306, 1342Reiss, J., 422, 459Rennecker, J., 640, 721Repacholi, M. H., 34Requa, D. A., 718Reverter, J., 523ReVoir, G. J., II, 359, 372Reynolds, K. A., 718Reyrolle, M., 1166Rice, E., 721Rice, R. C., 1264, 1278, 1301Rice, R. G., 568, 596, 661, 662, 721Rice, T. A., 945

Richard, A., 478, 523Richardson, C. S., 1395, 1397, 1433Richardson, S. D., 720Richter, B. D., 34Ried, A., 596Rigby, M. G., 251Riggs, J. L., 1414, 1433, 1527, 1528Right, H. B., 723Rijsberman, F. R., 15, 18, 34Rinck-Pfieffer, S., 1301Riolo, C. S., 253Ripley, D., 760, 762, 811Rittmann, B., 590, 596, 800, 828Robbins, M. H., Jr., 1323, 1343Roberts, D. R., 126Roberts, J. M., 126Roberts, P. V., 641, 722, 1255, 1302Robertson, L. A., 1302Robertson, L. J., 88, 128Robertson, W. D., 802, 828Robertson-Bryan Inc., 252Rodgers-Gray, T. P., 1225, 1243Rogers, M. F., 124Rogers, P. P., 20, 35Rogers, S. E., 127, 1361, 1362, 1364,

1367–1374, 1377, 1491, 1497Rogers, S., 372Rohwer, B., 293Rojas-Valencia, N. M., 721Rollins, L., 1100Rommelmann, D. W., 1149, 1150, 1167Rook, J. J., 113, 128, 650, 722,

1352, 1377Rose, J. B., 87, 88, 126, 127, 128, 189,

225, 236, 245, 252, 254, 561Rose, J., 596Roseman, J. M., 129 Rosenblum, E., 522, 523, 1461Rosene, M. R., 550, 596Rosenfeldt, E. J., 567, 596Ross, R. S., 1497Rosson, J. J., 721Rothberg, M. R., 1362, 1377,

1378, 1498Rothberg, Tamburini, and Windsor, Inc.,

1124, 1167Ruiz-Palacios, G., 67, 1039Rupert, C. S., 683, 722Ruppe, L., 828Russell, L. L., 1118, 1167Ryan, T., 253Ryder, R. A., 1167, 1168Ryu, H., 89, 128Ryznar, J. W., 494, 523, 1125, 1167

Sack, J., 1040Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA),

221, 254Sakaji, R. H., 188, 251, 254, 438,

460, 718Sakakura, Y., 1201Sakamoto, G., 723

Sala, L., 58, 61, 68, 1172, 1175, 1202,1213, 1504, 1508

Saldi-Caromile, K., 1223, 1228, 1243Sales Márquez, D., 1342, 1507Salvato, J. A., 777, 828Salveson, A., 596, 718San Diego County Water Authority, 51, 68Sandvig, A., 1166Sanin, F., 361, 372Sanitation Districts of Los Angeles

County (SDLAC), 44, 49, 68, 140, 189, 1302, 1488, 1490, 1498,1514, 1521

Sanks, R. L., 499, 523Sarin, P., 1165Sattar, S., 124Saunier, B. M., 627, 722Savic, D., 67Sawyer, C. N., 566, 597, 1118,

1167, 1228, 1243Sayed, A. R., 68, 1507Scanlan, P. A., 124Scarbrough, J. H., 1309, 1343Schaefer, K., 1506Schaffranek, R. W., 1319, 1343Schiff, G. M., 254Schippers, J. C., 480, 523Schmid, M., 828Schmidt, I., 798, 828Schneider, A. J., 1395, 1433Schneider, C., 372Schneider, M. L., 1319, 1343Schock, M. R., 1166Schonning, C., 251Schott, M. J., 129Schouwenaars, R., 597Schroeder, C. D., 1147, 1167Schroeder, E. D., 35, 86, 128, 254,

413, 460, 885, 899Schuerch, P., 718Schwartzbrod, J., 127Sclimenti, M. J., 720Scott, J., 252Scutchfield, F. D., 206, 254Seah, H., 1335, 1343, 1507Sears, K., 597Secrist, N. D., 124Sedlak, D. L., 118, 124, 128, 566, 596Selleck, R. E., 627, 640, 718, 722Selna, M. W., 67, 1497Selvin, S., 251, 253Sen, D., 324, 372Septic Protector, 787Serra, M., 68, 1508Serrano Association, LLC, 907, 924, 926Seto, E. Y. W., 251, 253Severin, B. F., 690, 722Seyde, V., 1101, 1202, 1498Shah, S., 1278, 1302Shalhevet, J., 1039Shane, B. S., 200, 251Shapiro, M. A., 129


Sharp, J. O., 128Sharpless, C. M., 595, 596Shaw, A. R., 293Shaw, D. J., 597, 1100Sheah, H., 1343Sheikh, B., 1016, 1018–1022, 1041,

1100, 1442, 1461, 1489, 1498Shelef, G., 58, 68, 69, 1500, 1508Shen, J., 1343Shen, Y., 597Shende, B. C., 61, 69Sheng, Y. P., 1319, 1343Sherman, K. M., 827Sherwood, J. R., 254Shiao, M. C., 1342Shih, T., 125Shiklomanov, I. A., 15, 35Shin, G. A., 127, 683, 722Shin, G., 720Shisler, J., 722Shuval, H. I., 185, 189Siede, W., 719Siegrist, H., 293, 596Siemans Water Technologies

Corporation, 337Sikdar, S., 7, 35Simon, C. P., 253Simpson, J., 13, 35Sinclair, N. A., 127Singapore Department of Statistics,

1335, 1343Singapore Public Utilities Board,

1336, 1337, 1339, 1343Singer, P. C., 128, 568, 597Singh, S. N., 126Singh, S., 1334, 1343, 1503, 1508Singley, J. E., 1119, 1167Sirikenchana, K., 673, 722Skidmore, P., 1243Skold, R. V., 1125, 1166Skopec, M., 127Slater, M. J., 555, 597Slawson, R. M., 683, 723Sliekers, O., 828Slifker, R., 125Smit, J., 62, 69Smith, C. A., 720Smith, C. L., 126Smith, D. W., 666, 719Smith, D., 898Smith, H. V., 128Smith, P. G., 128Smith, R. G., 983, 994, 1005–1007,

1009, 1041Smith, R. K., 60Smith, S., 371, 1302Smyth, J. R., 1497Snoeyink, V. L., 495, 496, 523, 536,

541, 543, 546, 597, 1120, 1165,1166, 1167

Snyder, C. H., 653, 722Snyder, E., 1378

Snyder, R. L., 991, 1041Snyder, S. A., 117, 128, 1347, 1378So, H. B., 1039Sobsey, M. D., 127, 720, 722Solarchem Environmental Systems

(SES), 597Solis, S., 524Soller, J. A., 226, 230–233, 236, 239,

240, 249, 252, 253, 254Solley, W. B., 46, 69, 1106, 1167,

1171, 1172, 1202Solomon, S. L., 124Solvay Interox, 672, 722Sommer, R., 682, 722Song Cha, J. H. Y., 522Song, K. G., 522Song, L. F., 1343, 1507Sontheimer, H., 547, 597Sorber, C. A., 129, 187Soroushian, F., 584, 597South Australian Water Corporation,

1499, 1508Spangenberg, C., 899Spear, R. C., 251, 253, 254, 1461Speth, T. F., 595Springthorpe, S., 124Stahl, J. F., 67, 720, 722, 1497Stahl, M. W., 1167Standard Methods, 93, 128, 380, 384,

460, 495, 523, 597, 1165State of California, 6, 35, 45, 47, 48,

50–53, 69, 152, 189, 264, 294, 915,926, 950, 951, 953, 1041, 1047,1100, 1112, 1132, 1150, 1159, 1167,1172, 1202, 1443, 1444, 1446, 1461,1488, 1491, 1498, 1511, 1514, 1515,1517, 1521

State of Florida, 48, 53–58, 69, 294, 1041,1046, 1047, 1172, 1202

Stefan, M. I., 578, 596, 597Steinburgs, C. Z., 1075, 1100Steinfeld, C., 787, 827Steinman, A. D., 34Stensel, H. D., 129, 294, 361, 372, 460,

524, 597, 722, 762, 828, 899, 945,1041, 1100, 1343

Stenstrom, M. K., 113, 124Stenström, T-A., 187, 251Stephenson, T., 356, 372, 468, 523Sterling, C. R., 127Stevens, A. A., 113, 129Stevens, D., 523Stevens, L., 1239, 1243Stevenson, D. A., 128Stevenson, F., 1461Stiff, H. A., Jr., 494, 523, 1125, 1167Stiles, C. W., 68Stinson, B. M., 293Stirling, A., 34Stolarik, G. F., 596Stoltenberg, H. A., 1377Stott, R., 67, 1039

Stowell, R., 387, 460Straub, T. M., 82, 129Street, R. L., 1475, 1476, 1477Stricoff, S., 253Stroud, T. F., 862, 899Strous, M., 828Stumm, W., 401, 459, 1113, 1167Suarez, D. L., 962, 1041Suffet, I. H., 125, 595, 596Suidan, M. T., 722Sullivan, J. B., 211, 254Summers, R. S., 46, 67, 536, 541,

543, 597Sumpter, J. P., 1243Sung, R. D., 635, 722Surrat, W., 523Susarla, S., 126Suzuki, Y., 755, 762, 1193, 1202,

1507, 1508Svetich, R., 1302Swan, S. H., 129Swartout, 202, 252Swayne, M., 1305, 1343Sydney Water, Australia, 912, 926Sykora, J. L., 87, 129Sztajnbok, P., 1040, 1507

Tabucchi, T., 1460Tajrishy, M. A., 985, 1066, 1100Takaki, M., 762, 1506Takakuwa, T., 1201Takizawa, S., 62, 69Tanaka, H., 235, 245, 254Tang, C. C., 686, 720, 722Tanji, K., 1003, 1041, 1049, 1070, 1100Tao, H., 1342Task Force on Water Reuse (TFWR),

1391, 1405, 1433Tate, C. H., 381, 460Taylor, J. S., 480, 491, 523, 524Tchobanoglous, G., 66, 89, 95, 96, 99,

107, 120, 125, 129, 253, 254, 263,278, 284, 289, 293, 294, 298, 304,307, 310, 312, 313, 319, 323, 328,340–342, 343–347, 361, 362, 370,372, 377, 387, 395, 396, 400, 401,410, 411, 413, 415, 418, 421, 422,437, 443, 445, 459, 460, 491, 500,522, 524, 531, 563, 566, 595, 597,599, 602, 603, 605, 621, 638, 643,645, 650, 708, 718, 719, 722, 737,738, 762, 766, 771, 775, 777, 779,780, 785, 789, 790, 802, 807, 809,811, 814, 821, 827, 828, 885,888–890, 899, 905, 926, 938, 945,1041, 1058, 1100, 1201, 1214, 1218,1220, 1242, 1243, 1316, 1319, 1322,1342, 1343, 1480

Teltsch, B., 189Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA),

1344Tennison, P., 1343

1538 Name Index


Name Index 1539

Ternes, T. A., 214, 251, 293, 596Terrey, A., 1073–1076, 1100Terzieva, S. I., 102, 128Test, R. M., 827Teunis, P. F. M., 200, 226, 236, 254Theis, C. V., 1288, 1302Thetford Systems, Inc., 822Thibaud, H., 651, 722Thoeye, C., 67Thomas, J. C., 1433Thomas, J. M., 114, 129Thomas, R. E., 188Thompson, D. E., 1311, 1343Thompson, D., 354, 355, 371, 372, 719Thompson, K., 251, 1101, 1202, 1498Thompson, S. A., 7, 35, 1387, 1433Thompson, S., 720Thruston, A. D., Jr., 720Thurman, E. M., 1243, 1461Till, D., 253Tobiason, J. E., 459Todd, D. K., 1248, 1251, 1302Tokyo Metropolitan Government (TMG),

204, 755, 762, 1501, 1508Toles, C. A., 126Tonkovic, Z., 1231, 1243Tooker, N., 438Topham, C., 596Toze, S., 1301Tredoux, G., 1504, 1508Treweek, G. P., 1109, 1153, 1167Trojan Technologies, Inc., 676, 679,

680, 681Trussell, R. R., 125, 128, 372, 381, 459,

460, 522, 595, 719, 1122, 1127,1167, 1201, 1329, 1330, 1343

Trussell, R. S., 331, 340, 342, 353, 354,372, 522

Trynoski, J., 595Tsagarakis, K. P., 66Tsuchihashi, R., 293Tubor, C. F., 124Turner, C., 524Tyl, M. B., 827Tyler, C. R., 1243

U.S. Agency for InternationalDevelopment (U.S. AID), 69

U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, 1373, 1378

U.S. Bureau of Reclamation (USBR), 10, 466, 506–508, 524, 1001, 1003, 1041, 1414, 1433

U.S. Census Bureau, 16, 35U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA),

955, 957, 958, 984, 990, 991, 1001,1003, 1008, 1041, 1042, 1069, 1100, 1101

U.S. Department of Commerce, 1150, 1167

U.S. Department of Health, Education,and Welfare, 155, 189

U.S. Department of the Interior, 23, 35U.S. Environmental Protection Agency

(U.S. EPA) and U.S. Agency forInternational Development (U.S.AID), 43, 69, 80, 157, 158, 160, 161,164, 169, 177, 179, 184, 187, 189,1147, 1153, 1313, 1344

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency(U.S. EPA), 46, 69, 119, 129, 148,150, 155, 165, 180, 184, 194, 216,226, 243, 254, 263, 294, 563, 569,597, 619, 621, 623, 626, 629, 647,650, 652, 661–663, 666, 670, 672,673, 691, 695, 722, 767, 798, 803,807, 809, 811, 821, 824, 828, 883,899, 906, 910, 911, 926, 934, 945,950, 953–955, 968, 993, 1008, 1013,1042, 1044, 1045, 1050, 1051, 1101,1112, 1146, 1147, 1149–1151, 1153,1154, 1168, 1171, 1177, 1179, 1188,1194, 1202, 1209, 1213, 1214, 1232,1243, 1393, 1395, 1425, 1433, 1446,1447, 1461

U.S. Geological Survey (USGS), 20, 21,35, 77, 116, 129

U.S. Public Health Service (U.S. PHS),789, 828

U.S. Water Resources Council, 1106Umphres, M. B., 1447, 1461Ungar, B. L. P., 88, 125United Nations Environment Programme

(UNEP) and Global EnvironmentCentre Foundation (GEC), 59, 69

United Nations, 15, 16, 18, 35University of California and State of

California, 992, 1054, 1059, 1061,1041, 1100

University of California Committee ofConsultants, 956, 1041

Upper Occoquan Sewage Authority(UOSA), 1324, 1325, 1329, 1344

Urasse, T., 439, 460Urban, M., 720Urbansky, E. T., 120, 129

VA Tech Wabag GmbH, 1357Vaccaro, G., 1502, 1508Valentine, R. L., 128Val-Matic Valve and Manufacturing

Corp., 865van Aerle, R., 1225, 1243van Asselt, M. M. B. A., 34van de Graaf, A. A., 1302Van de Roest, H. F., 331, 332, 339, 372van der Hoek, J. P., 595Van der Merwe, B., 123, 126, 1353, 1377,

1503, 1507van der Westhuizen, J. L. J., 68,

1377, 1507van Deventer, H. C., 1165van Franqué, O., 1166Van Haute, A. A., 1140, 1165

van Ierland, E. C., 9, 34Van Olphen, M., 126, 1301Van Schilfgaarde, J., 1001, 1042Van Veenhuizen, R., 67Vandenesch, F., 1166Vanderzalm, J. L., 1030, 1033, 1042Vaz, S. G., 34Vecchia, P., 34Veerasubramanian, P., 719Vemulakonda, S. R., 1342Vennard, J. K., 1475, 1476, 1477Verdouw, J., 480, 523Vernon, W., 522Vesilind, P. A., 361, 372Vickers, A., 8, 35, 1202Videla, H. A., 1127, 1168Vigneswaran, S., 371Vik, E. A., 1113, 1168Villacorta-Martinez De Maturana, L.,

88, 128, 129Villate, J. T., 125Virgadamo, O., 363Virginia Tech, 1328, 1344Visvanathan, C., 62, 68von Gottberg, A., 1502, 1508von Gunten, U., 565, 595, 596

Wadsworth, L., 54, 56, 70, 1024, 1042Wagenkneckt, L. E., 90, 129Wagner, I., 1167, 1168Wagner, M., 354, 355, 372, 719, 723Wagner, N. J., 596Waldock, M. J., 1243Walesh, S. G., 1447, 1448, 1461Walker, G. C., 719Walker-Coleman, L., 1486, 1498Waller, K., 114, 129Wallis-Lage, C., 334, 353, 356, 372Walton, G., 1377Walton, J., 515, 524Ward, R. L., 254Ward, R. W., 671, 723Washington State Water Reuse Workgroup

(WSWRW), 857, 899Wasserman, L., 371Wassermann, K. L., 1255, 1300Waste Water Systems, 984Water 3 Engineering, Inc, 1153,

1155, 1168Water Conserv II, 1023, 1024, 1026,

1042Water Environment Federation (WEF) and

American Water Works Association(AWWA), 1311, 1323, 1325, 1344

Water Environment Federation (WEF), 46, 70, 263, 294, 329, 372, 669, 723, 915, 926

Water Pollution Control Federation(WPCF), 944, 945, 1110, 1150, 1168

Water Resources Institute (WRI), 15, 35WateReuse Association, 47


Waterways Experiment Station (WES),1319, 1344

Watkins, J. B., III, 214, 253Watson, H. E., 610, 723Watson, J. C., 126Wattie, E., 718, 723Weand, B. L., 522Webber, N. D., 1475, 1476, 1477Weber, B., 953, 1011, 1042Wegner-Gwidt, J., 32, 35, 1442,

1443–1447, 1461Wehner, M. P., 188, 597Weil, I., 719Weill, N., 1166Weldon, D., 125Wellman, M. C., 1343Wenzel, L. K., 1525Wert, S., 827West Basin Municipal Water District

(WBMWD), CA, 1158, 1159, 1160, 1161, 1168

West, T. M., 1414, 1433, 1527, 1528West, W., 1183, 1202Westcot, D. W., 956, 963, 966, 967, 973,

989, 1010, 1039, 1042Westerhoff, P., 124, 128, 565, 597Western Consortium for Public Health

(WCPH), 109, 112, 129, 472, 524, 1498

Westrell, T., 251Whalen, T., 596White, G. C., 563, 597, 623, 626,

628, 640, 641, 657, 659, 661, 669, 671, 723

Whitley, R., 718Widstrand, M., 19, 34Wienberg, H. S., 720

Wiesner, M., 480, 491, 524Wijesinghe, B., 1132, 1168Wilderer, P. A., 7, 35Wilf, M., 485, 523, 524Wilhelms, S. C., 1343Wilkes, A., 861Willetts, J., 827Williams, C. R., 1220, 1243Williams, G., 417Wilson, L. G., 1278, 1302Wilson, S. R., 17, 19, 34Wilson, S., 523Winneberger, J. H. T., 790, 828Winters, H., 523Wintgens, T., 67Wobma, P., 589, 597Wolf, H. W., 134, 188Wolfe, G. W., 1377Wolfe, N. L., 126Wong, J., 472, 474, 475, 524Wood, W. L., 718Woods, C., 1278, 1302Woodward, R. L., 1377Wool, T. A., 1319, 1344Work, S. W., 1361, 1362, 1364, 1377,

1378, 1491, 1498World Commission on Environment and

Development (WCED), 7, 33, 35World Health Organization (WHO), 19,

35, 59, 70, 179–184, 187, 189, 190,194, 205, 206, 225, 254, 980, 1042

Wright, N., 372Wright, S. A., 1243Writer, J. H., 124Wu, H. W., 589, 597Wu, L., 1100Wuertz, S., 86, 128, 1343

Wurbs, R. A., 1319, 1344www.ecoseeds.org, 822Wynne, B., 34

Xie, Y. F. F., 589, 597

Yahya, M. T., 1302Yamagata, H., 755, 756, 762, 1193,

1202, 1501, 1508Yamamoto, K., 330, 371, 372, 460Yamasaki, E., 253Yanez-Noguez, I., 721Yari, P. F., 1309, 1344Yates, L. I., 1343Yates, M. V., 80, 129, 1280, 1302Yoder, J. S., 85, 124, 129Yoon, Y., 128York, D. W., 54, 56, 70, 1024, 1042,

1486, 1498Young, C. E., 254Young, H. W., 54, 70Young, R. A., 1411, 1433Young, R. E., 1065, 1101, 1176,

1487, 1202Young, V. J., 1460

Zacheis, A., 459Zakikhani, N., 1343Zamora, R., 533, 597Zaugg, S. D., 127, 1243, 1461Zavoda, M., 751, 753, 754, 762,

1191, 1202Zenker, M. J., 119, 129Zenon Membrane Solutions, 335Zhu, T., 802, 828Ziarkowski, S., 596Zimmer, J. L., 683, 723

1540 Name Index


Subject Index

Abbreviations:for SI units, 1467–1468for U.S. customary units, 1468–1469

Abiotic reactions, 74, 106Absorbance:

definition, 580, 685of UV radiation by DNA, 675relationship to transmittance, 685typical values for wastewater (T),

685Absorptivity, 580–581, 684–685Acceptable risk (See Tolerable risk)Acceptance of water reclamation and

reuse, 31Accumulation of dissolved constituents,

1129–1131Acid generation, 628Activated alumina, 535–536Activated carbon adsorption, 534–535,

543–550activated sludge with PAC addition,

545–546breakthrough time estimation, 549expanded bed GAC, 545fixed bed GAC column, 545GAC contactor design values, 547illustration, 547mixed PAC contactor with gravity

separation, 546mixed PAC contactor with membrane

separation, 546series vs. parallel operation, 544sizing, 543, 544, 546, 548at Upper Occoquan Sewage Authority,

1323–1324Activated carbon dechlorination,

659–660

Activated sludge processes, 385–386advantages and limitations of for BOD

removal and nitrification (T), 312analysis and design of:

for biosolids production, 345–347kinetic coefficients, 344, 345kinetic equations, 342–344

description of (T), 309–310floc strength, 386microorganisms, 386particle size distribution, 385, 386reliability evaluation, 316–318total suspended solids and turbidity,

385, 386Activated sludge with fixed film packing,

324, 325Activated sludge with PAC addition,

545–546Adenoviruses, 92Adsorption, 532–551

activated alumina, 535–536activated carbon, 534–535activated carbon contactors, 534–535,

543–550bench scale tests, 550–551capacity, 541carbon regeneration, 551Freudlich isotherms, 537, 538,

540, 541granular ferric hydroxide, 536isotherms, 536–541Langmuir isotherms, 537–540mass transfer zone, 541–543for metals removal, 533of mixtures, 540–541process limitations, 551for trace organics removal, 532–533

Adsorption (Cont.):types of, 533–536

Advanced oxidation processes (AOPs),569–578

applications for, 568–569considerations, 574–576and degree of degradation, 568for disinfection, 569hydrogen peroxide/UV, 570,

572–574NMDA removal, 576for oxidation of refractory organic

compounds, 568–569ozone/hydrogen peroxide, 570, 572ozone/UV, 571–572process limitations, 577–578processes, 569–575

Advanced wastewater treatment (AWT):application of, 108–112, 1494definition, 74flow diagrams, 530technologies for (T), 464, 529, 531

Aeration: alpha values in activated sludge

processes, 354–355following NF and RO treatment,

499for membrane bioreactors, 354–355of reclaimed water, 891of reservoirs, 1320with Speece cone, 891, 1320

Aerosols: from cooling towers, 1138limiting exposure, 148pathogen survival, 147, 148setback distances, 148–149, 1517from spray irrigation systems, 980

1541

Because a number of the subjects covered in this text can be referenced (i.e., indexed) under different alphabetical listings, it has beennecessary to develop an approach to limit the degree of duplication, yet not affect the utility of the index. The approach used is as follows.Each subject with multiple subentries is indexed in detail under one letter of the alphabet. Where the same subject is indexed under anotherletter of the alphabet, inclusive page numbers are given and a See also citation is given to the location where the subject is indexed in detail.Where an abbreviation is used for a term that is spelled out (e.g., BOD for biochemical oxygen demand) in the same letter of the alphabet,the following convention is used. If the subject entry contains multiple subentries, the abbreviated term BOD is followed by (See Biochemicaloxygen demand). If the term that is spelled is followed by a single page listing (Aggressiveness Index, 1118–1119) then the abbreviated termAI is followed by [(Aggressiveness Index), 1118–1119]. To access the number of data tables in the textbook more easily, an index entryfollowed by the capital letter T in parenthesis [e.g., (T)] is used to denote a data table related to the subject matter. Further, because the areso many individual locations listed which relate to water reclamation and reuse they are all listed together under the heading Locations.Similarly, case studies are listed together under the heading Case studies.


Aesthetic issues:with ponds and lakes, 1228–1229with reclaimed water, 886, 1050,

1188–1190, 1225, 1228for water quality, 1050

Affordability, 940–941Aggregate organic parameters, 103,

115, 378Aggressiveness Index (AI), 1118–1119Agricultural irrigation, 149–150, 931,

932, 947–1035agronomics and water quality

considerations (See Agronomicsand water quality considerations)

crop contamination, 149crop processing, 149crop selection in, 971design elements for irrigation systems

(See Agricultural irrigationsystems design)

globally, 952–953level of treatment, 150Monterey Water Reclamation Study for

Agriculture, 1015–1022nutrients in, 968–971operation and maintenance of irrigation

systems (See Agriculturalirrigation systems operation andmaintenance)

pathogen concerns, 149regulations and guidelines, 953–955salinity in, 959, 960sodicity in, 959, 961–965terminology, 948–949trace constituents, 149–150in U.S., 950Virginia (South Australia) pipeline,

1028–1035Water Conserv II, 1022–1027

Agricultural irrigation systems design,971, 977–1008

drainage systems, 998–1003drainage water management and

disposal, 1003estimation of water application rate,

989–997evapotranspiration, 990, 991hydraulic loading rate, 993–995hydraulic loading rate from

nitrogen loading limits, 995–997

net irrigation requirement, 992, 993

field area requirements, 997–998irrigation scheduling, 1008leaching requirements, 986–989selection of type of irrigation system

(See Agricultural irrigationsystems selection)

storage system, 1003–1008water quantity and quality, 977, 978

Agricultural irrigation systems operationand maintenance, 1008–1015

demand-supply management, 1009monitoring requirements, 1014–1015nutrient management, 1009–1010public health protection, 1011–1013soils and crops, effects of reclaimed

water irrigation on, 1011, 1014Agricultural irrigation systems selection,

977–986clogging prevention, 984–986efficiency, 981, 982–984gravity subsurface flow systems, 977gravity surface flow systems, 977pressurized subsurface application

systems, 979pressurized surface application systems,

977–979public health protection, 980types of systems, 977–984

Agriculture:WHO water reuse guidelines, 180,

182–184U.S. EPA water reuse guidelines,

171–173Agronomics and water quality, 954–976

crop selection, 971–976Monterey Water Reclamation Study for

Agriculture case study, 1017–1022nitrogen, 970nutrients, 968–971phosphorous, 970–971salinity, 959, 960sodicity, 959, 961–965soil characteristics, 955, 957–958specific ion toxicity, 965–966suspended solids, 958–959trace elements, 966–968trace elements and nutrients,

966–971AI (Aggressiveness Index), 1118–1119Air, composition and properties,

1471–1473Air conditioning, 1179–1186

description of systems, 1179–1180management issues, 1183, 1186reclaimed water utilized for, 1181system description, 1179–1180water quality considerations,

1181–1185Air entrainment, clogging due to, 1286Air release valves, 864Air supply (in MBR), 354–355Algae:

concentration in pond effluent, 387control of in golf course irrigation,

1075control of in open reservoirs, 886effect on emitter clogging, 1066, 1068impact of blooms, 1264removal by flotation, 451–452

Alkalinity, impact or importance in:advanced oxidation processes, 577buffer capacity, 1119chlorine disinfection, 628cooling towers, 1134corrosion, 1113dissolved air flotation, 453distribution and storage, 885–886expressed as calcium carbonate, 800Langelier saturation index, 495,

1124nitrogen removal, 797–798sodium adsorption ratio, 963

Alpha (�) factor in aeration, 354–355Alternative cost valuation, 1413Altitude valves for distribution systems,

878, 880Ammonia:

chlorine reactions with, 625–626in cooling water systems, 1134

Anaerobic ammonia oxidation(ANAMMOX), 1277–1279

microorganisms for, 1279reaction, generalized, 1277

Analysis, statistical (See Statistical analysis)

ANAMMOX (See Anaerobic ammoniaoxidation)

Animal health effects testing, 1371–1372

Animal viewing parks, 1231Anthracite, for depth filtration:

properties of, 412sizes used in depth filters, 410–411typical particle size distribution, 409

AOPs (See Advanced oxidation processes)

A/O process, 324–326A2/O process, 325–326Appurtenances:

in distribution system, 863–866air release valves, 864backflow preventers, 863, 864blowoffs, 864hydrants, 864, 866reclaimed water service

requirements, 863reservoir, 880–881

Aquaculture, WHO guidelines for, 180,182–184

Aquatic habitat, 1223–1224Aquifer characterization, 154Aquifer recharge, 154Aquifer storage and recovery (ASR):

application in Virginia Pipeline Scheme,1028–1035

definition, 1250description, 1293–1294

Arithmetic probability distribution,1479–1483 (See also Statisticalanalysis)

1542 Subject Index


Subject Index 1543

Ascaris lumbricoides, 89ASR (See Aquifer storage and recovery)Atlantis Water Resource Management

Scheme, 1504Atmospheric pressure, elevation changes

in, 1472–1473Attached growth processes, description of:

for BOD removal and nitrification, 308,313, 314

for nitrification and denitrification,321–323

Attitudes about water reuse, 1436–1440AWT (See Advanced wastewater

treatment)

BAC (See Biological activated carbon)Backflow prevention:

devices for (T), 910, 911in distribution system, 863, 864in dual plumbing systems design,

909–911Bacteria, 83, 86–87

Ascaris lumbricoides, 89Campylobacter jejuni, 87coliform limits, 164and emitter clogging, 1066, 1068Escherichia coli, 86–87Salmonella, 86Schistosoma mansoni, 89Shigella, 86Yersinia enterocolitica, 87

Bacteriophages, 93–94 (See also Coliphage)

Ballasts for UV lamps, 678Base flow of a stream (See Stream flow

augmentation)Beers-Lambert Law, 684Beliefs about water reuse, 1440Bench-scale studies,

for adsorption, 550–551for dissolved air flotation, 453–454for ion exchange, 553for ozone, 565for UV irradiation, 691–701

Beta-Poisson model, 201–202Bicarbonate:

advanced oxidation processes impactedby, 577

in cooling water systems, 1134Bioassay testing, for determination of UV

dose, 695–697Bioaugmentation, 588Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD):

biological processes used for removalof, 310–311, 313

typical values in raw and treatedwastewater (T), 107, 109–111

variability in:activated sludge process effluent,

315–318untreated wastewater, 302–304

Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD)(Cont.):

wastewater treatment requirements,143–144, 264

Biofilm:clogging of injection and recharge

wells, 1257, 1291definition, 1104impacts on corrosion, 1115impacts on growth of legionella,

1138–1140impacts on UV disinfection,

709–710in attached growth treatment processes,

308, 321, 324in cooling water systems, 1141in drip irrigation systems, 1055in pipelines and distribution systems,

883, 885–887management, 1188membrane fouling, 487–489stimulation of, 152use in membrane biofilm reactors, 288,

590–591Biofor process, 321, 323Biological activated carbon (BAC),

589–590Biological clogging, 1286Biological fouling, 489, 1141Biological phosphorus removal,

324–326Biological solids production (MBR

analysis and design), 345–351estimation based on published data,

345–346estimation using kinetic coefficients,

346–351Biological transformations, advanced,

586–591and bioaugmentation, 588biological activated carbon,

589–590and biostimulation, 588and energetics of constituent

degradation, 588membrane biofilm reactor, 590process limitations, 590–591processes, 588–590

Biological water quality, 886Bioreactor suspended solids concentration,

353Biosolids processing, 361Biosolids production and management,

358Biostimulation, 588Biostyr process, 321, 323Biotic reactions, 106Blending, 492, 494Blowdown, 1135Blowoffs for distribution systems, 864BOD (See Biochemical oxygen demand)

Boilers, 1141–1147constituents of concern in, 1144–1145feedwater for, 737, 1144–1145in Santa Rosa, California, 1147system description, 1142–1143types of, 1142unique application of, 1143, 1145–1147water quality considerations for, 1143,

1145–1147Boron tolerance, 966, 974Brackish water intrusion control, 1248Breakpoint chlorination chemistry,

626–628Breakthrough time estimation

(of activated-carbon adsorption), 549Brine (See also Membrane waste stream

management):definition, 462from distillation processes, 561–563from ion exchange, 560from water softeners, 779–780surface discharge, 517subsurface discharge, 517thickening, 511–515

Buffer capacity, 1119Buildings, reclaimed water used in, 736Bulk organic transformations, 1273–1275Byproducts:

of advanced oxidation processes, 577disinfection (See Disinfection

byproducts)

Calcium:in cooling water systems, 1134and emitter clogging, 1066

Calcium carbonate precipitation potential(CCPP), 1120–1124

Calcium hypochlorite, 623–624Caliciviruses, 90, 91California:

regulations, 1509–1520groundwater recharge, 1517–1520indirect potable reuse, 167nonpotable water reuse, 1509–1517treatment facility reliability, 165water reuse and recycling, 51, 52

type and quantity of water reuse in, 48water quality ranges for reuse

applications in, 264Water Recycling 2030, 1495

Campylobacter jejuni, 87Capital recovery factor (See Economic

analysis)Captor process, 324, 325Car washing with reclaimed water,

1195–1196Carbon regeneration, 551Carbonate:

advanced oxidation processes impactedby, 577

in cooling water systems, 1134


Carcinogens and carcinogenicity,1371–1372

EPA’s qualitative assessment of,222–223

identification of compounds likely to be,221

risk extrapolation for, 221whole animal tests for, 213, 214

Case studies:Agricultural irrigation in Monterey, CA,

1015–1022Agricultural irrigation at Water

Conserv II, FL, 1022–1027Agricultural irrigation in South

Australia, 1028–1035Cooling tower water at Denver, CO,

1155–1158Direct potable reuse demonstration

project in Denver, CO, 1361–1375Direct potable reuse in Chanute, KS,

1348–1352Direct potable reuse in Windhoek,

Namibia, 1352–1361Dual plumbing at Irvine Ranch Water

District, CA 915–919Dual plumbing at Rouse Hill, Australia,

919–921Dual plumbing at Serrano, CA 921–925Environmental and recreational uses at

Arcata, CA, 1231–1234Environmental and recreational uses at

San Luis Obispo, CA, 1234–1238Environmental and recreational uses at

Santee Lakes, CA, 1238–1241Groundwater Replenishment at Orange

County Water District, CA,1296–1298

Indirect potable reuse in Singapore,1334–1340

Indirect potable reuse at UpperOccoquan Sewage Authority, VA,1323–1329

Industrial uses at West Basin MunicipalWater District, CA, 1158–1161

Institutional arrangements at WalnutValley Water District, CA,1397–1399

Landscape irrigation in Redwood City,CA, 1450–1453

Landscape irrigation in St. Petersburg,FL, 1086–1093

Residential landscape irrigation in El Dorado Hills (Serrano), CA,1093–1097

Satellite system for the SolaireBuilding, NY, 751–754

Satellite system for Tokyo, Japan,755–759

Satellite system for the Upland, CA,760–761

Water reclamation and reuse in St. Petersburg, FL, 1453–1459

Case studies (Cont.):Water repurification project at San

Diego, CA, 1329–1334Water reuse in California, 47–53Water reuse in Florida. 53–58

Cation exchange capacity (CEC), 965CCPP (Calcium carbonate precipitation

potential), 1120–1124CDI (See Chronic daily intake)CEC (cation exchange capacity), 965Centralized (conventional) gravity flow

collection system, 728–729, 807, 808Centralized treatment facilities:

advantages and disadvantages of (T), 285site location for, 282, 283, 285–286

Centrifugal pumps, 867, 868Check valves for distribution systems, 871Chemical addition:

in dissolved air flotation, 453NF and RO design/operational

considerations, 492, 494phosphorus removal by, 327–329

Chemical cleaning, 490Chemical concentration, as disinfection

performance factor, 610–612Chemical conditioning, 453Chemical constituents in wastewater,

103–116, 140, 142after AWT, 108–112after primary treatment, 108–111after secondary treatment, 108–111after tertiary treatment, 108–111in cooling water systems, 1135DBP formation, 113–114domestic, commercial and industrial

additions, 104–107in collection systems, 106composition of untreated wastewater,

106–107minerals, 104–107odor/corrosion control additions, 106from stormwater, 106

dose-response assessment, 198, 199hazard identification, 198impact of constituents remaining after

treatment, 113and regulations/guidelines, 140, 142removal of trace constituents, 113surrogate parameters, 115–116and treated vs. natural water, 114, 116in treated wastewater, 108–113in untreated wastewater, 103–104and UV disinfection, 686–687

Chemical disinfectants:characteristics of an ideal disinfectant

(T), 603comparison of (T), 605properties of:

chlorine, chlorine dioxide, and sulfurdioxide (T), 623

ozone (T), 661peracetic acid (T), 672

Chemical oxidation, 563–567applications for, 563, 564considerations for, 566oxidants used in, 563–566process limitations of, 567

Chemical risk assessment, 215–225nonthreshold toxicants, 220–224

carcinogens, 221enforceable national drinking water

standards, 224three-category approach for setting

MCLGs, 223–224U.S. drinking water regulations,

221–222U.S. EPA’s qualitative assessment of

carcinogens, 222–223and regulations, 215–220

incremental life risk, 215–217noncarcinogenic effects, 218–220

risk considerations, 224–225Chemical treatment:

NF/RO considerations for, 490in UOSA case study, 1325

Chemical water quality, 885–886Chick’s Law, for disinfection, 609Chick-Watson disinfection model

application, 611–612definition, 611

Chloramines:byproducts (T), 651formation of, 625–627germicidal effectiveness, 622–623

Chloride:buildup due to chlorination, 628buildup due to evaporation, 1129effect on plants (T), 1090guidelines for irrigation (T), 956increase due to domestic usage (T),

105, 780, 781increase due to water softening,

781–784typical values in wastewater (T), 107

Chlorine:characteristics of, 622–623dechlorination of, 660

Chlorine contact basins, 644–650analysis of tracer response curves,

645–650conduct of tracer tests, 644–645hydraulic analysis (T), 647tracer used, 644volumetric efficiency, 647

Chlorine dioxide disinfection, 654–660advantages and disadvantages of, 620byproduct formation/control, 656–657characteristics, 655chemistry, 655dosage requirements, 656effectiveness, 655–656environmental impacts, 657germicidal efficiency of, 655–656modeling, 656

1544 Subject Index


Subject Index 1545

Chlorine disinfection, 622–654advantages and disadvantages of, 620breakpoint reaction with, 626–630

acid generation, 628chemistry, breakpoint chlorination,

626–628TDS buildup, 628–630

byproduct formation/control, 650–654characteristics of chlorine compounds,

622–624calcium hypochlorite, 623–624chlorine, 622–623sodium hypochlorite, 623

chemical characteristics of reclaimedwater, 635–639

contact time, 638–639microorganism characteristics,

637–638particles found in reclaimed water,

impact of, 636–637chemistry of compounds, 624–626

chlorine reactions in water, 624–625chlorine reactions with ammonia,

625–626hypochlorite reactions in water, 625

contact basins, 644–650DBPs, discharge of, 654dosage requirements, 641–643effluent characteristics of, 635–639environmental impacts, 654factors affecting efficiency of, 633–635germicidal efficiency, 631hydraulic performance assessment of

chlorine contact basins, 644–650analysis of tracer response curves,

645–650conduct of tracer tests, 644–645types of tracers, 644

models of, 639–641Collins-Selleck, 640effluent from membrane processes,

641refined Collins-Selleck, 640, 641

physical facilities for, 606–609process variable measurement/

reporting, 631regrowth of microorganisms, 654relative germicidal effectiveness,

632–633temperature effect in clean water, 632

Chlorine reactions:with ammonia, 625–626in water, 624–625

Chlorine residual, measurement of, 631Chronic daily intake (CDI):

application, 217definition, 215

Clean-in-place frequency, 444–445Clean Water Act (CWA), 45–46, 155–156Clean water infiltration rates, estimation of,

1268Cleaning solutions, 511

Clogged layer, infiltration through insurface spreading basins, 1261–1262

Clogging:Biological in vadose zone, 1286in direct injection wells, 1290–1291due to air entrainment, 1286due to solids accumulation, 1286in irrigation system, 984–986in membranes, 355, 445

Clogging prevention, 984–986Closed channel disinfection systems,

680–682Cloth-media filter (CMF), 420–422,

424–425Cluster systems, 1082–1086CMF (See Cloth-media filter)Codes, in dual plumbing systems design,

908Coefficient, drainage, 1000Coefficient of specific lethality:

application, 611–612definition, 610effect of temperature on, 613

Cold lime treatment, 1028Cold weather discharge permits, 44Coliform bacteria:

coliform bacterial limits, 164fecal coliform, 93E. coli, 86–87survival in the environment (T), 102

Coliphage:description, 93–94inactivation by chlorine, comparison to

polio virus, 637occurrence in wastewater, 97–98removal during treatment, 408removal in groundwater recharge,

1280used as indicator organism, 96, 144

Collimated beam:application, 694–695, 697–700determination of UV dose with,

691–693, 701reporting collimated beam results,

701–703schematic, 692

Collection systems, wastewater:comparison of collection systems (T),

813–814constituents formed as result of abiotic

and biotic reactions, 106satellite treatment systems, 738–739siting considerations for, 734types of:

conventional gravity flow, 728–729,807, 808

hybrid, 811, 813grinder pump pressure, 808septic tank effluent pump (STEP)

pressure, 789, 808, 810–811septic tank effluent gravity (STEG),

807–808

Collection systems, wastewater, types of(Cont.):small diameter variable grade gravity,

807–808vacuum, 810, 812

Collins-Selleck model, 640Colloidal particles:

concentration in untreated andreclaimed waters (T), 110

impact on membranes, 445, 477, 481size range of, 375–379

Colorado:cooling tower at thermal power

generation plant case study,1155–1158

Denver Potable Water Demonstration,1491–1492

direct potable reuse of reclaimed watercase study, 1361–1375

Combined chemical disinfectionprocesses, 672–674

Commercial applications:car and vehicle washing, 1195–1196laundries, 1196

Commercial buildings:dual plumbing systems in, 903–906Irvine Ranch Water District case study,

916, 918Commercial chemical constituents,

104–107Commercial water use in U.S., 1172Compliance point, monitoring of,

145–146Compound interest, 1525–1528 (See also

Economic analysis)Computer simulation models (T), 1321Concentration, cycles of, 1136–1138Conductivity, hydraulic (See hydraulic

conductivity)Conductivity, of water, electrical:

definition of, 300guidelines for irrigation water, 956,

960–963, (T) 975relationship to ionic strength, 1118relationship to TDS (salinity), 959

Connections, distribution system, 860–861flanged joints, 861mechanical joints, 860pipe joint restraints, 861push-on joints, 860welded joints, 861

Conservation of mass, 1319Constant speed operation:

in pumping systems, 870–871variable speed operation vs., 870–871

Constituent concentration values, 299, 301Constituent concentration variability,

302Constituent concentrations in

decentralized systems, 778–785domestic greywater, 780–785household products, 779–780


1546 Subject Index

Constituents, wastewater, 139–142, 299,300, 525–591

adsorption, 532–551biological transformations, advanced,

586–591chemical, 140, 142chemical oxidation, 563–567distillation, 560–563ion exchange, 551–560microbial, 139–141oxidation, advanced, 567–578photolysis, 578–586technologies used, 528–532untreated municipal wastewater, 260,

261, (T) 261–262Constructed wetlands, 1212, 1213,

1216–1218Construction, EPA water reuse guidelines

regarding, 174Construction financing plans, 1422–1423Construction materials for reservoirs,

881, 882Contact basins, chlorine (See Chlorine

contact basins)Contact time, 609–610

chlorine disinfection, 638–639as disinfection performance factor,

609–610Contaminants, emerging (municipal

wastewater), 117–1201, 4-dioxane, 118–119endocrine disruptors and

pharmaceutically activechemicals, 117

methyl tertiary-butyl ether and otheroxygenates, 120

n-nitrosodimethylamine, 118new and reemerging microorganisms, 120perchlorate, 119–120

Control measures, EPA water reuseguidelines for, 178

Conversion factors, 1463–1467conversion factors between SI and U.S.

customary units (T), 1463–1465for environmental engineering

computations (T), 1466–1467Conveyance and distribution system:

for public areas landscape irrigation,1079

for residential landscape irrigation,1081, 1082

Cooling water systems, 1132–1141blowdown, 1135cycles of concentration, 1136–1138description, 1132, 1133design and operational considerations,

1135–1138management issues, 1138–1141

biological fouling, 1141corrosion, 1140public health protection, 1138–1140scaling, 1141

Cooling water systems (Cont.):system description, 1132water makeup in, 737water quality considerations,

1132–1135ammonia, 1134calcium, 1134carbonate and bicarbonate

(alkalinity), 1134chemical constituents, other, 1135microorganisms, 1134phosphate, 1134

Corrosion, 1110, 1113–1117considerations for, 1113, 1115in cooling water systems, 1140types of, 114, 1113

Corrosion control additions, 106Corrosion management options,

1126–1127Corrosion protection:

in pipeline design, 861, 862for steel tanks, 881, 882

Cost-effectiveness analysis,(See Economic analysis)

Cost indexes, 1409–1411Costs:

allocation of, 1423for direct potable reuse, 1348for indirect potable reuse, 1313induced by project alternatives, 1415life cycle, 1413–1414measurement of, 1412replacement, 1415total and average vs. marginal,

1420–1421Criterion (definition), 134–135Crop rotation, 1017Crop selection, 971–976

in agricultural irrigation, 971boron tolerance, 971, 974effects of salinity on crops, 971,

975–976salt tolerance, 971–973types, 950

Crops:contamination of, 149effects of reclaimed water irrigation on,

1011, 1014processing of, 149relative boron tolerance of, 974relative salt tolerance of, 972–973salinity affecting, 975–976yield, 971, 975–976

Cross-connection control:dual distribution systems and

in-building uses, 151–152inspection and testing for, 913–915of pipelines in distribution system, 883

CRt concept in water reuse, 616–618Cryptosporidium parvum, 88–89Crystallization for brine concentration,

513

CWA (Clean Water Act), 45–46, 155–156Cycles of concentration, 1136–1138

DAD (decide-announce-defend) approach,1448

DAF (See Dissolved air flotation)DALYs (disability adjusted life years),

180–181Dark repair:

definition, 601of microorganisms following UV

irradiation, 684regrowth and control, 711

DBPFP (See Disinfection byproductformation potential)

DBPs (See Disinfection byproducts)DCMF (Diamond cloth-media filter),

421–423De facto indirect potable reuse:

definition, 74impact on public water supplies, 77–78in surface water supplies, 1305–1308

Deaeration:In boiler feedwater treatment,

1143–1146in reverse osmosis applications, 499

Decentralized systems, 763–825advantages and disadvantages of (T),

286definition, 766–767future of, 289, 942housing developments/small

community, 806–816management and monitoring of,

821–825overview of, 766–770site location for, 283–286for toilet and urinal flushing, 1193treatment technologies for, 785–806types of, 770–773wastewater constituent concentrations

in, 778–785wastewater flowrates in, 774–778water reuse opportunities with, 816–821

Decentralized wastewater reclamationsystems, 763–825

housing developments/small community,806–816

management and monitoring of,821–825

overview of, 766–770treatment technologies for, 785–806types of, 770–773wastewater constituent concentrations

in, 778–785wastewater flowrates in, 774–778

Dechlorination, 657–660with activated carbon, 659–660with sodium thiosulfate and related

compounds, 659with sulfur compounds, 659with sulfur dioxide, 657–659


Subject Index 1547

Decide-announce-defend (DAD)approach, 1448

Deep percolation, 981, 989Deep-well injection system (See Direct

injection wells for groundwaterrecharge)

Degree of degradation in advancedoxidation processes, 568

Demand-supply management, 1009,1065–1066

Density:of air at other temperatures, 1472of gases, 1471of water, 1475, 1477–1478

Density currents:in lakes and reservoirs, 1317–1319in secondary sedimentation tanks, 320

Deoxyribose nucleic acid (DNA):absorbance of UV radiation, 675approximate size range, 376damage during chemical disinfection,

604, damage by UV radiation, 682in viruses, 90repair of following UV irradiation,

683–684, 711Depth filtration, 392–418

design considerations, 407–415filter bed characteristics, 413filter-medium characteristics, 408selection of filter medium, 409–412selection of filtration technology,

413–415operational issues, 417, 418performance of, 398–408

microorganism removal, 407, 408operational considerations, 398, 399particle removal mechanisms, 399–401particle size alteration, 405–407total suspended solids removal, 402turbidity removal, 401–402variability in turbidity and total

suspended solids removal,402–405

pilot-scale studies, 415–417for reclaimed water, 388–390technologies, 392–397

Design considerations for dual plumbingsystems, 908–913

codes, 908safeguards, 908–913

DF (Discfilter), 421–422Diamond cloth-media filter (DCMF), 421,

4231, 4-dioxane, 118–119Direct injection wells for groundwater

recharge, 1287–1292description, 1287–1288examples (T), 1292hydraulic analysis, 1288–1290operation/maintenance issues,

1290–1291

Direct injection wells for groundwaterrecharge (Cont.):

performance, 1291pretreatment needs, 155, 1288using ASR wells, 1293–1294

Direct observation of particle size,383–384

Direct potable reuse of reclaimed water,934, 1345–1376

Chanute, Kansas, case study,1348–1352

cost considerations, 1348Denver case study, 1361–1375health risk concerns, 1347issues in, 1344–1346public perceptions, 1347and technological capabilities, 1347technological capabilities for, 1347Windhoek (Namibia) case study,

1352–1361Disability adjusted life years (DALYs),

180–181Discfilter (DF), 421–422Discharge:

to surface waters, 517of UV altered compounds, 711to wastewater collection system,

515–517Disease, probability of, 229Disease transmission, dynamics of, 208Disinfectants, 602–606

characteristics of ideal, 602, 603chemical, 602, 603comparison of, 605–606concentration of chemical, 610–611mechanisms of, 604radiation, 603

Disinfection, 606–621advanced oxidation process for, 569combined processes for (T), 672–673CRT concept, 617–618factors affecting performance,

609–616NF and RO design/operational

considerations, 499physical facilities for, 606–609technology comparisons, 618–621

Disinfection by-product formationpotential (DBPFP) in groundwaterrecharge, 1275–1276

Disinfection byproducts (DBPs):from chlorine dioxide disinfection,

656–657from chlorine disinfection, 650–654formation of, 113–114from ozone disinfection, 670from peracetic acid disinfection, 672

Disinfection facilities, 606–609chlorine and related compounds,

606–609ozone, 607–609ultraviolet light, 607–609

Disinfection processes, 599–711(See also specific process, e.g.:Chlorine disinfection)

combined chemicals in, 672–674considerations and issues, 606–621

advantages and disadvantages, 618,620–621

application of of CRt concept,617–618

development of CRt for predictingperformance, 616, 617

factors affecting performance,609–616

performance comparison, 618, 619physical facilities, 606–609

for decentralized systems, 802–804dechlorination, 657–660peracetic acid, 671–672performance factors, 609–616

concentration of chemicals, 610–612contact time, 609–610intensity and nature of physical

agent, 614nature of suspending liquid,

614–615temperature, 613–614types of organisms, 614upstream treatment processes, effect

of, 615, 616physical facilities for, 606–609

chlorine and related compounds,606–609

ozone, 607–609ultraviolet light, 607–609

technologies, 271–273, 602–606agents and methods in water

reclamations, 602–604comparison, 605–606ideal disinfectant characteristics, 602,

603mechanisms, 604

terminology, 600–601U.S. EPA water reuse guidelines,

169–179wastewater treatment requirements,

144Dissolved air flotation (DAF), 445–454

design considerations for, 448–453air-solids ratio, 448, 452, 453algae removal by flotation, 451–452chemical addition, 453high solids concentrations, quantity

of air for, 452–453low solids concentrations, quantity

of air for, 448, 451–452principal design factors for (T),

449, 450operating considerations for, 453performance of, 448pilot-scale studies of, 453–454process description, 445–448for reclaimed water, 389, 390


Dissolved air flotation (DAF) (Cont.):recycle-flow vs. full-flow saturation,

447, 448sludge removal, 448

Dissolved constituent removaltechnologies, 463–469

electrodialysis, 466–467, 501–508membrane separation, 463, 464nanofiltration/reverse osmosis,

465–466, 467–500osmotic pressure definition, 463–465typical process applications/flow

diagrams, 467, 469Dissolved constituent removal with

membranes, 461–519design of NF and RO systems,

475–499electrodialysis for, 501–508and management of waste streams,

509–519nanofiltration for, 467–473pilot-scale studies for NF and RO,

499–500reverse osmosis for, 473–475technologies used in, 463–469terminology, 462–463

Dissolved constituents, accumulation of,1129–1131

Dissolved organic matter removal,268–270

Distillation, 560–563applications for, 560considerations, 562, 563membrane, 514multiple-effect evaporation, 561multistage flash evaporation, 561–562process limitations, 563processes, 560–562vapor compression distillation, 562

Distribution and storage facilities planningand design, 833–855

distribution system network, 834–841location in, 834location issues, 834optimization of system, 847–855preliminary design criteria, 841–845

piping system sizing, 841pumping system, 841–842storage reservoir capacity, 842–845

quantity/pressure requirements in,834–835

system analysis, 845–847extended period system analysis, 847model of distribution system,

845–847static system analysis, 847types of, 845

system network, 836–841distribution storage, 837, 840piping network, 836pressure zones, 840

pumping stations, 840–841

Distribution and storage facilities planningand design (Cont.):

types of:description (T), 836schematic, 837

Distribution and storage of reclaimedwater, 829–892

enclosed reservoirs, 888, 890, 892open reservoirs, 887–891operation/maintenance, 882–884pipeline design in (See Pipelines in

distribution systems)planning/conceptual design of facilities

in (See Distribution and storagefacility planning and design)

planning process issues, 831–833individual vs. dual distribution

system, 832public concerns and involvement, 833type, size, and location of facilities,

831, 832pumping systems in, 866–877

constant vs. variable speedoperation of, 870, 871

emergency power, 872, 875layout of equipment and piping,

872–874location/layout of pumping station,

866, 867operating schedule affecting design

of, 875–877performance of, 870types of pumps, 867–870valves, 871–872

quality issues, 884–892aesthetic issues, 886biological water quality, 886chemical water quality, 885–886impact of, 887management, 889–892physical water quality, 885storage affecting, 887–889

storage facility design, 877–882terminology, 830–831

Distribution of reclaimed water, 745Distribution system analysis, 845–855

commercially available programs, 845extended period system analysis, 847model of distribution system,

845–847static system analysis, 847types of, 845

Distribution system, looped, 836–837,1088

Distribution of reclaimed water, 745Distribution system network, 836–841

description of, 836–837pressure zones, 840pumping stations, 840–841storage, 838–840

Diversion structures, 741–744DNA (See Deoxyribose nucleic acid)

Domestic wastewater chemicalconstituents, 104–107

Dose, of disinfectant:definition of, 611for chemical disinfectants, 616–618for UV radiation, 614

Dose-response assessment, 198–200chemical constituents, 198, 199microbial constituents, 198, 200

Dose-response models, 200–203beta-Poisson model, 201–202model coefficients, 202–204multistage models, 201single-hit models, 200–201

Drainage systems:agricultural irrigation systems, 1003depth and spacing, drain, 1000–1003golf course irrigation, 1076hydraulic properties, 999water table depth, 999

Drinking water standards:enforceable national, 224U.S. regulations for, 221–222

Drip irrigation systems, 767, 772, 887,978–979, 984–985, 1082–1086

Dual distribution systems:in-building uses, 151–152individual distribution systems vs.,

832storage, 1176

Dual function recharge basins, 1257Dual plumbing systems, 901–925, 1176

applications for, 903–907code issues with, 908in commercial buildings, 903–906design considerations for, 908–913health and safety regulations for, 908inspection and operating considerations

for, 913–915Irvine Ranch Water District case study,

915–919overview of, 902–907planning considerations for,

907–908regulations and codes governing, 908in residential buildings, 906–907Rouse Hill Recycled Water Area Project

case study, 919–922safeguards in design of, 908–913

backflow prevention, 909–911page separation, 912piping system identification, 912reduced pressure, 912signage, 912, 913

Serrano, California, case study,921–925

terminology, 902typical layout for a residence, 907use of, 902–903

Ductile iron pipe, 858, (T) 859Dune filtration systems, 1294–1295Dust control, with reclaimed water, 1199

1548 Subject Index


Subject Index 1549

Dynamic models for microbial riskassessment, 229–232

accounting for additional factors, 230application, 239–244deterministic/stochastic modeling, 231epidemiological states, 230–231equivalence of static and, 231evaluating, 232microbial risk characterization model

complexity, 231–232movement from susceptible to exposed

state, 229Dynamic viscosity of water:

definition, 475SI units (T), 1477U.S. customary units (T), 1477–1478

EBCT (See Empty bed contact time)EC (See Conductivity, of water, electrical)Economic analysis, 1411–1422

associated project costs, 1415benefits measurement, 1412–1414

alternative cost valuation, 1413cost-effectiveness analysis, 1413life cycle cost, 1413–1414

cost-effectiveness analysis, 1413equivalent annual cost, computation of,

1413–1414feasibility analysis example, 1417–1419interest factors (T), 1526

applications, 1527–1528capital recovery factor, 1526interest, compounded, 1526other factors, 1526present worth factor, 1526sinking fund factor, 1526

measurement of costs and inflation,1412

present worth analysis of alternatives,1412

project alternatives, costs induced by,1415

and project optimization, 1420–1421marginal cost analysis, 1420total and average vs. marginal

costs/benefits, 1420–1421replacement costs and salvage values,

1415–1416subsidies, 1415subsidies, influence of, 1421–1422sunk costs, 1414time reference point, 1415unit cost, 1414

Economics:industrial applications, 935public perspectives, 1441satellite treatment systems, 735secondary treatment selection, 367–368

Ecosystems, effects of municipalwastewater on, 121–122

Ecotoxicology, 214ED (See Electrodialysis)

EDCs (See Endocrine disruptingcompounds)

EDR (See Electrodialysis reversal)EE/O (See Electrical energy per log order

reduction), Effective size (d10):

application, 411definition of, 408of granular activated carbon (GAC),

534in selection of filter materials, 409, (T)

410–411Effluent:

final use of, 362, 454membrane process modeling of, 641reverse osmosis and stability of, 492, 493water quality, 342

Effluent constituent values:of biological nutrient removal, 311,

312, 314, 315, 328of membrane bioreactor, 340

Effluent constituent variability:of biological nutrient removal, 312,

313, 315–318, 328of membrane bioreactor, 340for nanofiltration, reverse osmosis, and

electrolysis, (T) 472Effluent quality:after removal of residual particulate

matter (T), 391after secondary treatment, (T) 110, 111,

314Electrical conductivity (See Conductivity,

of water, electrical)Electrical energy per log order reduction

(EE/O):application, 584–586definition, 526, 583typical values for NDMA, 584

Electrodialysis (ED), 466–467, 501–508advantages/disadvantages of (T), 508applications for (T), 468design/operating considerations,

506–507dissolved constituent removal, 466–467general characteristics (T), 464membrane/electrode life, 507–508operating parameters (T), 507power consumption, 503–506process description, 501–502process flow diagram for, 469removal of dissolved constituents with,

466–467reversal, 502–504typical applications (T), 468

Electrodialysis reversal (EDR):applications for, 468power requirements, 503–506process description, 502–504process flow diagram for, 469

Elevation, atmospheric pressure changeswith, 1472–1473

Emergency power, 872–875Emerging contaminants in municipal

wastewater, 117–1201, 4-dioxane, 118–119endocrine disruptors and

pharmaceutically activechemicals, 117


n-nitrosodimethylamine, 118new and reemerging microorganisms,

120perchlorate, 119–120

Emerging technologies, for ultravioletlamps, 676–678

Emitter clogging, 1066–1069algae, 1066, 1068bacteria, 1066, 1068biological factors affecting, 1067calcium, 1066chemical factors affecting, 1067hazard ratings for, 1068iron oxidizing bacteria, 1068–1069magnesium, 1066physical factors affecting, 1067

Empty bed contact time (EBCT):application, 549–550definition, 548values for GAC adsorption, 547

Enclosed reservoirs:managing, 890, 892storage affecting, 888

End-suction centrifugal pumps, 867Endocrine disrupting compounds (EDCs):

definition, 75in reclaimed water, 117removal by soil aquifer treatment, 1273,

1277Energy consumption (See also Power

requirements):devices to recover energy from RO,

491, 492for NF and RO (T), 491impacts of various technologies, 290,

(T) 291Enforceable national drinking water

standards, 224Engineering issues in water reclamation

and reuse planning, 1392Engineering News Record Construction

Cost Index (ENRCCI):description, 1409–1411application, 1410–1411

Enhanced river recharge, 1295Enteric viruses, 90, 97, 101–102,

244–248definition, 90inactivation by chlorine, 637–638monitoring for, 164, 178, 1515occurrence in wastewater, 97removal during groundwater recharge,

1279–1280


Enteric viruses (Cont.):removal during treatment, 101in risk assessment, 235, 240–248survival in the environment, 102

Enteroviruses, 91–92Environmental and recreational uses of

reclaimed water, 1203–1241animal viewing parks, 1231applications, 932, 933Arcata, California, case study,

1231–1234checklist for planning/implementation,

1211factors influencing, 1207–1210ponds and lakes, 1228–1230

environmental education, 1230operation/maintenance, 1230recreation, 1230water quality requirements,

1228–1230San Luis Obispo, California, case study,

1234–1238Santee Lakes, California, case study,

1238–1241snowmaking, 1231stream flow augmentation, 1222–1228

aquatic/riparian habitat enhancement,1222–1224

operation/maintenance, 1226–1228recreational uses, 1224stream flow requirements, 1226water quality requirements,

1224–1226types of, 1206wetlands, 1210–1221

development, 1213–1215operation/maintenance, 1216,

1218–1221types of, 1210, 1212–1213water quality considerations,

1216–1219Environmental assessment, 1392–1393Environmental epidemiology, 208–209Environmental ethics, 13–15Environmental impact(s):

of chlorine dioxide disinfection, 657of chlorine disinfection, 654of municipal wastewater, 120–122of nonpotable reclaimed water, 154of ozone disinfection, 670of ultraviolet radiation

disinfection, 711Environmental justice, 1441Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)

water reuse guidelines (See U.S. EPAwater reuse guidelines)

Environmental public health indicators(EPHIs), 208

EPA water reuse guidelines (See U.S. EPAwater reuse guidelines)

EPHIs (environmental public healthindicators), 208

Epidemiological states, 230–231Epidemiology, 208–209

disease transmission, 208environmental epidemiology issues,

208–209study design, 208–211

Equitable water allocation, 14Equity issues, 1441Escherichia coli (E. coli), 86–87ESP (exchangeable sodium percentage),

965Ethics, environmental, 13–15Evaporation, 561–562Evapotranspiration, 990–992, 1054,

1059Exchangeable sodium percentage (ESP),

965Existing facilities, integration with, 731,

748–751Expanded bed GAC, 545Expansion of existing plant, new

construction vs., 362Exposure assessment, 204Extended period system analysis, 847Exterior protective coatings, 882Extraction-type satellite treatment

systems, 728, 729collection system requirements,

738–739wastewater characteristics, 740

Facilities plan, 1390–1392Falling film evaporators, 512, 513Feasibility analysis, 1425–1429Fecal contamination indicator

organisms, 95Federal statutes, impact of, 45–46

Clean Water Act, 45–46Safe Water Drinking Water Act, 46

Feedwater:boiler, 1144–1145in NF and RO, 475–477pretreatment of, 490

Field area requirements for agriculturalirrigation systems, 997–998 (See alsoIrrigation system)

Field crops:boron tolerance of, 974salinity affecting, 975salt tolerance of, 972

Filter bed, 413Filter medium:

characteristics of, 408selection of, 409–412

Filtration:depth (See Depth filtration)for irrigation systems, 985–986,

1066–1068membrane (See Membrane filtration)nano- (See Nanofiltration)surface (See Surface filtration)

Final use of effluent, 362, 454

Financial analysis of water reclamationand reuse, 1422–1430

considerations, 1423–1424construction financing plans and

revenue programs, 1422–1423cost allocation, 1423freshwater rates, influence on, 1423sensitivity analysis and conservative

assumptions, 1429–1430sources of revenue and pricing of

reclaimed water, 1424–1429Fire hydrants, 864, 866, 1186–1188Fire protection, 1183, 1186–1188

implementation issues, 1187–1188indoor sprinkler system, 1186, 1187management issues, 1188outdoor system with fire hydrants,

1186–1187types of applications, 1186–1187water quality, 1187

Flanged joints, 861Floc strength, 386Florida:

regulationsfor indirect potable reuse, 167–169treatment facility reliability, 165

type and quantity of water reuse in, 48Water Conserv II, 1022–1027,

1492–1493water quality ranges for reuse

applications in, 264Florida water reuse case study, 53–58

current status, 54–56experience, 54, 55policies and recycling regulations, 56potential future uses, 56–58

Flow availability, in collection systems forextraction, 738

Flow diversion, 741–742Flow equalization, 357, 744Flowrate:

variation, 775variability in collection system, 738–739

Fluorometer, 644Flushing, periodic, 883Flux rates, for membranes, 491Fodder crops:

boron tolerance of, 974salinity affecting, 976salt tolerance of, 973

Foliar damage, 1069–1070Food crop irrigation, 1012–1013Fouling indexes, 479–482

limitations of, 481modified fouling index (MFI), 480mini-plugging factor index (MPFI),

480, 481silt density index (SDI), 479–480, 482

Fountains, with reclaimed water, 1196,1197

Freudlich adsorption isotherm, 537, 538,540, 541

1550 Subject Index


Subject Index 1551

Fruit crops:boron tolerance of, 974salinity affecting, 976salt tolerance of, 973

Furrows, use of with ridges in rechargebasins, 1270, 1271

GAC (See Granular activated carbon)Garnet, for depth filtration:

properties of, 412sizes used in depth filters, 410–411

Gases, physical properties of (T), 1471Gastroenteristis outbreaks, 84–85Geometric standard deviation (sg)

(See also Statistical analysis):application of, 316–317, 403–405definition of, 1480relationship to peaking factors, 301typical values for treatment processes

(T), 315, 398Germicidal dose, 611Germicidal efficiency, chlorine

compounds, 631–633GFH (granular ferric hydroxide), 536Giardia lamblia, 87–88Global water shortages, potential, 19–20Golf course irrigation, 1070–1077

for algae control, 1075checklist for reclaimed water use for,

1076, 1077distribution system design

considerations, 1075–1076in El Dorado Hills, California case

study, 1095leaching, drainage, and runoff, 1076method selection, 1072reclaimed water supply and storage,

1072, 1074–1075regulatory requirements, 1070–1072storage, 1072–1075turf selection, 1072water quality and agronomic

considerations, 1070–1073for weed control, 1075

Golf Course Irrigation study, 1506Granular activated carbon (GAC),

534–536, 539, 549adsorption isotherms, 536–540applications for, 532–533contactor design values (T), 547definition sketch, 535mass transfer zone, 541–542modes of operation, 544properties of (T), 534

Granular ferric hydroxide (GFH), 536Graphical analysis of data, 1479,

1481–1483Grasses, turf, 1072, 1073Gravity subsurface flow, 977Gravity surface flow, 977Greywater:

composition of, 780–785

Greywater (Cont.):definition, 765examples in various countries (T), 1175irrigation, 818recycling in office buildings, 1193separation of, 777–778, 787

Grinder pump collection systems, 808Groundwater:

effect of wetlands on, 1216effects of municipal wastewater on, 121monitoring of, 146

Groundwater law, 1395, 1397Groundwater recharge, 736–737,

1245–1298aquifer storage and recovery, 1293–1294direct injection wells, 1287–1292

description, 1287–1288examples, 1292hydraulic analysis, 1288–1290operation/maintenance issues,

1290–1291performance, 1291pretreatment needs, 1288

enhanced river recharge, 1295, 1296Florida regulations for, 168Orange County Water District case

study, 1296–1298planning, 1248–1254

advantages/disadvantages ofsubsurface storage, 1248–1249

components of groundwater rechargesystem, 1250–1251

recovery of recharge water, 1254selection of recharge system,

1253–1254technologies for groundwater

recharge, 1251–1253types of groundwater recharge,

1249–1250regulations and guidelines, 154–155riverbank and dune filtration,

1294–1295surface spreading basins:

examples, 1280–1282hydraulic analysis, 1259–1268operation/maintenance issues,

1268–1271pathogens, 1279–1280performance of, 1271–1279pretreatments needs, 1257–1259

U.S. EPA water reuse guidelines, 175–176vadose zone injection wells, 1282–1286

description, 1282–1283examples, 1286hydraulic analysis, 1284–1285operation/maintenance issues,

1285–1286performance, 1286pretreatment needs, 1283–1284

water quality requirements, 1255–1256water reuse applications, 154–155, 932,

933

Groundwater recharge (Cont.):water reuse opportunities in

decentralized systems, 818–820Guidelines (See Regulations and

guidelines)

Habitat:development, 821enhancement by stream flow

augmentation, 1222–1224monitoring, 1227, 1228value, 1214

Half reactions, 566Hantush function F(�, �):

definition and use, 1265values (T), 1523

HAV (Hepatitis A virus), 90Hazard identification, 198Hazard ratings, for emitter clogging,

1068HDPE (high-density polyethylene) pipe,

859–861Health and risk concerns, 78–83

with direct potable reuse, 1347with dual plumbing systems, 908with indirect potable reuse, 1308–1311

multiple barriers, use of, 1309–1311pathogens/trace constituents,

1308–1309system reliability, 1309

with nonpotable reclaimed water, 154with reclaimed municipal wastewater,

78–83historical events, 79, 80waterborne diseases, 80–83

Health Effects Study at MontebelloForebay Groundwater ReplenishmentProject, 1489–1490

Health protection measures, WHOagriculture guidelines for, 183–184

Health risk analysis, 194–197definitions/concepts, 196–197elements of, 194historical development of, 194, 195objectives/applications of human, 194,

196Health risk assessment, 191–250

chemical, 215–225considerations, 224–225nonthreshold toxicants, risks from

potential, 220–224safety/risk determination in

regulation, 215–220definitions/concepts, 196dose-response assessment, 198–200dose-response models, 200–203elements of, 194exposure assessment, 204hazard identification, 198historical development of, 194, 195interrelationships of four steps of, 205limitations in applying, 249–250


Health risk assessment (Cont.):microbial, 225–248

application, 225–248dynamic models, 229–232infectious disease paradigm for,

225–228methods, 227selecting models, 232–234static models, 227–229

regulations and guidelines, 157risk characterization, 204–205and risk communication, 206–207and risk management, 205tools and methods, 207–214

ecotoxicology, 214epidemiology issues, 208–209NTP cancer bioassay, 213, 214public health issues, 207–208toxicology issues, 209, 211–214

WHO agriculture guidelines, 182Heavy metals:

adsorption, removal by, 533concerns, 141, 153, 517, 1069ion exchange, removal by, 554

Helminths (worms):description, 89, 140importance in water reuse, 178, 180,

182–183occurrence in wastewater, 97–98removal during treatment, 101size range, 376

Hepatitis A virus (HAV), 90High-density polyethylene (HDPE) pipe,

859–861Historical development of water reuse:

milestones, 1485–1508post 1960, 41–45pre 1960, 39–41

Horizontal split-case centrifugal pumps,867, 868

Housing development decentralizedsystems, 806–816

treatment technologies in, 815–816waterwater collection in, 807–814

HRT (See Hydraulic residence time)Huber Technology, 334, 337–338, 357Human exposure to reclaimed water,

1012–1013Humid climatic regions, 43Hybrid collection systems, 811, 813Hybrid process:

description of, 310for decentralized treatment (T), 795illustration of (T), 313

Hydrants, fire, 864, 866, 1186–1188Hydraulic analysis:

of chlorine contact basins, 644–650analysis of tracer response curves,

645–650conduct of tracer tests, 644–645types of tracers, 644

of direct injection wells, 1288–1290

Hydraulic analysis (Cont.):of subsurface spreading basins,

1259–1268algal blooms, impact of, 1264clean water infiltration rates,

estimation of, 1268infiltration through clogged layer,

1263–1264mound development, impact of,

1264–1267movement of wetting front,

1260–1263surface water infiltration, 1260

of vadose zone injection wells,1284–1285

Hydraulic conductivity:of drainage water, 999, 1001–1002importance for operation of recharge

basin, 1259–1271importance for operation of vadose

zone injection wells, 1282,1284–1286

importance for operation of directinjection wells, 1288–1292

Hydraulic flushing, 490Hydraulic loading rate:

for Cloth-Media filtration, 421for Discfilter, 422for dissolved air flotation system,

449–450for irrigation systems, 993–997,

(See also Irrigation systems)for ultraviolet irradiation, 703–708

Hydraulic residence time (HRT):definition, 647in lakes and reservoirs, 1318–1319in MBRs, 353

Hydraulics, in UV disinfection system,708–709

Hydrogen peroxide:in advanced oxidation, 569–574, 1298in chemical oxidation, 564in combined disinfection processes, 673for ozone quenching, 666reaction for generation of peracetic

acid, 671–672Hydrologically altered wetlands, 1213Hydrology, wetlands and system, 1218,

1219Hypochlorite reactions in water, 625

Identification of compounds likely to becarcinogenic, 221

Illustration, 547Impoundments, 152–153In vitro tests, 211In vivo tests, 212, 213Inactivation, by UV irradiation, 682–683Inactivation rate constant, 610Incremental life risk, 215–217Indicator organisms, 92–96

bacteriophages, 93–94

Indicator organisms (Cont.):characteristics of ideal indicator

organism, 92–93coliform group bacteria, 93definition, 75of fecal contamination, 95monitoring for in reclaimed water,

144–147, 164organisms used as (T), 95for performance criteria, 96use and limitations of, 144

Indices for assessing effects of reclaimedwater quality on reuse systems, 1115,1116, 1118–1125

Indirect potable reuse, 155–157chemical constituents and pathogens,

156–157de facto, 1305–1307most protected water source, 155observations on, 1340regulations and guidelines, 155–157

CWA and SDWA, 155–156health risks assessment, 157most protected water source, use of,

155of states, 167–169trace chemical constituents and

pathogens, 156–157U.S. EPA guidelines, 175–179

through surface water augmentation(See Surface water augmentation,indirect potable reuse through)

Indirect potable reuse planning,1309–1313

costs considerations, 1313institutional considerations, 1312–1313quantity of reclaimed water to be

blended, 1311water and wastewater treatment

requirements, 1312watershed characteristics, 1310, 1311

Individual distribution system, dual vs.,832

Indoor sprinkler system, 1186, 1187Industrial applications, 737–738,

1103–1161boiler feedwater, 737–738boilers, 1141–1147

constituents of concern in,1144–1145

feedwater of, 1144–1145system description, 1142–1143types of, 1142unique application of, 1143,

1145–1147water quality, 1143, 1145–1147

cooling water systems, 737,1132–1141

design and operation, 1135–1138management, 1138–1141system description, 1132water quality, 1132–1135

1552 Subject Index


Subject Index 1553

Industrial applications (Cont.):Denver thermal power cooling tower

case study, 1155–1158factors affecting use of reclaimed water

for, 1108–1109non-cooling, 166process water, 736pulp and paper industry, 1147–1150at solid waste incinerator plant, 1154,

1156state regulations and guidelines, 166terminology, 1104textile industry, 1150–1155U.S. EPA water reuse guidelines, 174water management in industries,

1107–1108water quality issues, 1109–1131

Aggressiveness Index (AI),1118–1119

buffer capacity, 1119calcium carbonate precipitation

potential (CCPP), 1120–1124corrosion issues, 1110, 1113–1117general considerations, 1110–1112indices for assessing effects of

reclaimed water quality, 1115,1116, 1118–1125

Langelier saturation index (LSI),1124–1125

Larson’s Ratio, 1125Ryznar stability index (RSI), 1125Stiff-Davis Stability Index (SDI),

1125water reuse, 153, 931–933West Basin Municipal Water District

case study, 1158–1161Industrial chemical constituents,

104–107Infection(s):

probability of, 229secondary, 249

Infectious disease paradigm for microbialrisk assessment, 225–228

complexities of person-to-personinteractions, 226–228

risk analysis framework, 226Infiltration:

basins, 1254–1280problem in irrigation, 963

Infiltrometer, double ring, 1268Inflation, 1409–1412Influent flowrates, variability in, 302Influent wastewater parameters, variability

in, 301–304Influent water quality issues, 341, 342Information control, 1448–1449Information needs, 184–185Infrastructure:

new concepts and designs in, 290–291energy efficiency, 290, 291robust treatment processes, 290, 291security concerns, 291

Infrastructure (Cont.):planning issues, 28–30for satellite treatment systems, 741–745

diversion/junction structures,741–744

flow equalization/storage, 744pumping/transmission/distribution of

reclaimed water, 745for urban nonirrigation water reuse,

1175–1176for water reuse applications, 280, 281,

939, 940Initial mixing (See Mixing)Injection wells:

for disposal of brine concentrate,517–519

for direct aquifer recharge, 1287–1292(See also Direct injection wells forgroundwater recharge)

for vadose zone aquifer recharge,1282–1286 (See also Vadose zoneinjection wells)

Institutional issues:and satellite treatment siting, 735of water reuse, 735, 1397

Integrated fixed film activated sludgeprocess, 324

Integrated Water Resources ManagementProject in Vitoria, 1505

Integrated water resources planning(IWRP), 24–27, 1384–1392

background information gathering,1386–1388

evaluating and ranking alternatives,1389

facilities plan components, 1390–1392facilities plan report, 1392identifying project alternatives,

1388–1389implementation plan development,

1389–1392objectives formulation, 1386problem clarification, 1386process, 1385–1386project study area delineation, 1388public involvement, 1388substituting reclaimed water for

nonpotable uses, 26water use patterns, 27

Internal water recycling, 1105, 1107,1141, 1147, 1149

Interception-type satellite treatmentsystems, 728, 729

collection system requirements, 738wastewater characteristics, 740

Interest, compound (See Economic analysis)Interior protective coatings, 881–882Intermixing, impact of, 1271–1272Ion exchange, 551–560, 1326

applications for, 552–554, 1323–1324capacity, 555, 557–559considerations for, 555–559

Ion exchange (Cont.):for heavy metals removal, 554materials, 554–555natural materials, 555for nitrogen control, 552–553for organic matter removal, 554process limitations, 559–560and resin characteristics, 556synthetic materials, 555for total dissolved solids removal, 554

Ionic strength:application, 496–499computation of, 495, 1116definition, 1116estimated based on TDS values, 495,

1118Ion toxicity, specific, 965–966, 1069Iron, ductile pipe, 858Iron oxidizing bacteria, 1068–1069Irradiation, ultraviolet, 603Irrigated land, regulations and guidelines

for, 953Irrigation:

agricultural (See Agricultural irrigation)efficiency, 981, 984, 1060–1064with greywater, 818landscape (See Landscape irrigation)methods of, 981reclaimed water, 981scheduling, 1008

Irrigation systems, 982–983consideration for, 979–985field area requirements, 997–998hydraulic loading rate, 993–997operation and maintenance, 1008–1015types of, 977–979

Isolation valves, use in distributionsystems, 871

Isotherms, adsorption, 536–541Freudlich, 537, 538, 540, 541Langmuir, 537–540

IWRP (See Integrated water resourcesplanning)

Joints (distribution system piping), 860–861flanged joints, 861mechanical joints, 860pipe joint restraints, 861push-on joints, 860welded joints, 861

Junction structures, for satellite systems,741–744

Kaldnes process, 324, 325Kinematic viscosity of water:


Kinetic coefficients, 344–345Kinetic equations, 342–344Koch, 339–340Kubota, 334–336, 356


Laboratory studies (See Bench-scalestudies)

Lagoons, 387Lakes:

ponds (See Ponds and lakes)in public parks, 1197reclaimed water used with, 736,

1228–1230as reservoirs (See Reservoirs)

Land use and development, 122Landscape irrigation, 150, 151, 736, 931,

932, 1043–1097with decentralized and subsurface

irrigation systems, 1082–1086with decentralized systems, 816–817definition, 1045–1046design considerations (See Landscape

irrigation design)El Dorado Hills, California, case study,

1093–1097golf courses, (See Golf course irrigation)operation/maintenance, 1066–1070

emitter clogging, 1066–1069foliar damage, 1069–1070runoff control, 1069specific ion toxicity, 1069

public access, 150–151public areas, 1076, 1078–1080Redwood City, California, case study,

1450–1453residential, 1080–1082St. Petersburg, Florida, case study,

1086–1093with subsurface irrigation systems,

1082–1086for on-site and cluster systems,

1082–1085in residential areas, 1086

terminology, 1044trace constituents, 151in U.S., 1046–1048use area controls, 151

Landscape irrigation design, 1047,1049–1066

application rate and irrigation schedule,1065

components for, 1055–1058demand-supply balance management,

1065–1066irrigation systems, 1054–1059operation/maintenance, 1069–1070plant selection, 1050, 1052–1054with reclaimed water, 1048urban, 1049, 1051water needs estimation, 1054,

1058–1064evapotranspiration, 1054, 1058irrigation efficiency, 1060–1064landscape coefficient, 1054,

1059–1060water quality requirements, 1047,

1049–1051

Landscape plants, 1052–1053Langelier Saturation Index (LSI):application, 469–499definition of, 494–496, 1124–1125Langmuir adsorption isotherm, 537–540Larson’s Ratio, 1125Laundries with reclaimed water, 1196–1197LC50 (See Lethal concentration)LD50 (See Lethal dose)Leachate from irrigation systems, 1076Leaching from root zone in agricultural

irrigation:fraction (LF), 986requirements, 986–989, 1076

Legal aspects of water reuse, 1393–1397institutional coordination, 1397policies/regulations, 1397with satellite treatment systems, 734–735water rights law, 1393–1396

Legal mandates for public participation,1443–1444

Lethal concentration (LC50), 211, 213Lethal dose (LD50), 211, 213Life cycle cost, 1413–1414Linpor process, 324, 325LOAEL (Lowest observed adverse effect

level), 211–213Locations:

Arizona:Grand Canyon Village, 1485–1486Palo Verde Nuclear Generating

Station, 1489Scottsdale’s Water Campus, 1494

Australia, 1028–1035, 1499California:

Arcata Marsh and Wildlife Sanctuary,1231–1234

El Dorado Hills, 1093–1097Los Angeles County Sanitation

Districts, 1487–1488Montebello Forebay Groundwater

Replenishment Project,1489–1490

Monterey Water Reclamation Studyfor Agriculture, 1488–1489

Orange County, 1496Redwood City, 1450–1453San Diego Total Resources Recovery

Project, 1493San Diego water repurification and

reuse, 1329–1334San Francisco Golden Gate Park

plant, 1485–1486San Luis Obispo, 1234–1238Santa Ana River, 1496Santa Rosa, 1147Santee Lakes, San Diego, 1238–1241Serrano, 921–925Upland Hills Water Reclamation

Plant, 760–761Walnut Valley Water District,

1397–1399

Locations (Cont.):Canada, 1499–1500Denver Potable Water Demonstration,

1491–1492East Coast, Metropolitan region, 22Eastern Midwest region (of U.S.), 22Florida:

St. Petersburg, 1086–1093,1453–1459, 1486–1487

Winter Garden, 1492–1493Great Lakes region, 22Great Plains region, 21–22Israel:

Dan River Project, Tel Aviv,1500–1501

Jeezrael Valley Project (JVP), 1501Japan:

Kobe, 1501–1502Tokyo Metropolitan Government

Building, 1501–1502Kansas, 1348–1352Kuwait, 1502–1503Mid-Atlantic region (of U.S.), 22Namibia, 1352–1361, 1503New York City, 22Rio Grande, 22Singapore, 1334–1340, 1503–1504South Africa, 1504Southeast region (of U.S.), 23Spain, 1504–1505

AENP (Aiguamolls de l’EmpordaNature Preserve), 1505

Girona, 1505Portbou, 1505Vitoria,, 1505

Tunisia, 1505–1506Western region (of U.S.), 23, 41, 43

Logarithmic (Log-normal) probabilitydistribution, 1479–1483 (See alsoStatistical analysis)

Log removal:definition, 83values for microorganisms in treatment

processes (T), 101, 606for MS2 coliphage, 408

Low-pressure high-intensity ultravioletlamps, 676, 677

Low-pressure low-intensity ultravioletlamps, 675–677

Lowest observed adverse effect level(LOAEL), 211–213

Lumped parameter, 103, 115, 378LSI (See Langelier Saturation Index)

Magnesium, 1066Management practices for nonpotable

reuse, 1494–1495Mandatory use ordinance, 1404–1406Mandatory water reuse, voluntary vs.,

165Marginal cost analysis, 1420Marginal costs and benefits, 1420–1421

1554 Subject Index


Subject Index 1555

Market assessment for reclaimed water(See Reclaimed water marketassessment)

Market assurances, 1402–1406mandatory use ordinance, 1404–1406measure of degree of willingness of

potential user, 1402–1403types of, 1403–1404voluntary vs. mandatory approach, 1404waste/unreasonable use of water, 1406

Mass balance:for accumulation of dissolved

constituents during evaporation,1129–1131

for cycles of concentration in coolingtowers, 1136

for irrigation requirements, 992for lakes and reservoirs, 1319for membrane systems, 436, 485–487for reservoir storage capacity, 842–845

Mass flux rate, in membrane systems, 483

Mass loadings, variability of, 301–304constituent concentrations, 302influent flowrates, 302influent wastewater parameters, 301–304

Mass transfer zone (MTZ), 541–543Materials mass balance (See Mass

balance)Maximum contaminant level goal

(MCLG), 221–225MBR (See Membrane bioreactor)MCLG (Maximum contaminant level

goal), 221–225MDI (See Morrill dispersion index)Mean cell residence time (MCRT), (See

Solids retention time)Measurement of benefits, 1412–1414

alternative cost valuation, 1413cost-effectiveness analysis, 1413life cycle cost, 1413–1414

Measurement of costs and inflation, 1412Measures of disease, 207Mechanical joints, 860Medium-pressure high-intensity ultraviolet

lamps, 676, 677Meeloop filter index (MLFI), 1290–1291Membrane biofilm reactor (MBfR), 590Membrane bioreactor (MBR), 328,

330–340airlift, 339analysis/design of (See Membrane

bioreactor analysis and design)characteristics of proprietary systems

(T), 334description, 330–331other membrane systems:

airlift, 339Koch/Puron, 339–340sequencing batch reactor/cloth

filter/microfiltration process,338–339

Membrane bioreactor (MBR) (Cont.):principal proprietary systems, 333–338

Huber Technology, 334, 337–338Kubota, 334–336Mitsubishi, 334, 335USFilter, 334, 336–337Zenon Environmental, 333–335

process performance:,expectations, 340range of effluent quality (T), 314range of effluent variability (T), 315,

316in satellite treatment systems, 746suitability for reclaimed water

applications, 331–332thickening and dewatering of MBR

biosolids, 361types of, 332–333

Membrane bioreactor (MBR) analysis anddesign, 340–361

alpha (�) correction factor for aerationsystem, 354–355

biosolids processing, 361characteristics of proprietary

systems (T), 334design considerations, 353–358

air supply, 354–355biosolids production and

management, 358membrane fouling control and

cleaning, 355–357peak flow management, 357pretreatment, 353–354

equations commonly used in, 341nutrient removal, 358–361

biosolids processing, 361nitrogen, 358–359phosphorus, 360–361

process analysis, 340–353biological solids production, 345–351bioreactor suspended solids

concentration, 353coefficients, 344–345key wastewater constituents, 341kinetic equations, 342–344membrane flux rate, 352membrane life, 352pore size, 352process variables, 352solids and hydraulic retention times,

353temperature, 352water quality issues, 341, 342

Membrane distillation, 513, 514Membrane filtration, 425–445

classification, 426, 427flow patterns in, 426, 428, 429, 431micro-/ultrafiltration, 430–442

design considerations, 441, 442membrane performance, 436–441operating characteristics/strategies,

436, 437

Membrane filtration, micro-/ultrafiltration(Cont.):operational modes, 431–434pressurized, 430–434process analysis, 435–436submerged, 431, 433, 434

operational issues, 443–445clean-in-place frequency, 444–445membrane life, 443membrane performance, 443operating efficiency, 443, 444

pilot-scale studies, 441, 443, 444for reclaimed water, 388–390terminology, 426types, 426, 428–430

Membrane flux:MBR analysis and design, 352NF and RO design/operational

considerations, 482–487mass balance equations, 485–487mass flux rate, 483for proprietary systems, (T) 334recovery ratio, 484–485rejection efficiency, 485water flux rate, 482–483

Membrane fouling:biological, 489control and cleaning in MBR, 355–357in NF and RO, 487–490organic, 489particulate, 487–489scaling, 488, 489

Membrane life, 352, 443Membrane performance, 436–441

broken fibers, impact of, 440–441as operational issue, 443primary effluent filtration, 439secondary effluent filtration, 437–441

Membrane separation, 463, 464Membrane waste stream management,

509–519issues in, 509–511

cleaning solutions, 511retentate classification, 511volume of retentate, 509, 510

thickening/drying of waste streams,511–515

concentration by multiple-stagemembrane arrays, 511–512

crystallization, 513falling film evaporators, 512, 513membrane distillation, 513, 514solar evaporation, 512spray dryers, 513

ultimate disposal methods, 515–519discharge to wastewater collection

system, 515–517disposal options (T), 516disposal to surface waters, 517subsurface injection, 517–519

Metal ions (See Heavy metals)Methyl tertiary-butyl ether (MTBE), 120


MF (See Microfiltration)MFI (modified fouling index), 480Microbial constituents:

of concern in wastewater, 139–141dose-response assessment, 198, 200hazard identification, 198regulations and guidelines, 139–142

Microbial limits, EPA water reuseguidelines for, 178

Microbial pathogens, 94–102in environment, 102in primary effluent, 99, 101in secondary effluent, 99–101survival of, 102in tertiary and advance wastewater

treatment effluent, 100, 102in treated wastewater, 97–102in untreated wastewater, 94, 96–98

Microbial repair following UV irradiation,683–684

dark repair, 684photoreactivation, 683–684

Microbial risk, tolerable, 181–182Microbial risk assessment (MRA),

225–248application of, 234–248

with dynamic models, 239–244for enteric viruses, 244–248with static models, 234–238

dynamic models, 229–232accounting for additional factors, 230application, 239–244deterministic/stochastic modeling,

231epidemiological states, 230–231equivalence of static/dynamic

models, 231microbial risk characterization model

complexity, 231–232movement from susceptible to

exposed state, 229for enteric viruses, 244–248infectious disease paradigm for,

225–228complexities of person-to-person

interactions, 226–228risk analysis framework, 226

methods, 227model selection for, 232–234

caveats, 233–234data required, 232–233evaluating static/dynamic models,

232parameters most strongly impacted,

233risk manager’s role, 234

static models, 227–229application, 234–238model states, 227–229probability of infection/disease, 229required health effects information,

229

Microbial risk characterization modelcomplexity, 231–232

Microfiltration (MF), 430–442design considerations, 441, 442membrane performance, 436–441

broken fibers, impact of, 440–441primary effluent filtration, 439secondary effluent filtration, 437–441

operating characteristics/strategies, 436,437

operational modes, 431–434pressurized, 430–434process analysis, 435–436

mass balance, 436operating pressure, 435permeate flow, 435recovery, 435–436rejection, 436

submerged, 431, 433, 434Microorganisms (See also specific types)

in activated sludge processes, 386and chlorine disinfection, 637–638in cooling water systems, 1135depth filtration and removal of, 407,

408new and reemerging, 120regrowth of, 654, 711secondary treatment processes, 376,

377surface filtration and removal of, 423UV disinfection, 688–690

Mineral increase, from domestic wateruse, 104–105, 778–785

Mini-plugging factor index (MPFI), 480,481

Mitigation of wetlands, 1214Mitsubishi, 334, 335, 356Mixed PAC contactor with gravity

separation, 546Mixed PAC contactor with membrane

separation, 546Mixing:

in biological treatment, 307, 312, 747facilities for mixing chemicals, 634impact on formation of disinfection

byproducts, 652importance of initial mixing for chemical

disinfection, 633–635in lakes and reservoirs, 880, 1317–1320indexes for, 647 1318, 1322

Mixtures, adsorption of, 540–541MLE (See Modified Ludzack-Ettinger

process)Model coefficients, for chemical risk

analysis, 202–204Modified fouling index (MFI), 480Modified Ludzack-Ettinger (MLE)

process, 321, 322Modulus of elasticity of water, 1475,

(T) 1477–1478Molecular weight of elements (See inside

back cover)

Monetary evaluation of water reclamationand reuse, 1406–1411

inflation and cost indexes, 1409–1411perspectives on, 1408planning weaknesses in, 1407–1408time horizons, planning and design,

1408–1409time value of money, 1409

Monitoring:of agricultural irrigation systems,

1014–1015of habitat, 1227, 1228of reclaimed water quality, 145–146,

1193–1195, 1308–1309of stream water quality, 1227

Monitoring and control equipment, fordecentralized systems, 824–825

Montebello Forebay GroundwaterReplenishment Project, 1489–1490

Morrill dispersion index (MDI):application, 647–650definition, 647relationship to volumetric efficiency,

647Mosquito control for constructed

wetlands, 1220Most protected water source, use of, 155Mound development, groundwater:

determination of, 1264–1267Hantush fuction for (T), 1523

Movement from susceptible to exposedstate, 229

Movement of wetting front, 1260–1263MPFI (See Mini-plugging factor index)MRA (See Microbial risk assessment)MTZ (Mass transfer zone), 541–543Mukuhari New Center Water Recycling

Project, 1501Multiple barriers:

concept of, 263, 265in Denver potable reuse demonstration

project, 1364, 1368in Goreangab Water Reclamation

project, 1353–1354, 1364, 1368with indirect potable reuse, 1309–1311

Multiple-effect evaporation, 561Multiple-stage membrane arrays, for

concentration of brine, 511–512Multiple tube fermentation (MTF), 79,

164, 631, 1512–1513Multiple use facilities, 1314Multistage flash evaporation, 561–562Multistage models, 201Municipal wastewater, 73–122

chemical constituents in, 103–116DBP formation, 113–114domestic, commercial, and

industrial additions, 104–107in treated wastewater, 108–113treated wastewater to natural water

comparison, 114–116in untreated wastewater, 103–104

1556 Subject Index


Subject Index 1557

Municipal wastewater (Cont.):de facto potable reuse of, 77–78,

1303–1304emerging contaminants in, 117–120

1, 4-dioxane, 118–119endocrine disruptors and

pharmaceutically active chemicals, 117


n-nitrosodimethylamine, 118new and reemerging microorganisms,

120perchlorate, 119–120

environmental issues, 120–122development and land use, effects on,

122ecosystems, effects on, 121–122soils and plants, effects on, 121surface water and groundwater,

effects on, 121health issues, 78–83

etiology of waterborne diseases, 81, 83historical events, 79–80waterborne diseases, 80–82

indicator organisms, 92–96bacteriophages, 93–94characteristics of ideal indicator

organism, 92–93coliform group bacteria, 93of fecal contamination, 95for performance criteria, 96

microbial pathogens:pathogens in environment, 102pathogens in treated wastewater,

97–102pathogens in untreated wastewater,

94, 96–98survival of pathogens, 102

terminology, 74–76U.S. EPA water reuse guidelines, 170–177waterborne pathogenic microorganisms,

83–92bacteria, 83, 86–87helminths, 89log removal, 83protozoa, 87–89terminology conventions for

organisms, 83viruses, 89–92

N-nitrosodimethylamine (NMDA)removal:

advanced oxidation, removal by, 573,575, 576

description, 118concern in groundwater recharge, 1291formation of, 113, 653photolysis, removal by, 580–581,

584–586reaction with chlorine, 653–654risk assessment, 217

Nanofiltration (NF), 465, 467–473applications for (T), 468, 471design and operational considerations,

475–499control of membrane fouling, 490feedwater considerations, 475–477membrane flux/area requirements,

482–487membrane fouling, 487–489posttreatment, 492–499pretreatment, 477–479process design consideration (T), 467treatability testing, 479–482

dissolved constituent removal, 465–466

general characteristics of (T) 464membrane types used in, 468, 470performance expectations, 471–473pilot-scale studies, 499–500process flow diagram for, 469process operating parameters, 490–492rejection rates (T), 472

National pollutant discharge eliminationsystem (NPDES), 953, 1003, 1010,1074, 1095, 1129, 1208, 1211, 1219,1225, 1227, 1232, 1236

National Toxicology Program (NTP) cancer bioassay, 213–214

Natural ion exchange materials, 555Natural water, chemical constituents in

treated water vs., 114, 116Natural wetlands, 1212NDMA (See N-nitrosodimethylamine)Nephelometric turbidity unit (NTU), 384

(See also Turbidity)Net irrigation requirement, 992, 993NEWater Study, 1503–1504NF (See Nanofiltration)Nitrification, definition of, 321 (See also

Nitrogen removal)Nitrogen:

in agricultural irrigation, 970ion exchange for control of, 552–553in groundwater recharge, 1256–1257in reclaimed water, 1010

Nitrogen compounds, transformation of,1277

Nitrogen control, 320–321Nitrogen loading limits, 995–997Nitrogen removal, 321–325

activated sludge with fixed film packing, 324, 325

by ANAMMOX reactions, 1277–1279application, 799–802in groundwater recharge, 1256by ion exchange, 552–553in membrane bioreactors, 358–359process flow diagrams for:

Biofor, 323Biostyr, 323Membrane bioreactors, 358Modified Ludzack-Etinger, 322

Nitrogen removal, process flow diagramsfor (Cont.):oxidation ditch, 323sequencing batch reactor, 322step feed, 322

reaction stoichiometry (T), 798submerged attached growth processes,

321, 323, 324suspended growth processes, 321–323

No observed adverse effect level(NOAEL), 211–213

NOAEL (See No observed adverse effectlevel), 211–213

Nonagricultural satellite treatmentsystems, 735–737

groundwater recharge, 736–737industrial applications, 737lakes/recreational enhancement, 736landscape irrigation, 736reuse in buildings, 736

Noncarcinogenic effects, 218–220relative source contribution, 219safety factors, 219–220

Nonmembrane processes for secondarytreatment, 307–329

nutrient control and removal, 320–329nitrogen control, 320–321nitrogen removal, 321–325phosphorus removal, 324–329

process descriptions, 308–314attached growth processes, 308, 313,

314hybrid process, 310, 313suspended growth processes,

308–312process performance expectations,

310–318, 328effluent constituent values, 311, 312,

314, 315, 328evaluation of activated sludge process

reliability, 316–318variability in effluent constituents,

312, 313, 315–318, 328secondary sedimentation tank design,

318–320modification of sedimentation

facilities, 319, 320physical factors, 319, 320sidewater depth, 319

suitability for reclaimed waterapplications, 307–308

Nonpotable uses of reclaimed water,153–154

environmental impacts, 154health considerations, 154state regulations and guidelines, 165–167

Nonthreshold toxicants, risks frompotential, 220–224

enforceable national drinking waterstandards, 224

EPA’s qualitative assessment ofcarcinogens, 222–223


Nonthreshold toxicants, risks frompotential (Cont.):

identification of compounds likely to becarcinogenic, 221

risk extrapolation for carcinogens, 221three-category approach for setting

MCLGs, 223–224U.S. drinking water regulations,

221–222Noroviruses, 90, 91NPDES (See National pollutant discharge

elimination system)NTP cancer bioassay (National

Toxicology Program cancer bioassay), 213–214

NTU (See Nephelometric turbidity unit),384, (See also Turbidity)

Nuisance species, 1220–1221, 1230Nutrient control and removal, 320–329

in MBR, 358–361nitrogen control, 320–321nitrogen removal, 321–325, 358–359phosphorus removal, 324–329,

360–361Nutrients:

in agricultural irrigation, 968–971in irrigation water, 968–971in lakes and ponds, 1228management of, 1009–1010treatment technologies for removal of,

268–270

Odor control additions, 106Odor issues:

in landscape irrigation, 1050in toilet and urinal flushing,

1190–1191in wetland, 1221

Office buildings:dual plumbing systems for, 904, 917use of reclaimed water in, 736

O&M (See Operation and maintenance)Onsite systems, 1082–1086Open channel disinfection systems,

678–680Open reservoirs:

managing, 889–891storage affecting, 887–888

Operating efficiency, 443, 444Operating pressure, 435, 491Operating schedule, 875–877Operation and maintenance (O&M):

and emitter clogging, 1066–1069of public areas landscape irrigation,

1080Operation and maintenance issues:

foliar damage, 1069–1070of residential landscape irrigation, 1082runoff control, 1069salinity problems, 1069sodicity problems, 1069specific ion toxicity, 1069

Organic compounds, transformation of,1273–1277

bulk organic transformations,1273–1275

compounds of concern, 1273disinfection by-product formation

potential, 1275–1276endocrine disrupting activity, 1277trace organic compounds, 1276–1277

Organic fouling, of membranes, 489Organic matter, removal of:

in biological processes, 310–311, 313in groundwater recharge, 1256in ion exchange, 554

Osmotic pressure, 463–465Outdoor system with fire hydrants,

1186, 1187Oxidation, 563–578

advanced (See Advanced oxidationprocesses)

applications for advanced, 568–569chemical, 563–567considerations for advanced, 574–576process limitations for advanced, 577–578

Oxidation ditch:advantages and limitations of, 312description of (T), 310for nitrogen removal (T), 323

Oxygenates, 120Ozone disinfection, 609, 660–671

advantages and disadvantages of, 621benefits, 671byproduct formation and control, 670chemistry, 661, 662dosage requirements, 669effectiveness, 666, 667environmental impacts, 671modeling, 666–669physical facilities for, 607–609process modeling in, 666–669properties, 660–661systems components, 662–666

destruction of off gases and residualozone quenching, 666

feed gas preparation, 662, 663generation, ozone, 663–664in-line ozone contact/reaction

reactors, 664–665power supply, 663sidestream ozone contact/reaction

system, 665–666Ozone/hydrogen peroxide AOP, 572Ozone/UV AOP, 572–574

PAA (See Peracetic acid)PAC (See Powdered activated carbon)Pipe separation, for potable and reclaimed

water lines, 907, 912Parallel operation (of activated-carbon

contactors), 544Parameters, aggregate and lumped, 103,

115, 378

Particle counters, 380, 381, 416Particle removal mechanisms, 399–401Particle size:

alteration during filtration, 405–407analysis of particle size data, 380–384analytical techniques for (T), 380direct observation of, 383–384distribution (PSD) of, 378–384

in activated sludge processes, 315,385, 386

direct observation, 383–384electronic particle size analyzers,

378, 380–383in secondary clarifiers, 318–319serial filtration, 378, 379in surface filtration, 422, 424

particle size data for constituents foundin wastewater, 376

of soil, 957Particles:

impact on chlorine disinfection, 636–637increasing UV intensity for overcoming

impact of, 710impact on UV disinfection, 687, 688

Particulate fouling, 487–489Pathogenic microorganisms, waterborne,

83–92:bacteria, 83, 86–87helminths, 89log removal, 83protozoa, 87–89terminology conventions for

organisms, 83viruses, 89–92

Pathogens:agricultural irrigation, 149groundwater recharge, 1279–1280indirect potable reuse, 1308–1309limits and monitoring for, 164regulations and guidelines, 156–157survival of, 102, 147, 148

Peak flow management, 357Peaking factors:

application of, 776for individual homes and small

communities (T), 776for pumping station design, (T) 841

Peracetic acid, disinfection:chemistry of, 671in combined disinfection processes,

673effectiveness as a disinfectant, 672properties of (T), 672

Perchlorate, 119–120Periodic flushing, 883Permeate flow, 435Person-to-person interactions,

complexities of, 226–228Personnel, 27pH:

advanced oxidation processes impacted by, 577–578

1558 Subject Index


Subject Index 1559

pH (Cont.):chemical commonly used for control of,

493Pharmaceutically active chemicals, 117Phoredox, 324, 326Phosphate, 1134Phosphorous:

in agricultural irrigation, 970–971in reclaimed water, 1010

Phosphorus removal, 324–329, 1134advantages and disadvantages of metal

salts and lime addition (T), 329biological, 324–326by chemical addition, 327–329in MBR, 360–361process flow diagrams:

A/O, 326A2/O, 326MBR, 360chemical addition, 327Phoredox, 326

Photolysis, 578–586absorption of UV light, 580–582applications for, 578electrical efficiency, 583–586energy input for, 582process limitations, 586processes, 578rate of, 582–583

Photoreactivation, 683–684, 711Physical disinfection agents, 603–604Physical properties:

of untreated municipal wastewater,261–262

of wastewater, 141, 142of water, 1475–1478

Pig, for pipe cleaning, 884Pilot-scale studies:

for depth filtration, 415–417for dissolved air flotation, 453–454for membrane filtration, 441, 443, 444for nanofiltration and reverse osmosis,

499–500need to conduct, 276for residual particulate matter

removal, 455secondary treatment selection issues,

362, 363for surface filtration, 425

Pipe joint restraints, 861Pipelines in distribution systems, 856–865

appurtenances, distribution system,863–866

corrosion protection, 861, 862cross-connection control, 883design criteria for, 858–860ductile iron, 858high-density polyethylene, 860identification, 862identification of, 862joints and connections, 860–861location of, 856–858

Pipelines in distribution systems (Cont.):materials, 858–860operation/maintenance, 883–884periodic flushing, 883pipe identification, 862polyvinylchloride, 858, 859reclaimed pipeline location, 856–858steel, 858separation requirements, 856–858system appurtenances, 863–865valves, 863

Piping system:identification, 912sizing, 841

Planning for groundwater recharge withreclaimed water, 1248–1254

advantages/disadvantages of subsurfacestorage, 1248–1249

aquifer storage and recovery, 1250components of groundwater recharge

system, 1250–1251control of seawater/brackish water

intrusion, 1250direct injection wells into aquifer,

1252–1253direct injection wells into vadose

zone, 1252groundwater augmentation for indirect

potable reuse, 1249recovery of recharge water, 1254selection of recharge system,

1253–1254surface spreading, 1251, 1252technologies for groundwater recharge,

1251–1253types of groundwater recharge,

1249–1250Planning for indirect potable reuse,

1309–1313costs considerations, 1313institutional considerations, 1312–1313quantity of reclaimed water to be

blended, 1311treatment requirements, 1312watershed characteristics, 1310, 1311

Planning for satellite treatment systems,730–735

economics, 735environment, 735institutional issues, 735integration with existing facilities, 731legal issues, 734–735public perception, 734regulations, 735siting, 731–734water needs identification, 730–731

Planning for water reclamation and reuse,1381–1430

economic analysis, 1411–1422basic assumptions, 1414–1415feasibility analysis example,

1417–1419

Planning for water reclamation and reuse,economic analysis (Cont.):measurement of benefits, 1412–1414measurement of costs and

inflation, 1412present worth analysis of

alternatives, 1412project optimization, 1420–1421replacement costs and salvage

values, 1415–1416subsidies, influence of, 1421–1422

engineering issues, 1392environmental assessment/public

participation, 1392–1393financial analysis, 1422–1430

considerations, 1423–1424construction financing plans and

revenue programs, 1422–1423cost allocation, 1423freshwater rates, influence on, 1423sensitivity analysis and conservative

assumptions, 1429–1430sources of revenue and pricing of

reclaimed water, 1424–1429infrastructure and, 27–29integrated, 1384–1392

background information gathering,1386–1388

evaluating/ranking alternatives, 1389identifying project alternatives,

1388–1389implementation plan development,

1389–1392objectives formulation, 1386problem clarification, 1386process, 1385–1386

legal/institutional aspects, 1393–1397institutional coordination, 1397policies/regulations, 1397water rights law, 1393–1396water rights/water reuse, 1395, 1397

monetary evaluation factors, 1406–1411differing perspectives, 1408inflation and cost indexes,

1409–1411planning weaknesses, 1407–1408time horizons, planning and design,

1408–1409time value of money, 1409

reclaimed water market assessment,1399–1406

costs and revenues comparison,1401–1402

data collection and analysis,1399–1401

market assurances, 1402–1406water sources comparison,

1399, 1400Walnut Valley Water District case study,

1397–1399Plants, effects of municipal wastewater on,

121


Polluted water sources, public water supply from, 31

Polyvinylchloride (PVC) pipe, 858, (T) 859Pomona Virus Study, 1487–1488Ponds and lakes, 1197, 1228–1230

environmental education, 1230operation/maintenance, 1230recreation, 1230in urban nonirrigation water reuse

applications, 1198and water quality, 1228–1230

Pools, reflecting, 1196, 1197Population growth:

in humid climatic regions, 43in West, 41, 43

Pore size, 352Posttreatment in NF and RO, 492–499

blending and/or chemical addition, 492, 494

deaeration and aeration, 499disinfection, 499effluent stability, 492, 493stability indexes, 494–499

Potable water reuse:de facto, 77–78direct (See Direct potable reuse of

reclaimed water)indirect (See Indirect potable reuse)issues with, 944U.S. domestic, 1171

Potency factor (PF):application of, 217definition, 216for selected potential carcinogenic

constituents (T), 216Potential global water shortages, 19–20Potential U.S. regional water shortages

(See U.S. potential regional watershortages in)

Powdered activated carbon (PAC):contactors for, 545–546properties of, 534use of, 534–535

Power requirements (See also Energyconsumption):

for activated sludge processes, 364for electrodialysis, 503–506importance of in technology selection,

275, 289, 455for ozone disinfection (T), 663for photolysis, 583for pumping, 506for UV lamps, 676

Precautionary principle, 14–15Present worth analysis of alternatives,

1412Pressure:

atmospheric, 1472–1473operating, 435osmotic, 463–465reduced, 912vapor, 1478

Pressure zones, 840Pressurized filtration, 430–434Pressurized subsurface application, 979Pressurized surface application, 977–979Pretreatment:

for direct injection wells, 1288feedwater pretreatment, 490for groundwater recharge with

reclaimed water, 1255–1256in-building, 788and ion exchange, 559–560in MBR, 353–354for nanofiltration/reverse osmosis

systems, 477–479NF and RO design/operational

considerations, 477–479, 490of pathogens, 1259for pathogen removal in surface

spreading basins, 1257for vadose zone injection wells,

1283–1284Pricing margin, 1429Pricing of reclaimed water, 1424–1429Primary effluent:

filtration of, 439pathogens in, 99, 101

Primary treatment, chemical constituentsremaining after, 108–111

Prior appropriation, 1394–1396Probability of infection or disease, 229Process variables, in MBR analysis and

design, 352Process water, 736Project Greenleaf, 1089–1092Project optimization, 1420–1421

marginal cost analysis, 1420total and average vs. marginal

costs/benefits, 1420–1421Project study area, delineation of, 1388Protective coatings, 881, 882Protozoa, 80, (T) 82, 87–89, 140

CRt values for protozoa, 619Cryptosporidium parvum, 88–89Disinfection, 605, 689Entamoeba histolytica, 89Giardia lamblia, 87–88life cycle, 88occurrence in wastewater, 97, 110size range for, 376

PSD (See particle size)Public acceptance of urban nonirrigation

water reuse, 1179Public access, 150–151, 1046Public areas irrigation, 1076, 1078–1080

acceptance of, 1079–1080aesthetics of, 1079background for, 1078conveyance and distribution system for,

1079operation and maintenance issues, 1080treatment and quality, reclaimed water,

1079

Public health:agricultural irrigation systems,

1011–1013cooling water systems, 1138–1140landscape irrigation systems, 1050urban nonirrigation water reuse

applications, 1182, 1188, 1190environmental public health

indicators, 208measures of disease, 207public perspectives of, 1441water quality, 1050, 1441

Public information program, 1373, 1374Public participation, 1435–1459

approaches to, 1444–1446after identification of major options,

1445–1446in early stages, 1445in post-planning stage, 1445

attitudes about water reuse, 1436–1440beliefs about water reuse, 1440defining, 1444economic perspective, 1441environmental justice/equity issues,

1441and growth, 1441legal mandates for, 1443–1444observations on, 1459outreach techniques, 1446–1447pitfalls, 1448–1450

controlled selection of participants,1448

decide-announce-defend, 1448information control, 1448–1449need for transparency and public

trust, 1450participation without influence, 1449

planning for water reclamation andreuse, 1388, 1392, 1393

and public health, 1441rationale for, 1443Redwood City case study, 1450–1453St. Petersburg, Florida case study,

1453–1459and water quality, 1441“yuck” factor, 1442

Public perceptions:of direct potable reuse, 1347,

1356–1358satellite treatment siting, 734of satellite treatment systems, 734

Public policy, 935–936Public support for water reclamation and

reuse, 31Public water features, 1197–1198Public water supply from polluted water

sources, 31Pulp and paper industry, 1147–1150

reclaimed water use in, 1150system description, 1147–1149water quality considerations for,

1149, 1150

1560 Subject Index


Subject Index 1561

Pump operation valves, 871–872Pumping of reclaimed water, 745Pumping station:

layouts, 868, 873–874operation and maintenance, 884

Pumping system design, 841–842Pumping systems in distribution and

storage of reclaimed water, 866–877constant vs. variable speed operation in,

870–871and emergency power, 872–875equipment/layout of, 872layout of equipment and piping,

872–874and location/site layout, 866–867and operating schedule, 875–877performance of, 801, 870types of pumps, 867–870valves, 871–872

Pumps, 867–870construction materials for, 868, 869end-suction centrifugal pumps, 867horizontal split-case centrifugal pumps,

867, 868vertical turbine pumps, 868

Puron, 339–340Push-on joints, 860PVC (Polyvinylchloride), 858–859

Quality (See Water quality)

Radiation disinfectants, 603Rapid infiltration basins (RIBs), 1026RBF (See Riverbank filtration systems)Recharge, groundwater (See Groundwater

recharge)Recharge basins, surface spreading using

(See Surface spreading usingrecharge basins)

Reclaimed air (for air conditioning), 1181

Reclaimed water:aerosols and windborne sprays,

147–149application rates, 147dechlorination of, 657–660irrigation methods and, 981for irrigation of crops, 950, 951,

953, 954landscape irrigation design with, 1048nitrogen in, 1010phosphorous in, 1010in public areas landscape irrigation,

1079quality monitoring, 145–147regulations and guidelines for,

953, 954for residential landscape irrigation,

1081storage of, 744system development for, 1087

Reclaimed water application rates, 147

Reclaimed water applicationstechnologies, 388–390

depth filtration, 388–390dissolved air flotation, 389, 390membrane filtration, 388–390process flow diagrams, 390process performance expectations,

390–391suitability, 392surface filtration, 388–390

Reclaimed water market assessment,1399–1406

costs and revenues comparison,1401–1402

data collection and analysis, 1399–1401market assurances, 1402–1406water sources comparison, 1399, 1400

Reclaimed water service requirements (indistribution system), 863

Reclaimed water distribution and storage,water quality management issues,884–892

Reclamation facilities, 1095Recovery ratio, for membrane systems,

484–485Recreational uses of reclaimed water, 736

for ponds and lakes, 1230for streams augmented with reclaimed

water, 1224for wetlands, 1215

Recycle systems for water, self contained,821–822

Redox conditions, impact on, 1272–1277Redox potential in groundwater recharge,

1257–1258Redox reations:

in chemical oxidation, 566definition, 527in groundwater recharge, 1258, 1272half reactions for, 566

Redundancy:for indirect potable reuse systems,

1323, 1325technology selection, 279–280

Refined Collins-Selleck model,640, 641

Reflecting pools, 1196, 1197Refractory organic compounds, oxidation

of, 568–569Regeneration, ion exchange and, 560Regrowth of microorganisms:

following chlorine disinfection, 654following ultraviolet radiation

disinfection, 711Regulation (definition), 135Regulations and guidelines, 131–185

aerosols and windborne sprays,147–149

agricultural irrigation, 149–150, 953–955in California, 51, 52constituents and physical properties of

concern, 139–142

Regulations and guidelines (Cont.):development of, 136–139dual distribution systems and

in-building uses, 151–152for dual plumbing systems, 908future changes in, 942future directions in, 184–185future technologies and new, 287–288groundwater recharge, 154–155impoundments, 152–153indirect potable reuse, 155–157

CWA and SDWA, 155–156health risks assessment, 157most protected water source,

use of, 155of states, 167–169trace chemical constituents and

pathogens, 156–157U.S. EPA guidelines, 175–179

industrial uses, 153landscape irrigation, 150–151nonpotable uses, 153–154planning for indirect potable reuse,

1312–1313planning for water reclamation/

reuse, 1397reclaimed water application rates, 147reclaimed water quality monitoring,

145–146research and development of, 44–45satellite treatment siting, 735specific applications, 149–155state water reuse (See State water reuse

regulations and guidelines)storage requirements, 146, 147technologies and treatment systems,

287–288terminology, 132–135

criterion, 134–135guidelines, 135regulation, 135standards, 134–135water reclamation and reuse, 135

for U.S. drinking water, 221–222U.S. EPA (See U.S. EPA water reuse

guidelines)wastewater treatment and water quality

considerations, 142–144BOD, TSS, and turbidity

requirements, 143–144disinfection requirements, 144economic considerations, 143indicator organisms, use and

limitations of, 144types, 142–143

water policy, 1397water reuse issues, 936–937WHO guidelines (See World Health

Organization guidelines for water reuse)

Relative source contribution (RSC), 219


Reliability (See also Statistical analysis):decentralized systems, 804process, 276, 278, 279system, 1309of water supply, 935

Removal mechanisms in depth filtration(T), 400–401

Replacement costs, 1415–1416Required health effects information, 229Research and development:

need for future, 291–292of regulations and guidelines, 44–45

Reservoirs:aeration of, 889–891, 1320appurtenances, 880–881characteristics of, 1314–1319density currents, 1317–1318design of, 877–882enclosed, 888, 890, 892location of, 878–879management strategies for, 889–892materials of construction, 881, 882mixing processes, 1318modeling of, 1319–1320multiple use facilities, 1314open, 887–891piping, 879–880plankton control, 891protective coatings, 881, 882residence time, 1318, 1319stratification, 1317water quality issues, 1314, 1317

Residence time distribution (RTD),1318–1319

Residential areas, subsurface irrigationsystems in, 1086

Residential buildings, dual plumbingsystems in, 906–907

Residential homes, 1096Residential landscape irrigation,

1080–1082conveyance and distribution system for,

1081, 1082in Irvine Ranch Water District case

study, 923–925operation and maintenance issues of,

1082systems for, 1080, 1081treatment and quality, reclaimed

water, 1081Residual chlorine, 631–633Residual-dissolved constituent

removal, 271Residual particulate matter removal,

373–456constituents/properties of concern,

375–385distribution of particle sizes, 378–384microorganisms, 376, 377suspended particles, 377–378turbidity, 384–385

depth filtration (See Depth filtration)

Residual particulate matter removal(Cont.):

dissolved air flotation (See Dissolvedair flotation)

membrane filtration (See Membranefiltration)

from secondary effluent, 269, 270from secondary treatment processes,

385–388activated sludge processes, 385–386lagoons, 387trickling filters, 387

selection of technology for, 454–456comparative performance, 455disinfection process type, 455economic considerations, 455–456energy considerations, 455final use of effluent, 454future water quality requirements,

455pilot-scale study results, 455site constraints, 455

surface filtration (See Surface filtration)technologies for, 388–392

process flow diagrams, 390process performance expectations,

390–391reclaimed water applications,

388–390suitability for reclaimed water

applications, 392Residuals return, 742Resources management, 6–15

environmental ethics, 13–15sustainability criteria, 7–13

Restoration of wetlands, 1214Restricted access, reuse facilities, 171,

1046, 1209Retentate classification, 511Retentate volume, 509, 510Retrofitting existing treatment

plants, 288Reuse program, 916Revenue programs, 1422–1423Revenue sources, 1424–1429Reverse osmosis (RO), 465–466, 473–475

advantages/disadvantages of (T), 508applications for, 468, (T) 474definition of, 464design and operational considerations,

475–499control of membrane fouling, 490feedwater considerations, 475–477membrane flux/area requirements,

482–487membrane fouling, 487–489posttreatment, 492–499pretreatment, 477–479process operating parameters,

490–492treatability testing, 479–482

dissolved constituent removal, 465–466

Reverse osmosis (RO) (Cont.):general characteristics (T), 464loose RO, 465, (T) 472membrane types used in, 473–474performance expectations, 474–475pilot-scale studies, 499–500pretreatment methods, 477–479process design consideration (T), 476process flow diagram for, 469process operating parameters,

490–492rejection rates, 474, (T) 475

RSI (Ryznar stability index), 494, 1125RIBs (rapid infiltration basins), 1026Ridges and furrows, use in recharge

basins, 1270–1271Riparian doctrine, 1394, 1396Riparian habitat, 1224Risk, tolerable, 181–182Risk analysis, 193–194, 196–197Risk analysis framework, 226Risk assessment (See also Health risk

assessment)historical development of, 194, 195interrelationships of four steps of, 205objectives/applications of human health,

194, 196relative nature of, 249

Risk characterization, 204–205Risk communication, 206–207Risk extrapolation for carcinogens, 221Risk management, 205Risk manager, 234Riverbank filtration systems (RBF),

1294–1295RO (See Reverse osmosis)Road care and maintenance, 1198–1200

dust control, 1199snow melting, 1199–1200street cleaning, 1199urban nonirrigation water reuse

applications for, 1199Robust treatment processes, 290, 291Rokko Island Water Recycling

Project, 1501Rotating biological contactor (RBC), for

decentralized treatment (T), 795Rotaviruses, 90–91Rouse Hill Development Area (RHDA)

case study, 919–922implementation, 920–922lessons learned, 920setting, 919water management issues, 920

Rouse Hill Recycled Water Area Project,1499

RSC (relative source contribution), 219RTD (See Residence time distribution),

1318–1319Runoff, golf-course irrigation, 1076Runoff control, 1069Ryznar stability index (RSI), 494, 1125

1562 Subject Index


Subject Index 1563

Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA), 46,155–156

Safeguards in dual plumbing systemsdesign, 908–913

backflow prevention, 909–911page separation, 912piping system identification, 912reduced pressure, 912signage, 912, 913

Safety factors in risk assessment, 219–220

Safety of manufactured products, 153Salinity:

definition, 961effects on crops, 975–976in agricultural irrigation, 959, 960in Irvine Ranch Water District case

study, 918and landscape irrigation design, 1069total dissolved solids (TDS), 959water quality considerations, 959, 960

Salmonella, 86Salt tolerance:

of crops, 972–973of landscape plants, 1052–1053of turf grasses, 1073

Salvage values, 1415–1416Sand, for depth filtration:

properties of, 412sizes used in depth filters, 410–411typical particle size distribution, 409

San Diego—Santee Lakes RecreationPreserve (See Santee Lakes reclaimedwater case study)

San Diego Total Resources RecoveryProject, 1493

San Diego Water Reuse Study, 1332–1333Sappi Pulp and Paper Group, 1504SAR (See Sodium adsorption ratio)SAT (See Soil aquifer treatment)Satellite treatment systems, 725–761

advantages and disadvantages of, 285case studies, 751–761collection system requirements,

738–739extraction type, 728, 729, 738–740future of, 942future technologies in, 289infrastructure facilities for, 741–745

diversion/junction structures,741–744

flow equalization/storage, 744pumping/transmission/distribution of

reclaimed water, 745integration with existing facilities,

748–751interception type, 728, 729, 738, 740nonagricultural water reuse

applications, 735–737groundwater recharge, 736–737industrial applications, 737lakes/recreational enhancement, 736

Satellite treatment systems, nonagriculturalwater reuse applications (Cont.):landscape irrigation, 736reuse in buildings, 736

planning considerations for, 730–735economics, 735environment, 735instituitional issues, 735integration with existing

facilities, 731legal issues, 734–735public perception, 734regulations, 735siting, 731–734water needs identification, 730–731

selection factors, 730site location for, 282–283, 285–286site selection factors (T), 732siting considerations, 731–734Solaire Building, New York, case study,

751–754terminology, 726–727for toilet and urinal flushing, 1193Tokyo, Japan, case study, 755–759treatment technologies for, 745–748

conventional, 745membrane bioreactors, 746sequencing batch reactor, 746–748

types of, 728–730Upland, California, case study, 760–761upstream type, 728–730, 739, 741wastewater characteristics, 739–741

SBR (See Sequencing batch reactor)Scaling, 1127–1128

in cooling water systems, 1141management options for, 1128NF and RO design/operational

considerations, 488, 489types of, 1127, 1128

Schistosoma mansoni, 89Scientific Advisory Panel on Groundwater

Recharge, 1490Scraping, of recharge basins, 1271SDI (See Silt density index)SDI (Stiff and Davis stability index), 1125SDWA (See Safe Drinking Water Act)Seasonal storage, 918–919Seawater control, 1250Secondary effluent:

filtration of, 437–441high quality, 1325pathogens in, 99–101residual-particulate-matter removal

from, 269, 270Secondary infections, 249Secondary treatment:

chemical constituents remaining after,108–111

constituent removal, 295–368activated sludge vs. MBR, 367comparative performance of treat-

ment processes, 362

Secondary treatment, constituent removal,(Cont.):disinfection process types, 362economic considerations, 367–368energy considerations, 363–364expansion of existing plant vs. new

construction, 362final use of effluent, 362future water quality requirements,

363MBR analysis/design (See MBR

analysis and design)membrane bioreactor (See Membrane

bioreactor)nonmembrane processes (See

Nonmembrane processes forsecondary treatment)

pilot-scale studies, 362, 363selection issues, 361–368site considerations, 364–366terminology, 296–298untreated wastewater, 299–304water reuse applications, 304–307

removal of dissolved organic matter,suspended solids, and nutrients by,268–270

residual particle removal, 385–388activated sludge processes, 385–386lagoons, 387trickling filters, 387

technologies for water reuse applica-tions, 304–307

Security:of facilities, 291of wetlands, 1221

Sedimentation tanks:modification for improved

performance, 319particle removal performance in shallow

and deep clarifiers, 318physical factors that affect

performance, 319, 320sidewater depth, 319

Self contained recycle, 821Sensitivity analysis, 1429–1430Separation processes, 528–531Septic tank effluent gravity (STEG)

collection systems, 807–808Septic tank effluent pump (STEP)

pressure collection systems, 789,808, 810–811

Sequencing batch reactor (SBR):advantages and limitations of (T) 312for BOD and nitrification (T), 310for decentralized treatment system (T),

795for nitrogen removal (T) 322used in satellite treatment systems,

746–748used with membrane systems, 338

Serial filtration for particle size analysis,378, 379


Series operation (of activated-carboncontactors), 544

Setback distances, 148–149Settled sludge removal, 448Shigella, 86Shutoff valves, 871SI units:

abbreviations for (T), 1467–1468conversion to U.S. customary units (T),

1463–1465Sidewater depth, 319Sieve analysis for depth filter media,

408–409Signage, for reclamation and reuse

systems, 14, 43, 55, 102, 138, 912,913, 923, 1031, 1078, 1240, 1357

Silt density index (SDI), 479–480, 482Single-hit models, 200–201Site considerations, 281–286

access to site, 879for centralized treatment plants, 282,

283, 285–286for collection systems, 734for decentralized treatment facilities,

283–286in densely populated areas, 732, 733elevation and availability, 878geology and topography, 878for satellite treatment facilities,

282–283, 285–286, 731–734and secondary treatment selection,

364–366in suburban/rural areas, 733–734in urban areas, 732, 733visual impacts, 879for water reservoirs, 878–879

Site layout, 879–881Site piping, 879Slime growths (See Biofilm)Sludge removal, 448Snow, applications with reclaimed water:

making, 1231melting, 1199–1200

Sodicity, 959, 961–965definition, 959in agricultural irrigation, 959,

961–965in landscape irrigation, 1069and water quality, 959, 961–965

Sodium adsorption ratio (SAR), 959–965

adjusted, 961–963calculation of, 963–965combined effects of salinity and, 963

Sodium hypochlorite, 623Sodium thiosulfate and related com-

pounds, 659Soil(s):

in agricultural irrigation, 955, 957–958characteristics of, 955, 957–958conditioning, 965depth, 958

Soil(s) (Cont.):effects of municipal wastewater on, 121effects of reclaimed water irrigation on,

1011, 1014physical structure, 957–958texture, 955–957Soil aquifer treatment (SAT):application, 1296–1298, 1490definition, 1247description, 154–155, 1251pretreatment requirements, 1257–1259performance, 1271–1280

Solar evaporation, for brine theckening,512

Solid waste incinerator plant, 1154, 1156Solids accumulation, clogging due to,

1286Solids retention time (SRT):

application, 348–351, 793computation of, 343definition, 298impact on floc strength, 386impact on microorganisms in floc

particles, 407, 616impact of particle size distribution,

315impact on solids production, 346–347in MBRs (T), 334, 353

Source control, for constituents ofconcern, 263, 937, 1011, 1229, 1307,1333

Specific ion toxicity:in agricultural irrigation, 965–966in landscape irrigation design, 1069

Specific weight of water:definition, 1475values of (T), 1477–1478

Speece cone for aeration, 891, 1320Split-case centrifugal pumps, horizontal,

867, 868Split treatment:

in phosphorus removal, 327in reverse osmosis, 471, 492

Spray dryers, 513Sprinkler systems, 983SRT (See Solids retention time)Stability indexes, 494–499Standards (definition), 134–135Standby facilities, for process and power,

279–280State statutes, impact of, 45State water reuse regulations and

guidelines, 157–169California, 51–52continuing development of, 184Florida, 56indirect potable reuse, 167–169and nonpotable uses of reclaimed water,

159–160, 162–163, 165–167specific reuse applications, 158–165status of, 158variations among states, 158, 162–165

State water reuse regulations andguidelines (Cont.):

voluntary vs. mandatory water reuse, 165

Static models for microbial riskassessment, 227–229

application, 234–238equivalence of dynamic and, 231evaluating, 232model states, 227–229probability of infection/disease, 229required health effects information, 229

Statistical analysis:application to wastewater data:

activated sludge, effluent, 316–318depth filtration, effluent, 403–405flowrate, 775plant performance data, 408surface filtration, effluent, 424variability of secondary treatment

processes (T), 315common statistical parameters, 1479,

(T) 1480determination of type, 1481–1483graphical, 1479–1483statistical distributions:

arithmetic, 1479log-normal, 1479

Steel pipe, 858, (T) 859Steel tanks, 881STEG collection systems, 807–808STEP collection systems, 789, 808,

810–811Stiff and Davis stability index (SDI), 1125Stockholm framework, 180Storage:

affecting reclaimed water, 887–889in agricultural irrigation systems,

1003–1008reclaimed water, 744requirements for, 146, 147water quality management issues,

884–889Storage facilities, 877–882

concrete tanks, 881elevated, ground level, and surface

storage, 838–839layout, 879–881location of, 878–879materials of construction, 881protective coatings, 881–882reservoir capacity, 842–845reservoir location, 878–879site layout of, 879–881

Storage tanks (See Storage facilities)Stormwater in combined collection

systems and infiltration, 106Stratification in lakes and reservoirs, 1317Stratified system analysis in reservoirs,

1319–1321Stream flow augmentation, 1222–1228

base flow, 1226

1564 Subject Index


Subject Index 1565

Stream flow augmentation (Cont.):habitat enhancement, 1222–1224operation/maintenance, 1226–1228recreational uses, 1224stream flow requirements, 1226water quality requirements, 1224–1226

Street cleaning, 1199Study design in epidemiology, 208–211Submerged attached growth processes,

321, (T) 323, 324Submerged (vacuum) filtration, 431,

433, 434Subsidies in economic analysis, 1415,

1421–1422Substituting reclaimed water for non-

potable uses, 26Subsurface application, pressurized, 979Subsurface drip irrigation systems,

1082–1086Subsurface facilities for groundwater

recharge, 1295–1296Subsurface flow, gravity, 977Subsurface injection, 517–519Subsurface irrigation systems, 1082–1086

for on-site and cluster systems,1082–1085

in residential areas, 1086Subsurface systems, 983Sulaibiyah Wastewater Reclamation and

Reuse Project, 1502–1503Sulfur compounds, 659Sulfur dioxide, 657–660Sunk costs (See Economic analysis) Supply and demand, 939, 940Surface application, pressurized,

977–979Surface filtration, 417, 419–425

cloth-media filter, 420–421design considerations, 423, 425diamond cloth-media filter, 421, 423Discfilter, 421, 422performance of, 422–424pilot-scale studies, 425for reclaimed water, 388–390technologies, 419–423

Surface flow, gravity, 977Surface spreading basins, 1251, 1252,

1256–1282description, 1256–1257dual function basins, 1257examples of, 1280–1282hydraulic analysis, 1259–1268

algal blooms, impact of, 1264clean water infiltration rates,

estimation of, 1268infiltration through clogged layer,

1263–1264mound development, impact of,

1264–1267movement of wetting front,

1260–1263surface water infiltration, 1260

Surface spreading basins (Cont.):operation/maintenance issues,

1268–1271ridges/furrows, use of, 1270, 1271scraping, 1271wet-dry cycles, 1269–1270

pathogens, 1279–1280performance, 1271–1279

anaerobic ammonia oxidation,1277–1279

intermixing, impact of, 1271–1272redox conditions, impact on,

1272–1277transformation of nitrogen

compounds, 1277transformation of organic

compounds, 1273–1277pretreatments needs, 1257–1259

hydraulic capacity, impact on, 1259water quality, impact on,

1257–1259Surface systems, 982Surface tension, of water:

definition, 1476,values (T), 1477–1478

Surface water, effects of municipalwastewater on, 121

Surface water augmentation, indirectpotable reuse through, 933,1303–1340:

case studies:San Diego water repurification

project and water reuse casestudy, 1329–1334

Singapore’s NEWater case study,1332–1340

Upper Occoquan Sewage Authoritycase study, 1322–1329

de facto indirect potable reuse,1305–1307

factors favoring reuse (T), 1312future of, 942health and risk considerations,

1308–1311multiple barriers, use of, 1309–1311pathogens/trace constituents,

1308–1309system reliability, 1309

lakes and reservoirs, technicalconsiderations, 1314–1322

characteristics of water supply reservoirs, 1314–1319

modeling, 1320–1321strategies for augmenting, 1320

planning for, 1309–1313costs considerations, 1313institutional considerations,

1312–1313quantity of reclaimed water to be

blended, 1311treatment requirements, 1312watershed characteristics, 1310, 1311

Surface water augmentation, indirectpotable reuse through (Cont.):

public acceptance, 1308strategies for, 1307–1308Surface water infiltration, 1260

Surge control valves, 871–872Surrogate parameters, 115Suspended growth processes:

advantages and limitations of for BODremoval and nitrification (T), 312

for BOD removal and nitrification (T),309–310

kinetic coefficients for, 344, 345kinetic equations for, 342–344for nitrogen removal, 321, (T)

322–323, 325for phosphorus removal, 324–326types of, 308

Suspended particles, 377–378Suspended solids, 958

in agricultural irrigation, 958–959monitoring of, 145treatment technologies for removal of,

268–270Suspending liquid, nature of, 614–615Sustainability, resource:

challenges, 7criteria, 7–13definitions, 7environmental ethics, 13–15issues, 934–935principle of, 7and water conservation, 8, 10, 11and water reclamation/reuse, 10–14

Sustainable engineering, 27, 28Synthetic ion exchange materials, 555System analysis, in distribution/storage of

reclaimed water, 845–847extended period system analysis, 847model of distribution system, 845–847static system analysis, 847types of, 845

System hydrology for constructed wetlands, 1218, 1219

System network in distribution and storageof reclaimed water, 836–841

distribution storage, 837, 840piping network, 836pressure zones, 840pumping stations, 840–841

Tanks (See Storage facilities)TDS (See Total dissolved solids)Technologies and treatment systems,

257–292advances in, 31–32, 184decentralized systems (See Technologies

for decentralized systems)for direct potable reuse, 1347future of, 184, 286–292, 942–944

decentralized treatment facilities andsystems, 289


Technologies and treatment systems,future of (Cont.):new infrastructure concepts and

designs, 290–291new regulations, 287–288new treatment plants, 289research needs, 291–292retrofitting existing plants, 288satellite treatment systems, 289trace constituents, 287

issues in, 260, 262–265multiple barrier concept, 263, 265need for multiple treatment

technologies, 265potential applications, 262, 263water quality requirements, 262–264

needs relating to, 27–29plant location, 281–286

for centralized treatment plants, 282,283, 285–286

for decentralized treatmentfacilities, 283–286

for satellite treatment facilities,282–283, 285–286

for residual suspended particulateremoval, 388–392

satellite treatment systems (See Satellitetreatment systems)

selection factors (See Technologyselection factors for water reuse)

terminology, 258–259untreated municipal wastewater

constituents, 260, 261physical properties, 261–262

for water reclamation applications(See Technologies for water recla-mation applications)

for water reuse applications,304–307

Technologies for decentralized systems,785–806

disinfection processes, 802–804in-building pretreatments, 788maintenance, 804, 806nutrient removal, 797–802performance, 804, 805primary treatments, 788–792reliability, 804secondary treatments, 792–797source separating systems, 786–787

Technologies for water reclamationapplications, 265–272

disinfection processes, 271–273residual dissolved constituent, removal

of, 271residual particulate matter in secondary

effluent, removal of, 269, 270secondary treatment for removal of

dissolved organic matter,suspended solids, and nutrients,268–270

trace-constituent removal, 271, 272

Technology selection factors for waterreuse, 272–281

infrastructure needs, 280–282multiple water reuse applications,

273–277pilot-scale testing, 276, 278, 279process reliability, 276, 278, 279standby and redundancy, 279–280trace constituent removal, 273, 276types of technology, 939

Temperature, conversion between SI andU.S. customary units, 1465

Temperature, effects on:adsorption, 551aquatic life, 1223, 1225boiler systems, 1142biological treatment kinetics, 343, 348carbonate equilibrium constants (T),

496, 1121chlorine disinfection, 632, 640chlorine ionization, 624cooling towers, 1136–1138corrosion (T), 1116, 1126disinfection kinetics, 613–614distribution systems, 885formation of disinfection byproducts,

342–346lake and reservoir stratification,

1317–1318legionella inactivation, 1139membrane flux rates, 491microorganism survival (T), 102physical properties of air, 1472–1473physical properties of water, 1477–1478MBR design, 352UV lamps, 674, 676

Tertiary treatment:chemical constituents remaining after,

108–111pathogens in effluent of, 100, 102

Textile industry, 1150–1155process summary for, 1152reclaimed water use in, 1153system description, 1151, 1153water quality considerations for, 1153

Thickened sludge removal, 448Three-category approach for setting

MCLGs, 223–224Time horizons, planning and design,

1408–1409Time reference point, 1415Time value of money, 1409TMDL (total maximum daily load), 953Toilet and urinal flushing, 1188–1195

decentralized systems, 1193implementation issues, 1192management issues, 1193–1195satellite and decentralized

systems, 1193satellite systems, 1193types of applications, 1188, 1189and water quality, 1188, 1190–1192

Tolerable (acceptable) risk, 181–182Total dissolved solids (TDS):

chlorine disinfection buildup of,628–630

ion exchange for removal of, 554in irrigation water (See Salinity)accumulation of, 1129–1131

Total maximum daily load (TMDL), 953Total suspended solids (TSS):

biological processes used for theremoval of, 310–311, 313

depth filtration and removal of,402–405

relationship to turbidity, 402surface filtration and removal of,

422, 424typical values in raw and treated

wastewater (T), 107, 109–111wastewater treatment requirements,

143–144variability in:

activated sludge process effluent,315–318

untreated wastewater (T), 302–304Toxicity, specific ion, 965–966Toxicology, 209, 211–214

LD50 and LC50, 211, 213NOAEL and LOAEL, 211, 212in vitro tests, 211in vivo tests, 212, 213whole animal tests for carcinogenicity,

213, 214Trace constituents, 1308–1309

agricultural irrigation, 149–150future water reuse, 287health concerns for indirect potable use,

1306–1307landscape irrigation, 151need to remove, 273, 276regulations and guidelines, 156–157treatment technologies for removal of,

271, 272Trace constituents removal, 525–591

adsorption, 532–551advanced biological transformations,

586–591advanced oxidation processes,

569–578chemical and biological transformation

processes, 531–532chemical constituents remaining

after, 113chemical oxidation, 563–567distillation, 560–563effectiveness of processes, 529flow diagrams, 530ion exchange, 551–560mass transfer-based separation

processes, 528, 531photolysis, 578–586terminology, 526–527

Trace elements, 966–969

1566 Subject Index


Subject Index 1567

Trace organic compounds in groundwaterrecharge, 1276–1277

Trace organics removal, 532–533Tracer studies, 1322:

analysis of data from, 647–650characteristics of tracer curve, 646indexes used for (T), 647in lakes and reservoirs, 1322response curve analysis, 645–650schematic diagram for conduct of, 644types of tracers, 644used to detect short circuiting, 645

Transformation of nitrogen compounds,1277

Transformation of organic compounds inrecharge basins, 1273–1277

bulk organic transformations,1273–1275

disinfection byproduct formation(DBPFP), 1275–1276

endocrine disrupting activity, 1277organic compounds of concern, 1273trace organic compounds, 1276–1277

Transformation processes, 531–532Transmission of reclaimed water, 745Transmission pipeline, 1024Transmission pumping stations, 1024Transmittance:

adjustment for equipment validationstudies, 702–708

definition of, 262, 685determination of, 384importance in UV disinfection,

686–687relationship to absorbance, 685typical values for wastewater, 685

Transparency, in public projects, 1450Treatability testing, 479–482

limitations of fouling indexes, 481mini-plugging factor index, 480, 481modified fouling index, 480silt density index, 479–480, 482

Treated wastewater:chemical constituents in, 108–113

after AWT, 108–112after primary treatment, 108–111after secondary treatment,

108–111after tertiary treatment, 108–111impact of constituents remaining

after treatment, 113removal of trace constituents, 113

pathogens in, 97–102Treated water, chemical constituents in

natural water vs., 114, 116Treatment facilities:

expansion of existing plant vs. new con-struction, 362

location of, 281–286new, 289reliability of, 165retrofitting existing, 288

Treatment systems (See Technologies andtreatment systems)

Trends in water reuse, 63–65Trickling filters, 308, 313, 314, 387TSS (See Total suspended solids)Turbidity, 384–385

in activated sludge processes, 385breakthrough in filtration, 399, 418guidelines for reuse, 264limitations of measurement, 385limitations of use as a measure of

membrane integrity, 440measurement of, 384monitoring, 145occurrence in wastewater, 110probability distribution in filtered

effluent, 403relationship to TSS, 402removal by depth filtration, 401–402, 417removal by surface filtration, 422, 424variability in removal of, 315, 386, 398,

402–405, 424wastewater treatment requirements,

143–144Turbine pumps, 868Turf grasses, 1072, 1073Turnouts, 10242006 WHO agriculture guidelines, 182–184

health-based targets, 182–183health protection measures, 183–184health risk assessment, 182

UF (See Ultrafiltration)Ultimate disposal methods, 515–519

discharge to wastewater collection system, 515–517

disposal to surface waters, 517subsurface injection, 517–519

Ultrafiltration (UF), 430–442design considerations, 441, 442membrane performance, 436–441

broken fibers, impact of, 440–441primary effluent filtration, 439secondary effluent filtration, 437–441

operating characteristics/strategies, 436, 437

operational modes, 431–434pressurized, 430–434process analysis, 435–436

mass balance, 436operating pressure, 435permeate flow, 435recovery, 435–436rejection, 436

submerged, 431, 433, 434Ultraviolet lamps, 674–678

ballasts for, 678emerging technologies, 676–678low-pressure high-intensity, 676, 677low-pressure low-intensity, 675–677medium-pressure high-intensity,

676, 677

Ultraviolet radiation (UV):absorption of, 580–582, 675, 687definition, 675disinfection with, 609sources of, 674

Ultraviolet (UV) disinfection, 674–711advantages and disadvantages of, 621analysis of system, 708closed channel, 680–682dosage estimation, 691–700

bioassay testing, 695–697collated beam bioassay, 692–695,

697–700reporting results, 697

environmental impacts, 711factors affecting effectiveness, 684–690

definition of UV dose, 684–686effect of chemical constituents in

reclaimed water, 686–687effect of particles in reclaimed water,

687, 688impact of system characteristics, 690microorganism characteristics,

688–690guidelines, 700–708

application, 700and design, 700–701test protocol, 701–702validation testing, 702–708

inactivation, 682–683mechanism, 682–684microbial repair following, 683–684modeling, 690–691open channel, 678–680operational issues, 708–710

biofilms, 709–710hydraulics, 708–709increasing UV intensity for

overcoming impact of particles, 710

upstream treatment effect, 710physical facilities for, 607–609source of, 674, 675system configurations, 678–682UV lamps, 674–678

Uniform Plumbing Code, 908, (T) 909Uniformity coefficient:

definition of, 408–409typical values for depth filters (T),

410–411Units:

for environmental engineering computations (T), 1466–1467

conversion factors between SI and U.S.customary units, 1463–1465

abbreviations for SI, 1467–1468abbreviations for U.S. customary,

1468–1469Unit cost (See Economic analysis)United States:

agricultural irrigation in, 950commercial water use in, 1172


United States (Cont.):domestic potable water reuse in, 1171drinking water regulations in, 221–222evolution of water reclamation and

reuse in, 42–43industrial applications in, 1105–1107landscape irrigation in, 1046–1048potential regional water shortages in,

20–23water reclamation activities in,

1485–1496water reuse status in, 46–47

U.S. EPA water reuse guidelines, 169–179agricultural, 171–173carcinogens, 222–223construction, 174control measures, 178disinfection requirements, 169–179environmental, 175groundwater recharge, 175indirect potable, 175–179industrial, 174landscape impoundments, 173microbial limits, 178municipal wastewater, 170–177restricted access area irrigation, 171urban reuse, 170

Unrestricted access in landscape irrigation,1045, 1209

Untreated wastewater, 299–304chemical constituents in, 103–104

natural water, 103–104public water supplies, 104

composition of, 106–107constituents and physical properties in,

260–262, 299–304concentration values, 299, 301variability of mass loadings, 301–304

pathogens in, 94, 96–98Upstream treatment processes, effect of:

as disinfection performance factor, 615, 616

on UV disinfection performance, 710Upstream-type satellite treatment systems,

728–730collection system requirements, 739wastewater characteristics, 741

Urban landscape irrigation design, 1049, 1051

Urban nonirrigation water reuse,infrastructure facilities for, 1176

Urban nonirrigation water reuse applications, 932, 933, 1169–1200

air conditioning, 1179–1183, (T)1184–1185

management issues, 1183reclaimed air for, 1181system description, 1179–1180water quality considerations for,

1181–1183for car and vehicle washing, 1195–1196commercial applications, 1195–1197

Urban nonirrigation water reuse applications (Cont.):

commercial water use in U.S., 1172domestic potable water use in

U.S., 1171EPA water reuse guidelines, 170factors affecting use, 1175–1179

infrastructure issues, 1175–1176water quality, 1176–1179

fire protection, 1183, 1186–1188applications, types of, 1186–1187implementation issues, 1187–1188management issues, 1188water quality considerations, 1187

globally, 1172, 1175for laundries, 1196public water features, 1197–1198road care and maintenance, 1198–1200terminology, 1070–1071toilet and urinal flushing, 1188–1195

decentralized systems, 1193implementation issues, 1192management issues, 1193–1195satellite systems, 1193types of applications, 1188water quality considerations,

1188–1192in U.S., 1172–1174

Urinal flushing (See Toilet and urinalflushing)

U.S. customary units:abbreviations for (T), 1468–1469conversion to SI units (T), 1463–1465

U.S. Filter, 334, 336–337, 356–357UV (See Ultraviolet radiation)UV absorbing compounds (T), 685UV disinfection system hydraulics,

708–709UV radiation sources, 674–677UV validation testing, 701–708, (See also

Ultraviolet disinfection)

Vacuum filtration (See Submerged filtration)Vacuum collection system, 810, 812Vadose zone injection wells, 1282–1286

description, 1282–1283examples, 1286hydraulic analysis, 1284–1285operation/maintenance issues, 1285–1286performance, 1286pretreatment needs, 1283–1284

Valves:air release, 864distribution system, 863excercising, 883pumping system, 871–872

Vapor compression distillation, 562Vapor pressure of water:

definition, 1476values (T), 1477–1478

Vector, in the transfer of disease, 208,1232, 1252

Vegetable crops:boron tolerance of, 974salinity affecting, 975salt tolerance of, 972

Vegetation management in wetlands, 1221Vehicle washing, 1195–1196Vertical turbine pumps, 868Viruses, 89–92

classification of,concern in water reclamation and

reuse, 140description of, 89–92dose response parameters for risk

assessment, 203infectious dose, 98models, risk assessment, 235–236,

237–238, 240–248monitoring for, 145, 164occurrence in wastewater, 97–98, 314removal of:

by chlorination, 619, 637–638comparison of disinfection processes

for (T), 605by groundwater recharge, 1259,

1279–1280by membranes, 437–438by ozonation, 619by reverse osmosis, 464, 472, 475by surface filtration, 423by UV irradiation, 604, 619,

682–683, 689, 697risk assessment for water reuse from

enteric, 244–248selected examples (T), 82:

adenoviruses, 92enteroviruses, 91–92hepatitis A, 90noroviruses and calciviruses, 90, 91rotaviruses, 90

sizes range, 376Viscosity of water:


Voluntary marketing approach, 1404Voluntary water reuse, mandatory vs., 165

Waste and unreasonable use of water, doctrine, 1406

Waste discharge requirements for irrigatedland, 953

Wastewater:in decentralized systems

constituent concentrations, 778–785flowrates, 774–778

equations used in characterization of,341

and pathogenic microorganisms, 97–102physical properties of concern in,

139–142in satellite treatment systems, 739–741and water quality, 142–144

1568 Subject Index


Subject Index 1569

Wastewater treatment, 142–144BOD, TSS, and turbidity requirements,

143–144disinfection requirements, 144economic considerations with, 143indicator organisms, use and limitations

of, 144types, 142–143

Water, physical properties of, 1475–1478Water application rate estimation,

989–997evapotranspiration, 990–992hydraulic loading rate, 993–997net irrigation requirement, 992, 993

Water Conserv II case study, 1022–1027,1492–1493

implementation, 1023–1027importance of, 1027lessons learned, 1027setting, 1023water management issues, 1023

Water conservation, 8, 10, 11, 777–778Water Environment Research Foundation,

1494–1495Water flux rate, 482–483Water hammer, in distribution

systems, 871Water issues, 3–32

future, 30–32reclamation and reuse, 23–32resources management, 6–15shortages, 15–23terminology, 4–6

Water management in industries,1107–1108

Water needs estimation:evapotranspiration, 1054, 1058irrigation efficiency, 1060–1064

Water pinch analysis, 1107–1108Water quality:

agricultural irrigation systems, 977, 978agronomics, 954–976as application selection factor, 937, 939aquifer storage and recovery wells,

1294BOD, TSS, and turbidity requirements,

143–144consistency of in urban water reuse

applications, 1176–1178in cooling water systems, 1132–1135direct potable reuse guidelines,

1358–1361dual distribution systems, 152economic considerations with, 143for fire protection, 1187for groundwater recharge, 1255–1259impoundments, 153indicator organisms, use and limitations

of, 144industrial issues with (See Water quality

issues for industrial uses)management, 884–892

Water quality (Cont.):MBR analysis and design, 341, 342monitoring, 145–147ponds/lakes, 1228–1230public health, 1441in reclaimed distribution systems (See

Water quality management inreclaimed distribution systems)

reliability issues of, 1178–1179reservoirs, 1314, 1317residential landscape irrigation, 1081residual particulate matter removal, 455riverbank filtration systems, 1295secondary treatment selection

issues, 363standards, basis for, 136stream flow augmentation, 1224–1227technology issues, 262–264urban nonirrigation water reuse,

1176–1179wastewater treatment, 142–144wetlands, 1213–1214, 1216, 1219

Water quality issues for industrial uses,1109–1131

accumulation of dissolved constituents,1129–1131

Aggressiveness Index, 1118–1119buffer capacity, 1119calcium carbonate precipitation

potential (CCPP), 1120–1124corrosion issues, 1110, 1113–1117corrosion management options,

1126–1127general considerations, 1110–1112indices for assessing effects of

reclaimed water quality, 1115,1116, 1118–1125

Langelier saturation index (LSI),1124–1125

Larson’s Ratio, 1125Ryznar stability index (RSI), 1125scaling issues, 1127–1128

Water quantity, in agricultural irrigationsystems, 977, 978

Water reclamation and reuse, 10–13,23–32

acceptance depending on opportunityand necessity, 31

advances in technologies, 31–32challenges, 32definition of, 135evolution of, 39–45future of, 30–32implementation hurdles, 31important role, 23–30infrastructure/planning issues, 28–30integrated water resources planning,

24–27personnel needs/sustainable

engineering, 27, 28planning for (See Planning for water

reclamation and reuse)

Water reclamation and reuse (Cont.):public support, 31public water supply from polluted water

sources, 31and sustainability criteria, 10–14treatment/technology needs, 27–29

Water Recycling 2030, 1495Water replenishment in ponds and

lakes, 1230Water reuse, 37–65

California case study, 47–53case studies, 47–58current U. S. status, 46–47EPA guidelines, 169–179evolution of, 39–45regulations, 135–155, 157–184state and federal statutes, impact of,

45–46and sustainability criteria, 10–14trends, 63–65types of, 24WHO guidelines for, 179–184worldwide, 58–63

Water reuse applications, 149–155,929–945

agricultural irrigation, 149–150, 931, 932

decentralized, 816–819direct potable reuse, 934dual distribution systems, 151–152environmental and recreational use,

932, 933future trends in, 941–944global, 934groundwater recharge, 154–155,

932, 933impoundments, 152–153in-building uses, 151–152indirect potable reuse through surface

water augmentation, 933industrial, 153, 931–933issues, 934–938

economic considerations, 935public policy, 935–936regulations, 936–937reliability of water supply, 935resource opportunities, 935resource sustainability, 934–935specific applications, 937, 938

landscape irrigation, 150, 151, 931, 932nonpotable, 153–154selection factors, 937, 939–941

economic feasibility, 940–941environmental considerations, 941infrastructure requirements, 939, 940supply and demand, 939, 940technology types, 939water quality considerations,

937, 939technologies for, 304–307technology selection factors for

multiple, 273–277


Water reuse applications (Cont.):urban nonirrigation uses, 932, 933water reuse guidelines, 59, 135–139

Water rights law, 1393–1396groundwater law, 1395and planning for indirect potable

reuse, 1313prior appropriation, 1394–1396riparian doctrine, 1394, 1396

Water scarcity, 19–20Water shortages, 15–23

potential global, 19–20potential U.S. regional, 20–23in St. Petersburg, 1087world population, impact of, 15–19

Water supply:augmentation of, 942and community growth, 1441

Water table depth, 999Water use patterns, 27Water wars, 1453–1454Water wells, supplemental, 1024Waterborne diseases, 80–83Waterborne pathogenic microorganisms,

83–92bacteria, 83, 86–87helminths, 89log removal, 83protozoa, 87–89terminology conventions, 83viruses, 89–92

Waterfalls, 1196, 1197WBMWD case study (See West Basin

Municipal Water District case study)

Weed control, 1075Welded joints, 861

Well function, W(u):definition and use, 1289values (T), 1524

West Basin Municipal Water District(WBMWD) case study, 1158–1161

implementation, 1159–1161lessons learned, 1161setting, 1158water management issues,

1158–1159Wet-dry cycles, 1269–1270Wetlands, 1210–1221

for decentralized systems, 796, 821development of, 1213–1215

alternate dispersal of reclaimedwater, 1214

habitat value, 1214recreation, 1215restoration/mitigation, 1214water quality improvement,

1213–1214operation/maintenance, 1216,

1218–1221mosquito control, 1220nuisance species, 1220–1221odors, 1221security issues, 1221system hydrology, 1218, 1219vegetation management, 1221

state regulations and guidelines, 166types of, 1210, 1212–1213water quality considerations,

1216–1219Wetting front, movement of, 1260–1263WHO guidelines for water reuse (See

World Health Organization (WHO)guidelines for water reuse)

Whole animal tests for carcinogenicity,213, 214

Wilson-Grizzle Act, 1087, 1454–1455Windborne sprays, 147–149

limiting exposure, 148pathogen survival, 147, 148setback distances, 148–149

World Health Organization (WHO) guidelines for water reuse, 59, 179–184, 954

agriculture and aquaculture, 180disability adjusted life years,

180–181Stockholm framework, 180tolerable microbial risk in water,

181–182tolerable risk concept, 1812006 guidelines for safe use of waste-

water in agriculture, 182–184World population, water shortages

impacted by, 15–19domestic and industrial water uses, 19irrigation water use, 17, 18urbanization, 16–19

Worldwide water reuse, 58–63in developing countries, 59, 61–63evolution of, 40–41significant developments, 58–60WHO guidelines, 59

Xeriscape, 1054

Yersinia enterocolitica, 87“Yuck” factor, 1442

Zenon Environmental, 333–335, 355–356Zero liquid discharge (ZLD), 1107

1570 Subject Index


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