Water Scarcity, Conflict, and Solutions in Togo

Accessed from ghheadlines.com

Table of Contents

Preface – 3

Togo at a Glance – 5

Water Resources in Togo – 8

Conflicts over Water – 9

Solutions - 12

Current Water-Related Projects in Togo – 16

Bibliography - 18

Preface

The world’s population may be growing but water resources are decreasing. It has been estimated that by 2025 the global population could increase by 2.6 billion more than the current population (“Running dry,” 2006). However, as population grows so does the demand for water. Unfortunately, it has also been estimated that by 2025 water demands would exceed availability by 56 percent (“Running dry,” 2006). Without finding new ways to use and conserve water efficiently and sanitizing water for safe use, as the population increase and food demands rise, there is likelihood that many nations will feel the effects of food and water scarcity.

Developing nations are hit the hardest by water scarcity. When rapid urbanization hits developing nations, a greater need for safe and clean water puts pressure on public institutions for these resources as access to clean water and sanitation facilities are often hard to come by and unclean water sources are at risk of contamination of harmful parasites and bacteria. With the improvement of water and sanitation come health-cost effectiveness, safety and security, less water pollution, greater equality between men and women, and overall better business for a country (Sanitation and Water for All, 2012).

Water is such an important resource that domestic, industrial, agricultural, and environmental security depends on the availability of clean water. A state also gains the ability to control its economy and population by controlling water resources (“Running dry,” 2006). However, when state control or the allocation of water resources is inefficient, industrial and agricultural development can suffer or even be severely crippled. Inefficient and uneven distribution of water resources can also cause conflict within a country’s population. Experts have increasingly warned that water wars are inevitable if countries do not improve water management in the future (“Running dry,” 2006).

Contamination of water poses health risks to humans in the form of water-borne diseases. Contact with unclean water leads to high incidents of diarrhea among children under the age of five (Water Without Borders). The World Health Organization estimates that each year more than 3.5 million people die from water-borne diseases. Water-borne diarrhea is the third-leading cause of death worldwide and is responsible for a quarter of stunted growth cases in children that have survived water-related illnesses (Water Without Borders).

According to the Human Development Index, the West African nation of Togo ranks poorly at 159 of 182. The country’s economy is mainly based off of agriculture and trade and while education has improved in the country, water sanitation and availability has not.

Only about 60 percent of Togolese have access to clean drinking water. It is estimated that 40 percent of Togolese children born in villages die before their fifth birthday (Jones, 2009). One

reason behind this mortality rate is the lack of access to clean water and sanitation. Each year, the impacts of poor sanitation and hygiene cost approximately $71 million or 1.5 percent of the country’s GDP (Sanitation and Water for All, 2012). This figure reflects the costs of health problems, the cost of treatment for these health problems, the loss of productivity of individuals that have contracted these health problems, and the time spent to access services to treat health problems (Sanitation and Water for All, 2012). With improved programs and development of water and sanitation systems, Togo would experience fewer cases of health problems and reduce the cost and ill-effects that water and sanitation-related health problems bring with them.

In 2010, the United Nations recognized that access to clean drinking water and sanitation facilities are a human right and that states and international organizations provide aid to states in need of improved water resources. Togo is one of the many nations in West Africa in need of innovated development of water and sanitation resources.

This report aims to identify what water and sanitation resources Togo currently has and the conflicts currently surrounding water usage. Identifying problems can lead to finding solutions and improve the lives and health of millions of Togolese people. Currently there are many projects in sanitation and health implemented by non-governmental organizations and international organizations which specifically target the country.

Togo at a Glance

Located in western Africa, the 54,385 sq km that makes up Togo borders the countries of Benin and Ghana (CIA). To the south of the country lies the Bight of Benin. The country’s name refers to the Ewe word “to-go,” meaning “to go to water (ABO).” Here, 7.1 million people reside with a growth rate of 2.7 percent per year (Ryan’s Well Foundation). From the late 17th to the mid-19th century, slave traders lurked throughout Togo's forests and savannas. It became independent in 1922, when the eastern part of Togoland was passed into the hands of the French (National Geographic). Four almost four decades Togo was ruled by General Gnassingbe EYADEMA, until his death in 2005 when his son Faure Gnassingbe took over. With years of political differences and disapproval from other international organizations for human rights abuse, Togo is finally being allowed back into the community (CIA).

(From freeworldmaps.net)

The climate of Togo can be described as tropical. It is hot and humid in the north and semi-arid in the south (CIA). The terrain varies from region to region. In the north of the country lies gently rolling savanna lands, central regions are mostly hilly and covered by deciduous forests, the eastern regions run along long sandy beaches covered by palm trees, and the southern region is home to an undulating plateau with a low coastal plain with lagoons and marshes (CIA).

Due to uneven soil and terrain variations, the country’s population is mainly concentrated in the south and around the north-south highway between the coast and the Sahel transitional biogeography zone (Encyclopedia of Earth). Togo’s population is composed of over 20 ethnic groups with the two major ethnicities being the Ewe (about 21 percent of the population) in the south and the Kabye (about 16 percent) in the north (Encyclopedia of Earth). The Ewes and other ethnic groups of the coastal region make up the majority of civil servants, professionals and merchants due to the history of greater infrastructure development in the area (Encyclopedia of Earth). The Kabye have traditionally migrated south for work in military and law enforcement (Encyclopedia of Earth)

Lomé is the capital of Togo. The city also acts as the country’s industrial and commercial center with a main waterfront harbor that is in operation for 24 hours a day. It is built on a quarter system which adds small towns and villages to its boundaries as the city grows. About 25 percent of Togo’s populations reside in Lomé with an urbanization rate at 43 percent in 2000 that is projected to increase to 50 percent in 2020 (Encyclopedia of Earth).

About one-third of the country’s population lives in poverty. Two and a half million Togolese citizens live in rural areas. In rural areas, access to basic health care is difficult to find and transportation to the nearest health center is usually too expensive for families to afford (ChildFund).

While French is the official language, most people in the southern regions speak Ewe or Mina and people in the north usually speak Kabye. French is primarily used in administrative settings and schools usually teach in both French and another language such as Ewe or Kabye (Encyclopedia of Earth)

Currently, the country has no hydrocarbon production – the process involved in extracting oil and gas reserves from the earth, then treating, producing, and transporting oil and gas to its final destination – therefore the Togolese economy is entirely based off of agricultural production and trade (ABO) with over 57 percent of the population employed in the agricultural sector (AQUASTAT).

Togo has experienced problems related to deforestation due to slash-and-burn agricultural clearing and for the use of wood as fuel, water pollution causing health hazards and hinders the fishing industry, and air pollution in areas that have increasingly become urbanized (CIA). Food shortages are also a problem in the country and between 2006 and 2010, about 30 percent of children under the age of five were malnourished and 21 percent were moderately to severely underweight (UNICEF, “Statistics”).

Flooding during the rainy season causes severe damage to villages every year. In the fishing village of Boko, for example, flooding caused silt buildup to block the natural flow of water of

Lake Boko. This destroyed homes, stagnated water, and caused decreases in fishing activities (World Bank, “Togo’s Lake Boko”). In order to reopen the canal and remove silt and invasive species, Boko had to team up with the World Bank to gain funding of $90,000 to implement the project (World Bank, “Togo’s Lake Boko”).

Water Resources in Togo

Water scarcity is defined by the Global Policy Forum as a situation where each person in an individual country has access to less than 1,500 cubic meters of water annually (“Running dry,” 2006). It is estimated that two-thirds of the world’s population will live in areas experiencing water stress or water scarcity by 2025 (“Running dry,” 2006).

According to the World Bank, Togo’s renewable freshwater resources amount to 11.5 trillion liters. These resources include rainwater, surface water, rivers, and groundwater from rainfall (Ekoue, 2013). The United Nations state that the daily drinking requirement per person is two to four liters. With an additional 20 - 50 liters of water per day to meet needs for cooking and cleaning and another 2,000 – 5,000 liters of water to grow the food needed for the food a person consumes each day, Togo has enough water to provide 5,000 liters of water to its 6 million citizens each day (Ekoue, 2013). According to IRIN, “Constant shortage of piped water caused by dilapidated infrastructure in the Togolese capital has forced almost half a million residents to fetch their water from un-purified wells.”

However, in the last 20 years the number of Togolese with access to improved sanitation has deteriorated (AFD). Many citizens still obtain water from traditionally hand-dug wells (Ekoue, 2013). This water is often not safe to drink. Water is categorized as either improved or unimproved. Improved drinking water comes from sources that are considered safe and sanitary such as pipes that flow into dwellings, yards, or public spaces; protected dug wells; or a rainwater collection. Unimproved drinking water is considered unsafe for human consumption and comes from sources such as surface water, including rivers and dams or tanker trucks. In total, only about 60 percent of all Togolese have access to improved drinking water sources.

The Togolese Water Company is responsible for the provision and allocation of drinking water and sanitation services within urban Togolese cities. The Togolese government promotes good governance of water, equal distribution to the country’s population, and improving sanitation conditions within communities (Republic of Togo, “2012 High level meeting”).

Conflicts over Water

Water disputes have been divided into six categories based on the severity of the threat by the Pacific Institute for Studies in Development, Environment, and Security. These categories are:

Conflict over the control of water resources by both state and non-state actors. Water resources are the root of tension;

Water used as a military tool such as when water resources or systems are used as a weapon during military action;

Water used as a political tool by both state and non-state actors. Water resources or systems are used for a political goal;

Acts of terrorism where water resources or systems are either targets or tools of violence or influence by non-state actors;

Water resources or systems as military targets; Water as a development dispute by both state and non-state actors. Water systems can

be a source of dispute in economic and social development (“Running dry,” 2006).

According to the World Health Organization, only 59 percent of Togo’s population had access to safe drinking water in 2011. However, only 39 percent of clean drinking water was supplied by state water infrastructure that year. In rural areas, only 40 percent of the population has access to safe drinking water, according to the World Bank. While Togo is committed to reaching United Nations Millennium Development Goals, Nabagou Bissoune, Togo’s minister for water resources, has stated that it will be difficult for the country to reach these goals by 2015 (Ekoue, 2013).

Access to fresh drinking water is limited especially in rural areas. Most women living in rural areas are forced to walk at least 15 minutes in order to collect water from unsafe, often polluted surface water sources up to 6 times a day (Water Without Borders). In Tsevié, a town located 35 km north of Lomé, for example, women must walk more than 5 km every day in order to obtain water from the Haho River (Ekoue, 2013). The Haho River is not clean as it is polluted by agricultural waste. Animals such as goats and cows clean themselves and defecate in the river.

In other rural areas such as Sirka, children often develop health problems from the water contamination. The amount of deaths from diarrhea and dehydration is very high (UNICEF, 2011). In this particular area, they have the option to walk up to seven times a day to get water for free from a local well or pay for it from a private well. More commonly the women will walk to the local well where they will not have to pay for water (UNICEF, 2011).

Agricultural products such as cocoa, coffee, and cotton are Togo’s main exports. The World Bank estimates that 45 percent of the country’s freshwater withdrawals are for agricultural

purposes. However, sheep, goat, and cow herders compete with small-scale farmers for water. In some cases, they may even fight over water. It has been reported that Togolese small-scale farmers of the Konkomba tribe often clash with Fulani herders in northern regions of the country where the Oti River flows through (Ekoue, 2013).

Those fortunate enough to have access to water pumps however, often experience problems due to how often these pumps break and are in need of repair. Maintenance of these pumps is difficult due to the unavailability of parts and the lack of knowledge needed to repair the pumps (Life in Togo). Another issue is that while some villages have wells, dry seasons which can occur for five to eight months of a year can cause wells to dry up or become contaminated (Life in Togo).

Unfortunately, technologies used by developed nations for the sanitation of water sources are not convenient in rural areas of Togo.

Rural areas are not the only places where stress on water sources is felt. In 2007, it was reported that in Lomé a constant shortage of piped water due to neglected infrastructure forced approximately half a million residents to obtain water from unpurified wells (“Togo: Water crisis,” 2007). Others had bought water from those who had a well on their property. Yao Florent Manganawe, minister of water and hydraulic resources at the time, reported that two major water towers in suburban Lomé had broken down. The two water towers supplied 1.2 million residents with water (“Togo: Water crisis,” 2007). Manganawe also stated that the country’s main water supply plan ran by the national Togolese Water Company, had neglected maintenance and repair work since 1995 (“Togo: Water crisis,” 2007). However, it is expensive to repair, update, and replace water systems in Lomé. Manganawe estimated that $62 million would be needed just to fix the city’s water supply pipes alone (“Togo: Water crisis,” 2007).

Many urban water supplies are untested and remain untreated. While it is recommended that those who have wells and drillings on their property send samples to hygienic laboratories for analysis, many citizens do not chose to (“Togo: Water crisis,” 2007). Untreated water can contain germs and bacteria that cause water-borne illnesses such as schistosomiasis (sometimes called Katayama fever), Hepatitis A, and Typhoid Fever. Schistosomiasis is spread through parasites released by infected freshwater snails that then infect humans that have been in contact with infested water sources (CDC). Children that play in infested waters are predominately affected by the disease, although farmers and fisherman who use unclean water sources for work are also at high risk of infection.

Water sanitation access is also a major water-related problem within Togo. In total, only about 11 percent of the country’s population has access to sanitation facilities. Only 25.5 percent of urban populations have access to these facilities and in rural areas, this number is as low as

only 2.5 percent. Open defecation is still a major problem in Togo with over half the country’s population continuing to defecate in the open, including in water sources (End Water Poverty). For many, schools are primary place to obtain clean water. However, only about 48 percent of primary schools have access to sanitation facilities and only 34 percent of them have access to clean drinking water (End Water Poverty).

Problems stem far from just the country alone. Receiving aid for water projects has proven to be an issue in developing countries because donors tend to favor giving aid towards health and education (Water Aid, 2007). Despite the interconnectedness between health, education, and water, aid given towards water solutions has not risen by a large percentage since the 1990s yet aid for health and education has risen progressively (Water Aid, 2007). Another issue surrounding aid is that at the global level sector coordination and monitoring has been very poor, resulting in the failure to identify the countries in the most need of aid in water and sanitation services (Water Aid, 2007). While investment mainly in large-scale sewerage systems and piped networks, poorer communities in urban and rural areas lose out on these resources. Development assistance for basic water and sanitations services to poorer households has dropped since 2002 (Water Aid, 2007). However, studies have shown that economic returns from water and sanitation projects are favorable with average rates of return exceeding 20 percent annually on over 60 development bank projects in Africa (Sanitation and Water for All, 2012).

Solutions

In 2007, water minister Manganawe stated that more wells needed to be drilled in areas of Togo where citizens rely on unclean water sources (“Togo: Water crisis,” 2007). To do so would be a measure to prevent the occurrence of water-borne illnesses. "Ignorance about public health and not taking appropriate measures could put the public at risk of infectious disease," he said (“Togo: Water crisis,” 2007).

A survey conducted in 2011 in the suburban Lomé area known as the Yokoè Quarter described the models of water supply systems proposed by residents (Ahiablame et al., p. 127-128). The survey found that these types of systems would most likely be affordable and suitable to urban Togolese cities. These systems are:

Protecting and monitoring existing water sources. This sort of model requires a collective community effort to protect and maintain already existing community and public water supplies by taking measures such as fencing off community wells, covering them to prevent contamination, and regularly send samples for testing quality;

Rainwater harvesting with cistern systems where, in exchange for a small contribution fee, two or three households are encouraged to share a centralized cistern system for rainwater collection with regular quality testing;

Water kiosks that are strategically installed at access points for the distribution of portable water to paying customers;

Expansion of existing community water supply systems by adding a bucket-pulley system to a water pump. In areas where only community wells exist, pumps and pulley systems should be added;

Water delivery services in which small businesses will run a system to collect and deliver water to paying customers;

Community water towers to hold water withdrawn from the ground and distribute collected water to individual households through pipes. This is a system that requires community members to pay a one-time fee to cover installation of piping to individual homes and small, occasional contributions for system maintenance and water quality testing. One issue surrounding this system is that the cost for fees can be too expensive for residents (Ahiablame et al., p. 127-128).

With support from the Climate Change Adaption and Development Program and the United Nations Environment Program, Togo’s Department of Rural Water Supply was able to rehabilitate two freshwater dams (Nkem et al., 2011). The project aimed to support pro-poor rural investment opportunities and used locally produced technologies and materials. It was reported that as a result of the project, water security and vegetation cover were improved.

Water Without Borders states that rural Togo is in specific need of inexpensive water purification methods as technologies used for water sanitation by developed nations are not

practical. One method, proposed by the Norwegian organization Naturvernforbundet, is to use solar-powered pasteurization to reduce the level of harmful substances in water. By heating water to more than 65-degrees Fahrenheit, parasites and germs can be killed and removed from water which helps reduce water-borne illnesses. However, Naturvernforbundet reported that finding the materials to build solar cookers in Togo has proven to be difficult and had to be imported from outside sources.

In order to supply affordable clean water, a team of researchers from Universities of Texas and Marburg have been developing a technique known as electrochemically mediated desalination (EMD). Using the principles of chemistry, this technique separates salt from seawater, leaving fresh, clean water suitable for human use and consumption (Brown, 2013). The technique can also kill harmful bacteria and viruses in water supplies (Brown, 2013) The current “water chip” used for this process can run off a 3.0 volt power supply, the equivalent of a AA battery (Brown, 2013). However, this technique is still a prototype and needs further development and testing before it can be distributed for public use.

The majority of scholars, international organizations, and nonprofits agree that one of the best, affordable, and sustainable ways to promote, encourage, and continue water management and distribution is through education. Many organizations have provided the Togolese population with safe water and sanitation practices and training to community members on how to manually drill boreholes and fix and maintain local water pumps.

Research on sanitation in rural areas has shown that improved pit latrines are low-cost and long lasting if properly built and maintained (Sanitation and Water for All, 2012). Other affordable sanitation methods described by the World Bank Economics of Sanitation Initiative were technologies that isolate or treat human waste (Sanitation and Water for All, 2012). While these methods are beneficial to human health, the cost of these technologies can be high and therefore unaffordable to many areas in Togo. Rural and urban areas can get these more expensive technologies however, if more investment is put into the water and sanitation sector.

It is recommended that the government of Togo implement policies that lead to the increase of public spending on water and sanitations services. Improvement of policies can lead to the scaling-up efforts leading to the most affordable and sustainable services with environmental and health benefits, sustainability of funding in the water and sanitation sector, and improvement in targeting areas in most need of such services. Such steps would ensure maximizing the efficiency of large-scale implementation, monitoring and evaluating of projects and investments, and improved knowledge management (Sanitation and Water for All, 2012).

In 2012, Togo participated in a High Level Meeting with several other developing nations, donor countries, and development banks to discuss plans of action each country would take within

the next two years to improve water and sanitation issues. The Togolese government stated that during those years the country would strive to increase the access of drinking water to 66 percent of the Togolese population, increase national latrine coverage to 55 percent, and to increase the budget of the Drinking Water sector by at least 25 percent by 2014 in the State Budget while also creating a separate budget for basic hygiene and sanitation within the general health budget (Republic of Togo, “2012 High level meeting”).

Increase investment in water and sanitation system development is needed in order for Togo to reach Millennium Development Goals. The African Ministers’ Council on Water estimated that in order for the country to reach those goals, at least $29 million would be needed annually for water supply goals and $55 million annually for sanitation goals (Sanitation and Water for All, 2012). The amount of current funding and investment in these areas is very small. In order to reach the estimated amount of funding needed, Togo needs to receive about $12 million more for water supply funding and $52 million more for sanitation funding (Sanitation and Water for All, 2012).

As a lack of development assistance for the water and sanitation sector on a global level is an issue, stronger global framework and accountability is needed to maximize the potential of aid towards water solutions in poorer countries (Water Aid, 2007). While there are many international committees dedicated to water solutions and aid, actions and declarations are not binding and national and international actors have not been driven enough to make any significant progress (Water Aid, 2007).

Water Aid states that an annual report to review the volume of spending in the water and sanitation sector, sector performance, and effectiveness of aid donors would be a step towards efficiency in development assistance for the sector. There is also a need for annual reports in the levels of investments in the water sector from each developing nations (Water Aid, 2007). These reports would help improve the performance and efficiency of donors and recipients and also identify gaps in funding (Water Aid, 2007).

An annual international High-Level Meeting on water and sanitation where high level officials from donor agencies and representatives from regions such as Africa and South Asia could meet, review, and assess global progress on the sector is also encouraged (Water Aid, 2007). The meeting could serve as a way to identify specific issues within regions and financial gaps that otherwise hinder progress in the water and sanitation sector.

However, one of the most important aspects that can improve the global water and sanitation sector is the governments of developing countries to strengthen national framework to plan, monitor, and coordinate delivery of water services (Water Aid, 2007). Recommendations for governments to improve framework in policy, data, capacity, and finance include:

Realistic annual coverage with timelines with which key policy progress can be measured;

Costed and separate strategies, including institutional reform, to accelerate improvement in water and sanitation services;

Analysis on constrains to implementation of projects and strategies to address them; Policies which support equality, sustainability, and accountability in service delivery; Plan of action as to how projects will be monitored and evaluated (Water Aid, 2007).

Current Water-Related Projects in Togo

In 2007, UNICEF projects reached goals for over 25 Togolese villages to have access to fresh drinking water and adopt good hygiene practices, install washing areas and latrines in some primary healthcare units, and provide emergency fresh water sources and hygienic and sanitation materials to over 36,000 people affected by flooding. In 2012, UNICEF aimed to raise rural access to drinking water to 66 percent, overall access to drinking water and hygienic and sanitation materials to 37 percent, and access to drinking water in healthcare units and schools to 30% nationally (UNICEF, “Togo: Water, hygiene, and sanitation").

Plan teamed up with the European Union in 2011 to fund a five-year program aimed to improve sustainability and access to clean water, sanitation facilities, and hygiene facilities to more than 53,000 people, mainly women and children, in the central Togolese prefecture of Blitta (Plan).

Agence Française de Développement (AFD) in Togo received a six million euro grant to implement the best health conditions and access to safe drinking water in schools and rural areas in 2013 (AFD).

Togo is currently one of the targeted nations in GoAL WaSH project of the United Nations Development Program. The country is planned to be added to the project during GoAL WaSH’s second phase. To comply with the project, Togo aims to update the National Action Plan for the Water and Sanitation Sectors (United Nations Development Program, 2014).

In March of 2014, the World Bank approved $12.1 million in funding for Togo to improve access to health, education, and water services throughout the country. The project is to be implemented in 2016 (“WB supports health,” 2014).

In June of 2014, Togolese minister of economy and finance Adji Oteth Ayassor signed an agreement with the Islamic Development Bank (IDB) for the state to receive a $12.5 million loan for rural water supplies ("La BID s’engage,”2014).

Also in June of 2014, the United Arab Emirates (UAE) Water Aid campaign targeted to raise approximately $34 million in order to provide 5 million people in 60 countries around the world access to fresh drinking water. Togo is one of the 60 countries targeted by the campaign. Emirates Red Crescent has been implementing the project by

aiding nations in need of water supplies with well building, water pump building, and water purification system development (Ponce de Leon, 2014).

Water and Sanitation for Africa organized two training sessions for female pump repairers and masons in the Kara Region in August of 2013. At the end of the sessions, participants were provided with tools and materials to begin with (WSA)

The European Union has financed a 22 million-dollar program to train employees at the Togolese water and health ministries to help the country reach its Millennium Development Goals (Ekoue, 2013).

Togo along with Ghana applied for financing from the African Water Facility/African Development Bank and from the African Legal Support Facility for the preparation of the Sogakope-Lomé Trans boundary Water Supply Project. The goal of the project is to improve the access of drinking water to the population of Lomé and the coastal area of Ghana between the Volta River and the town of Aflao. This is to be done by constructing a water transfer infrastructure that takes water from the Volta and delivers it to Ghanaian and Togolese communities along the pipe route (Republic of Togo, "Sogakope-Lome Trans Boundary Water Supply Project").

Peace Corps’ Togo Clean Water Project aims to replace 16 broken pumps in areas lacking in portable water. The project aims to improve the lives of 25,000 people (Peace Corps).

ChildFund has been working in Togo since 1984 in an attempt to improve water quality and availability as well as access to health care. Currently, the organization has been building latrines and water pumps and also provides communities chemically treated mosquito nets to combat malaria outbreaks (ChildFund).

Bibliography

ABO. "Togo: Returning to the water."

www.abo.net/en_IT/publications/reportage/togo/togo.shtml.

AFD . "Water and sanitation in Togo: a priority area for the health of the population."

http://www.afd.fr/lang/en/home/pays/afrique/geo-afr/togo?actuCtnId=93523.

Ahiablame, Laurent. "Improving water supply systems for domestic uses in urban Togo: The

case of a suburb in Lomé." Water 4, no. 1 (February 1, 2012): 123-34.

AQUASTAT. "Togo."

http://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries_regions/tgo/indexfra.stm.

Brown, Emily L. "Great leap forward in the race to fix global water crisis." The Conversation, July

3, 2013. http://theconversation.com/great-leap-forward-in-the-race-to-fix-global-water-

crisis-15704.

CDC. "Schistosomiasis." http://www.cdc.gov/parasites/schistosomiasis/.

ChildFund. "Encouraging family wellness in Togo." February 1, 2012. Accessed July 28, 2014.

https://www.childfund.org/Encouraging-Family-Wellness-in-Togo/.

CIA. "The World Factbook."

https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/to.html.

Ekoue, Blama. "Togo: afloat in water, but still thirsty." Africa in Fact, July 1, 2013.

http://allafrica.com/stories/201307020700.html.

Encyclopedia of Earth. "Togo." http://www.eoearth.org/view/article/156647/.

End Water Poverty. Togo - Keep your promises! Accessed July 28, 2014.

http://www.endwaterpoverty.org.

Jones, Melanie. "Togo's water crisis targeted." The Gadsden Times, August 10, 2009.

http://www.gadsdentimes.com/article/20090810/NEWS/908104005.

"La BID s’engage pour plus de 100 millions de dollars." République Togolaise, June 26, 2014.

http://www.republicoftogo.com/Toutes-les-rubriques/Finances/La-BID-s-engage-pour-

plus-de-100-millions-de-dollars.

Life in Togo. "Water for Life." http://catewayne.blogspot.com/2007/04/life-for-water.html

Naturvernforbundet. "Safe water for Togo." Accessed July 25, 2014.

http://naturvernforbundet.no/international/safe-water-for-togo/category951.html.

Nkem, Johnson N., Richard Munang, and Bubu Jallow. "Decentralizing Solutions For Rural Water

Supply Under Climate Impacts In Sub-Saharan Africa." Enviroment, March 2011

http://www.environmentmagazine.org/Archives/Back%20Issues/2011/March-April

%202011/rural-water-saharan-africa-full.html.

Peace Corps. "Togo Clean Water Project." Accessed July 26, 2014.

https://donate.peacecorps.gov/index.cfm?

shell=donate.contribute.projDetail&projdesc=14-693-016.

Plan. "Plan teams up with the European Union to provide Togo with better water and

sanitation." https://plan-international.org/where-we-work/africa/togo/plan-teams-up-

with-the-european-union-to-provide-togo-with-better-water-and-sanitation/.

Ponce de Leon, Janice. "Massive response sees Suqia collection reach Dh121.09m." Gulf News,

July 12, 2014. http://gulfnews.com/news/gulf/uae/general/massive-response-sees-

suqia-collection-reach-dh121-09m-1.1358767.

Republic of Togo. "2012 High level meeting water and sanitation for all."

Republic of Togo . "Sogakope-Lome Trans Boundary Water Supply Project." Accessed July 24,

2014. http://www.afdb.org/fileadmin/uploads/afdb/Documents/Project-related-

Procurement/Ghana-Togo%20-%20Sogaokpe%20%E2%80%93%20Lome%20Trans

%20boundary%20Water%20Supply%20Project%20-%20GPN.pdf.

"Running dry: the humanitarian impact of the global water crisis." IRIN, September 7, 2006.

http://www.irinnews.org/indepthmain.aspx?InDepthId=13ReportId=61029.

Ryan's Well Foundation. "Togo." http://www.ryanswell.ca/projects/where-we-work/togo.aspx.

Sanitation and Water for All. Briefing: Economic impact of water and sanitation. 2012.

"Togo: Water crisis spreads to capital." IRIN, April 24, 2007.

http://www.irinnews.org/report/71784/togo-water-crisis-spreads-to-capitalfind.

UNICEF. "Statistics." http://www.unicef.org/infobycountry/togo_statistics.html.

UNICEF. "Togo: Water, hygiene, and sanitation."

http://www.unicef.org/wcaro/WCARO_Niger_Factsht_WASH.pdf.

United Nations. "International Decade for Action 'Water for Life' 2005-2015." Accessed July 24,

2014. http://www.un.org/waterforlifedecade/human_right_to_water.shtml.

United Nations Development Program. Beyond the hardware: Working for governance,

advocacy and leadership in water, sanitation and hygiene. 2014.

http://www.watergovernance.org/documents/WGF/Brochures/Goal-Wash-brochure-

web-2014.pdf.

Water Aid. Sanitation and water: Why we need a global framework for action. 2007.

http://www.wateraid.org/~/media/Publications/sanitation-water-global-framework-

action.pdf.

Water Without Borders. "Water, sanitation, and hygiene for Batome Primary School, Togo,

West Africa." http://waterwithoutborders.ner/togo.html.

"WB supports health, education, water and school feeding in Togo." World Bank, March 7,

2014. http://www.worldbank.org/en/news/press-release/2014/03/07/wb-supports-

health-education-water-and-school-feeding-in-togo.

World Bank. "Data." http://data.worldbank.org/country/togo.

World Bank. "Togo's Lake Boko thrives again."

http://www.worldbank.org/en/news/feature/2014/04/01/togos-lake-boko-thrives-once-again.

WSA. "Women in Togo receive training in pump repair and latrine construction ." Accessed July

27, 2014. http://wsafrica.org/en/story/women-togo-receive-training-pump-repair-and-

latrine-construction.