II. How do societies exploit their water resources?

A. Hydraulic infrastructure–Wells (pumping underground water)– Dams (storing water)– Canals (transporting water)– Dikes (for holding water back)– Run-off ditches (for draining water)

Consumption of agricultural water by type of irrigation 2006

Water Use System Average consumption M3/haSpraying 4576Drip Irrigation 3811Gravitational (e.g. canals) 6161Irrigating all surfaces 4950Population connected to modern used water treatment plantsIn 1992 31% of the populationIn 2005 92% of the population

Water Production through desalinization of seawaterIn 1990 0.1 hm3/dayIn 2009 3.4 hm3/day

Major Water Projects• Larger and larger dams – enable irrigation– Provide electricity– Control water flow to avoid flash floods

• Itaipu dam between Brazil & Paraguay• Dams on the Tigrus and Euphrates rivers

– Water transfer• Allows water to be transported for agriculture and tourism

(Spain)• Provides water for large urban centers located hundreds of

kms from the water source (The Colorado River)

Newer Water Technology• Pumping water from fossil layers• Desalinization plants• Used water treatment plants

B. Development of water resources modeled by societies and their

environment • Water resource management has

shaped areas and populations– Infrastructure– collective access/management– E.g. rice fields• SE Asia, rice fields demand collective effort

to manage water

Rice Fields: spaces and populations dependent on water

Controlling Hydraulic Techniques

Inundated Rice paddies

Extensive Labor Force

Growing Food Availability

High Population Density

• Oasis Example– Located near water sources (underground)– Places of high population density in arid regions– E.g. Saharan Desert

Huertas• Vast zones of irrigated greenhouses• Prevalent in Andalousia and other

areas of the Mediterranean

Consequences of Major Water Works• Can lead to – complete transformation of landscape– Upsetting populations

• Examples– Major dams form reservoir lakes flooding

large areas (3 gorges dam, China)– Forced displacement of populations– Massive draining of water supplies (e.g.

irrigation) and water transfer can cause lakes & rivers to dry up (Colorado River, Aral Sea)

3 Gorges Dam

Water Map China – 3 Gorges Dam

Environmental Problems

Yangtze River Case Study

3 Gorges Dam

Water Flow of Yangtze River

Pollution of the Yangtze River

Water transfers- a quick fix?Receiving areaSource area

Video: China’s Parched North Water crisis

What has led to some of China’s water scarcity problems?

Examples of existing schemes Proposed schemes

InternationalLesotho to South Africa: Lesotho Highlands Water Project Turkey to Israel by tanker

National:Snowy Mountains-AustraliaMelamchi Nepal Tagus-Mercia Spain

InternationalTurkey to Israel undersea pipelinesAustrian Alps to Spain + Greece by pipeline

National: South-North transfer- ChinaEbro -SpainOb to the Aral Sea NAWAPA Alaska to California

Major Water Transfer Schemes

Beijing

Tianjin

Eastern Route1,155km long diversion

Central routes1267 km diversion. May have to use some water from 3 Gorges reservoir to help

Western Routes

Work starts 2010, at

high altitude,

very difficult

500kms at 3-5000m above sea

level

Demand from industrial centres, high population density and intensive agriculture. Low rainfall and over abstracted

groundwater: physical scarcity•Industrial growth along routeways will exacerbate existing pollution problems•Changes in water balances: reduced water in Yangtze means less dilution and more pollution• Displaced people especially from Dang Jiang Kou dam ......

Yellow River

Yangtze River

South China Sea

CHINAShanghai

0 mls 250

Mega Tech Fixes: China’s South–North water transfer

Originally planned 1952, started 2002, due to finish 2050. Chief player: Government sponsored ‘South to North Water Transfer Project Company, with each province having a local water company. Involves huge civil engineering works, 3 major canals, pipelines, tunnels, pumping stations

One of the largest water transfers globally.Aim: to divert 45bn m3/year from the water surplus river basins of the S and E to the water deficit areas of the North, especially Beijing and Tianjin

China: the North/South water divide

• Video: China’s parched north

• VIDEO: Great Chinese Drought continuing–What are some of the causes and

consequences of the drought problems in Northern China mentioned in the report?

Local water resources are intensively exploited• 70% of land surface in Spain semi-arid climate

zone• Recurring droughts• Strong seasonal variability of rainfall• Agriculture• Tourism

The explansion of water supply by construction of dams has come to an end• 1,300 dams in Spain• Spain is the country with the 4th largest number of

damsSome aquifers are overexploitedClimate change will further lower the natural supply of waterLow water prices hold back the development of unconventional supply sources

Water ManagementSpain Case Study

Water ManagementSpain Case Study

The Colorado River: A Case Study

• Video: The Colorado: a river in peril? 0’52

• Video: Colorado River: America’s Most Endangered River 2013

The Colorado River• Most endangered river in the U.S.

– Most dams, – supplies the largest portion of the population– Irrigates the most crops

• Increasing water supply problems in California– Climate change

• Less run-off from melted snowcaps– Longer and more severe droughts– Population growth

• Mostly in arid south• Immigrant populations looking for farm work

– Infrastructure• Ageing pumps and aqueducts = environmental havoc

– Region contains richest farmland in the country• Major food supplier of the U.S.• Agriculture Accounts for % of employment

Colorado River Basin

Human influences on water supply and scarcity • Humans affect the hydrological cycle at many points of flows

and storage:

In developing countries, 70% of industrial wastes are dumped untreated into waters where they pollute the usable water supply.

Source:World Water Assessment Programme (WWAP)

Water Security: a definition“The capacity of a population to safeguard sustainable access to adequate quantities of acceptable quality water for sustaining livelihoods, human well-being, and socio-economic development, for ensuring protection against water-borne pollution and water-related disasters, and for preserving ecosystems in a climate of peace and political stability.”

The risks of water insecurity• What are the potential implications of an increasingly

‘water insecure’ world? Water supply

problemsIncreasing water

shortages may be more important than

energy shortages- because there is no

alternative!

Water conflictsWhere demand exceeds supply and no effective management operates,

then there will be conflicts between the various

players involved

Water geopoliticsThe conflicts between nation

states, despite the international agreement called the Helsinki Rules designed to create more equitable use of water

extending across boundaries

Water transfersOf this precious resource by either diverting the actual

river, or using canals . Long carried out at a small scale but

increasingly over larger distances, and even

transboundary

NPR : Water the Epic Struggle

Water Scarcity

A Delicate Balance

Water

FoodEnergy

Energy is needed to clean and transport

water

Water is needed to generate energy

Water is needed to grow food

Food transports (virtual) water

Energy is needed to

produce food

Food can be used to produce energy

Synopticity-Water-Energy• Energy and Water: Solving Both Crises Together:• Water and energy are the two most fundamental ingredients of

modern civilization• We consume massive quantities of water to generate energy, and

we consume massive quantities of energy to deliver clean water• There are tensions between the two:

• An issue in energy rich states ,which are semi arid/arid: to sell cheap oil or keep to power desalinisation plants

• Water is needed to generate energy. Energy is needed to deliver water. Both resources are limiting the other—and both may be running short. Is there a way out?

water restrictions are

hampering solutions for generating

more energy

energy problems, particularly rising

prices, are curtailing efforts to supply

more clean water.

Reading Homework• EU spotlight turns on Spain• Spain suffers worst drought• Water Diplomacy in the Middle East