water sustainability and the city
TRANSCRIPT
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Water Sustainability and the CityLeveraging B.C.’s Water Sustainability Act in Support of Urban Watershed Management
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Report Outline EXECUTIVE SUMMARY page 4
1. INTRODUCTION: URBAN WATERSHED SUSTAINABILITY page 11 1.1. Overview and Purpose 1.2. Approach 1.3. Definitions
2. ENVIRONMENTAL CHALLENGES IN URBAN WATERSHEDS page 16 2.1 AnOverviewofUrbanWatershedChallenges 2.2 AssessingEnvironmentalChallengesinB.C.’sUrbanWatersheds 2.2.1 Severity of Environmental Issues 2.2.2 DifferentConcernsinDifferentRegions 2.3 CausesandCulpritsofEnvironmentalChallengesinB.C.’sUrban 2.3.1 Watersheds 2.3.2 Prevalenceoftriggers 2.3.3 RegionalDifferences
3. LOCAL WATERSHED MANAGEMENT: TOOLS AND CHALLENGES page 28 3.1 ExistingTools 3.1.1 Bylaws,Zoning,andDevelopmentPermitAreas 3.1.2 Waterdemandmanagementprograms 3.1.3 Fundingintegratedwaterinfrastructure 3.2 ChallengestoSustainableWatershedManagement 3.2.1 Voluntaryvs.mandatedprotections 3.2.2 Long-termwatershedplanningvs.shorttermpoliticalcycles 3.2.3 Piecemealapproach 3.2.4 Lackofresourcestosupporton-the-groundwork 3.2.5 Accountabilityofprovincialgovernment 3.2.6 Fragmentedwaterframework 3.2.7 (Un)collaborativedecision-making
4. LEVERAGING THE WATER SUSTAINABILITY ACT page 44 4.1 LeveragePointsoftheActrelatedtourbanwatershedmanagement 4.2 RecommendationsfortheProvincetosupporturbanwatershedmanagement 4.2.1 ConnectinglandandwaterthroughWaterObjectives 4.2.2 Improvingcoordinationandtransparencydecision-making 4.2.3 Securingadequatefundsforwatershedmanagement 4.2.4 Ensuringwaterisprotectedfornature 4.2.5 Monitoringandreportingonwatershedhealth 4.3 Practitionerfeedbackonrecommendations
5. CONCLUSIONS page 51
APPENDIXA page 52 APPENDIXB page 53 APPENDIXC page 55 APPENDIXD page 57
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© 2017 by the Canadian Freshwater Alliance - Tides Canada. Water Sustainability and the City: Leveraging B.C.’s Water Sustainability Act in Support of Urban Watershed ManagementismadeavailableunderaCreativeCommonsAttribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives4.0Licence(international): https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/
SuggestedCitation:Mettler,C.(2017,November).WaterSustainabilityandtheCity:LeveragingB.C.’sWaterSustainabilityActinSupportofUrbanWatershedManagement.TheCanadianFreshwaterAlliance-TidesCanada,Canada.
Acknowledgements
This report was made possible through a partnership between the Canadian Freshwater Alliance and Evergreen with funding by the Real Estate Foundation of British Columbia and the Bullitt Foundation.
ThedevelopmentofthisdocumentwasguidedbythethoughtfulinputofdozensofurbanwatershedprofessionalsthroughoutBritishColumbia.Toprotecttheanonymityoftheircontributionsinthereport,wedonotnamespecificindividualswhocontributed.However,itshouldbenotedthattheirobservationsandinsightswereinvaluable,andformthebasisofthefindingsandrecommendationsofthisreport.
Theinputandguidanceofanadvisorycommitteewasalsoinstrumentalinshapingthescopeandcontentofthisreportandfeedbackofpeerreviewershelpedtolendrigoranddepthofexpertiseandexperiencetothefinalproduct.Weacknowledgethattheinputoftheadvisorycouncilandpeerreviewersdoesnotnecessarilyengendertheirfullendorsementofthereport’scontentsorconclusions.Wespecificallythankthefollowingindividualsfortheirinputandsuggestions:
OliverBrandes,POLISProjectonEcologicalGovernanceDeborahCarlson,WestCoastEnvironmentalLawJamesCasey,BirdStudiesCanadaTheresaFresco,FraserBasinCouncilAmyGreenwood,formerlyofFraserBasinCouncilJordiHoney-Roses,SchoolofCommunityandRegionalPlanning,UniversityofBritishColumbiaRosieSimms,POLISProjectonEcologicalGovernanceLindsayTelfer,CanadianFreshwaterAlliance
Cover Photo Credits (left to right)MillCreekinKelowna.PhotoCredit:ChristineMettlerStreetsideraingarden.PhotoCredit/GreenCommunitiesCanadaFraserRiveratNewWestminster.PhotoCredit/waferboard.CCBY2.0GreendevelopmentinVictoria.PhotoCredit/J.ScratchleyCC-BY-ND2.0PhotoCredit/ephien.CCBY2.0StillCreekinVancouver.PhotoCredit/DuncanCreamer.CCBY2.0
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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY Overthree-quartersofthepopulationinBritishColumbialiveinurbanizedwatersheds.Thesewatershedsprovideavarietyofecological,health,social,economicandculturalfunctionsforthepeopleandecosystemsthatdependonthem.Yet,despitetheimportantrolethesewatershedsplay,theyaresomeofthemostdegradedwatersheds.Localgovernmentsarewell-positionedtoinfluenceenvironmentaloutcomesinwatershedsthatfallwithintheirjurisdictions.Butmanywatershedpractitionersworkinginlocalgovernmentshaveexpressedconcernabouttheirabilitytomitigateenvironmentalpressuresthatareresultinginwatersheddegradationinurbanareas.Urbanwatershedsustainability—keepingwatershedsinconditionstosustainthefunctionsthatcontributetohumanandecologicalwell-beingforcurrentandfuturegenerations—isachallenge.
B.C.’snewWater Sustainability Act(WSA)enablesthedevelopmentofregulatoryandpolicytoolsthat,ifeffectivelyseized,couldincreaselocalgovernments’abilitiestomoresustainablymanagelocalwatersheds.Manyofthesetoolshaveyettobedeveloped.Thisreportidentifiesopportunitiesforthedevelopmentandimplementationofregulations,policies,andprogramsundertheWSAthatcouldaddresschallengeshamperingwatershedsustainabilityinurbanareasacrossB.C.
Inordertoidentifytheseregulatoryandpolicyinterventions,wefirstneededtoanswerthefollowingquestions:
1. WhatenvironmentalchallengesareprevalentinB.C.’surbanwatershedsandwhatactivitiesarecausingthem?
2. Whattoolscurrentlyexisttoaddressthosechallenges?
3. Whydolocalgovernments,despitethetoolsthatcurrentlyexist,continuetoexperiencechal-lengesinaddressingwatersheddegradation?
Wesoughttoanswerthesequestionsbyreviewingresearchandliteratureonurbanwatersheds,andbyaskingurbanwatershedpractitionersfortheirperspectives.Specifically,wesentanonlinesurveyto79urbanwatershedpractitionersthroughoutB.C.andconductedfollow-upinterviewswithfivesurveyrespondents.Respondentswereprimarilyfrommunicipalities,followedbyregionaldistricts,governmentalagenciesorcollaborativepartnerships,not-for-profitorganizations,FirstNations,andconsultingfirms.TheyworkedinurbanwatershedsintheMetroVancouverarea,EasternVancouverIsland,theOkanaganandtheKamloopsareas.
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Environmental Challenges
Respondentswereparticularlyconcernedaboutriparianhabitatlossanddegradation:80%ofrespondentssaidthiswaseithera“notable”(4outof5inseverity)or“verysignificant”(5outof5inseverity)concern.Droughtandlowstreamflow(71%ofrespondentssaidthiswasa“notable”or“verysignificant”concern)wasthesecondlargestconcern,followedbyflooding(57%ofrespondentssaidthiswasa“notable”of“verysignificantconcern).Generallyspeaking,respondentsintheMetroVancouverareaweremostconcernedaboutriparianhabitatdegradation.RespondentsintheOkanaganandKamloopsareaweremuchmoreconcernedabouttheirdrinkingwaterqualityandquantitythantheircounterpartsfromtheMetroVancouverareaandEasternVancouverIsland.
Environmental Pressures
Land-usechangewasratedasthemostsignificantpressurecausingenvironmentaldegradation.83%ofrespondentssaidthiswasa“notable”or“verysignificant”threat.Onlyonerespondentsaiditwasamildthreat(2outof5inseverity)andnoonesaiditwas“notatall”athreat.Impervioussurfaceswasidentifiedasthesecondmostprevalentpressure(71%ofrespondentssaiditwasa“notable”or“verysignificant”threat),followedbyclimatechange(63%saidthiswasa“notable”or“verysignificant”threat).Respondentsfromurbanareaswithhighpopulationdensities(i.e.withanaveragepopulationdensityofover1,000peoplepersquarekilometer)thoughtimpervioussurfaceswereabiggerchallengethanland-usechange.Respondentsfrom“moderatelyurban”(250-999inhabitantspersquarekilometer)municipalitiesinMetroVancouverwerethemostconcernedaboutland-usechange,with100%ofrespondentsidentifyingland-usechangeaseithera“notable”or“verysignificant”threat.
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Existing Tools
Localgovernmentshaveanumberoftoolsattheirdisposaltoaddresstheenvironmentalissues—andpressuresthatgiverisetothem—identifiedabove.Althoughnotanexhaustivelist,thisreportidentifiedthreecategoriesoftoolsthatarecommonlydeployedbylocalgovernments.Thesetoolsarenotnecessarilyexclusivefromoneanotherandmaybeusedincombination.
1. BylawsandDevelopmentPermitAreas.Provinciallegislationgiveslocalgovernmentsauthoritytoregulateinanumberofareassuchasland-usechange,drainage,andinsomemattersrelatedtothenaturalenvironment.Inthevastmajorityofthecases,whileprovinciallegislationdoesgiveauthoritytolocalgovernmentstoregulate,itdoesnotrequireregulationtoprotectenvironmentalvalues(withsomeexceptions,e.g.localgovernmentsmustcomplywiththefederalFisheriesAct).Whenandiflocalgovernmentsdocreateregulationsintendedtoimprovewatershedoutcomes,itcannotviolateprovinciallegislation(e.g.theRighttoFarmAct).
2. Waterdemandmanagementprograms.Localgovernmentsmayuseacombinationofbylawsandothermeasures—suchaseconomicandfinancialmeasures—toencouragewaterconservation.Forexample,theymayestablishbylawsthatrequireefficientplumbingandfix-turesinnewdevelopmentsorbylawstominimizerun-offvolumesgeneratedbydevelopments.Economicandfinancialleversincludeestablishingconservation-orientedpricingforwaterdeliveryservicesorrequiringwatermetersforcommercialand/ordomesticusers.
3. Infrastructurefunding.GovernmentsacrossCanadaarereinvigoratingtheircommitmenttoinfrastructureinvestment,afterseveraldecadesofunderinvestmenthasledtoalarge“infra-structuregap.”Inadditiontotraditional“grey”infrastructure(e.g.engineeredworkssuchaspipes,sewers,anddetentionponds),thereisanincreasingrecognitionoftherolethat“green”infrastructure(e.g.naturalandconstructedfeatures,suchasurbanforests,parkspace,wet-landsandriparianzones,greenroofs,raingardens,bioswales,andretentionponds)canplayinimprovingurbanwatershedhealth—forexamplebyminimizingrun-offfromprecipitationevents.Localgovernmentsmayapplytofederalorprovincialgrantstohelpwiththeseinfra-structureinvestments.Despitethisfinancialaid,localgovernmentspayamuchlargershareforfundinginfrastructuretodaythantheydidseveralyearsago.Tofundtheseinvestments,somehaveoptedtoinstitutecost-recoveryprogramssuchasstormwaterordrainagefees.
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Management Challenges
Despitethetoolsthatlocalgovernmentshavetoaddresstheenvironmentalchallengesandpressuresthatgiverisetothem,manywatershedpractitionersworkingin—orcloselywith—localgovernmenthaveexpressedthatthereremainsignificantbarrierstoprotectingwatershedhealthinB.C.’surbanareas.Whenasked“Canlocalgovernmentsadequatelyaddresswatershedsissues,”thevastmajoritysaid“someofthem/inpart”,whilejustunderonefifthofrespondentssaid“no.”
Usingdatacollectedinthesurveyandthroughone-on-oneinterviews,weidentifiedsevenbarriersthatimpedetheabilityoflocalgovernmentstoplanforandmanagewatershedssustainably.
1. Voluntaryvs.mandatedprotections.Provinciallegislationhasenabledlocalgovernmentstomakeregulationstoprotectenvironmentalandwatershedhealth,but,by-in-large,hasnotre-quiredlocalgovernmentstodothis(withsomeexceptions).Surveyandinterviewrespondentsexpressedconcernthatthishasresultedinalargediscrepancybetweenlocalgovernmentswithregardtopoliciesandactionsthatprotecturbanwatersheds.Somenotedhow,withoutprovincialstandards,localdecision-makersmayresistenactingprotections,orthereisanincreasedlikelihoodofspecialinterestsinfluencingdecision-making.Thenotionthatmanylocalgovernmentslacked“politicalwill”wasbroughtupbyseveralparticipants.
2. Long-termwatershedplanningvs.shorttermpoliticalcycles.Restoringhealthywater-shedprocessescantakealongtime.Thebeneficialimpactsofarestorationprojectmightnotreveal themselves for as little as a few months to a year, to as many as over a hundred years. However,localgovernmentsareunderpressuretoshowtheirconstituencieshowpublicfundsarebenefittingthecommunityonamuchshorterterm,orrisklosingelections.Surveyandinterviewrespondentsnotedthatthissometimesresultsinotherpriorities—wherebenefitsmanifestthemselvesonamuchshorterterm—takingprecedenceoversustainablewatershedmanagement.
3. Piecemealapproach.Manyofthetoolsthatexistforlocalgovernmentstoinfluenceactivi-tiesthatimpactwatershedhealtharetoolsintendedtopreventfuturedegradation(i.e.theyareaimedatmitigatingharmcausedbynewdevelopments)andaresitespecific(i.e.theyareenactedonalot-by-lotbasis).Althoughtheseinterventionsmayhelptostoporslowharm,theyaretypicallynotenoughtorestoretheimpactsofpastdegradation.Thisleadsomepar-ticipantstoexpressthatitishardtomakegainsonoverallwatershedhealth—insomecasesnecessaryforwatershedstofunctionsustainably.
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4. Lackofresourcestosupporton-the-groundwork.Surveyparticipantsidentifiedalackoffinancialresourcesasthelargestchallengetobeingabletosustainablymanagewatersheds,with71%ofrespondentssayingthiswaseithera“large”or“verylarge”barrier.Surveyandin-terviewparticipantsindicatedthatconstrainedresourcesinhibitedtheirabilitytoperformactiv-itiessuchasimplementingandenforcingrulesandpolicies,monitorwatershedhealth,conducteducationandoutreach,andensurethecontinuityofwatershedprogramsingeneral.Partic-ipantsnotedthatconstrainedresourcesnotonlyaffectslocalgovernments,butthatitalsohampersprovincialgovernmentstafffromfulfillingitsdutieswithregardtowatershedman-agementandprotection(e.g.conductingwatermonitoringandscience,issuingandreviewinglicenses,enforcingrules).Thisinturncanmakeputmoreofaburdenonlocalgovernments.
5. Accountabilityofprovincialgovernment.Severalinterviewandsurveyparticipantsnoted,withoutprompting,thattheyperceivedanaccountabilitygapamonghigherlevelsofgovern-mentwithregardtofulfillingtheirdutiesandenforcingtheirownrules.Participantsidentifiedthisbarrierasmostsalientwithregardtotheprovincialgovernment,althoughsomepartic-ipantsdididentifythefederalgovernmentaswell.Thiswasnotedinparticularwithregardtoenforcement,especiallyinregardstooversubscriptionofwater,illegalwaterwithdrawals,unmonitoreddischargesintowaterbodies,andactivitiesoncrownlandthatcompromisewa-tershedhealth.Someparticipantssharedaconcernthatthisunderminedlocalgovernments’abilitiestoprotectorrestorewatershedswithintheirjurisdictions.
6. (Un)collaborativedecision-making.Participantsidentifiedaneedforcollaborativewater-sheddecision-makingbetweendifferentlevelsofgovernments,butmanynotedthatcurrentmechanismsandsupportswerenotadequate.Thereisnooverarchingpolicyforcollaborativeordelegateddecision-makinginB.C.,andconsequentlythereisalargevariationacrosstheprovincewithregardtowhatkindofmechanismsexistandwhoisinvolvedindecision-mak-ing.Someregionshaveformalwatershedentitieswithlegalstatusandfunding,othershaveinformalgroupswithsomefundingbutlittlecapacity,othershavead hoccommitteeswithlittlefundingandcapacityforcollaborativewatersheddecision-making.Insomeregions,represen-tativesfrommultiplelevelsofgovernmentareatthetable.Inotherregions,localgovernmentsmakedecisionslargelywithoutconferringwithprovincialandfederalgovernmentsorFirstNations.SomeparticipantsrelayedthatFirstNationsareoftenexcludedfromlocalwatersheddecision-makingaltogether,andthatwhentheyareincluded,itisinaconsultative,notcollabo-rative, manner.
7. Fragmentedwaterframework.InB.C.,thereareanumberoflawsandregulationsthatper-taintoorhaveimpactsonurbanwatershedmanagement(e.g.theDrinkingWaterProtectionAct,theForestRangePracticesAct,theB.C.BuildingCode,etc.).Someparticipantsexpressedconcernthatrequirementsunderotherlawsorregulationsinhibittheirabilitytoprotecturbanwatershedhealthduetoconflictingindications.Otherparticipantsnotedhowthecurrentframeworkisdifficulttonavigate,andhardtoknowwhichstatutetakeslegalprecedencewhenmakingdecisions.SeveralparticipantsrelayedtheneedfortheWaterSustainabilityActtocon-siderandbuilduponpreviouswatershedplanningworkdoneatthelocallevel.
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Towards Solutions: Leveraging the Water Sustainability Act
Althoughtheabovearenotinsignificantchallenges,thereareinterventionsthatcanhelptoaddressthem.ThenewWater Sustainability Act(WSA)presentsatimelyopportunitytodothis.Asprovincialstaffcontinuetodevelopregulations,policies,andprogramstosupportimplementationoftheAct,localgovernmentswoulddowelltoseizethisopportunity.ThisreportsuggeststhatwatershedpractitionersworkinginorwithlocalgovernmentswouldbemuchbetterpositionedtosustainablymanageurbanwatershedsiftheProvinceweretodevelopregulatoryandpolicytoolsthat:
1. ConnectlandandwaterthroughWaterObjectives
2. Improvecoordinationandtransparencyindecision-making
3. Secureadequatefundsforwatershedmanagement
4. Ensurewaterisprotectedfornature
5. Facilitatemonitoringandreportingonwatershedhealth
Specifically,thereportoutlines14recommendations(andseveralsub-recommendations)intheseareasthat,ifeffectivelyimplemented,willincreasethecapacityoflocalgovernmentstoaddressandreverseurbanwatersheddegradation.WesuggestthatlocalgovernmentsadvocatetotheProvincetotakeactiononthoserecommendations.
These recommendations are:
1. Developregulationsthatuseperformance-basedcriteriatoestablishobjectivesforwaterquali-ty,quantityandecosystemhealth.
2. DevelopWaterObjectivestoapplytourbanizedwatersheds.
3. MonitorandreviewimplementationofWaterObjectives.
4. Developguidanceandprocessesforlocalgovernmentsonhowwatersheddecision-makingwillbeaffectedbyimplementationoftheWaterSustainabilityAct.
5. Developwatershedgovernancepilotsinpriorityareas,whichcouldformthebasisfor‘water-shedentities.’
6. Establishathird-party,capacity-buildingentitytocoordinateandfacilitateknowledgetransferwithinandbetweenwatershedentitiesanddifferentlevelsofgovernment.
7. WhenWaterSustainabilityPlansaredesignated,ensureplansconsiderandincorporatetheeffortsofpreviouswatershedplanningefforts(e.g.WatershedAssessment&ResponsePlans,WaterUsePlans,etc.)andlocalgovernmentCommunityPlansandbylaws.
8. ReviewthecurrentfeesandratesstructuresetoutintheWaterSustainabilityFees,ChargesandRentalsRegulationtodeterminewhethercurrentstructureishighenoughtoprocurenec-essaryfundstofullyimplementtheAct.
9. WorkwithaSustainableFundingTaskforcetoexploreandtestimplementationofothersus-tainablefundingmechanismsforwatershedmanagementattheprovincialandwatershed
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level,suchasincreasingrevenuefromlocaltaxbases,Crownresourcerentals,etc.
10. Establishlegallyenforceableregulationstoprotectenvironmentalflows.
11. DevelopanEnvironmentalFlowsTaskforcewithparticipationoflocalgovernment,FirstNations,andthefederalgovernmenttoestablishwhetherexistingwaterallocationsaresustainable.
12. Identifyopportunitiestocoordinateandstreamlinewaterdatafromdifferentmonitoringoper-ationstoenhanceknowledge-sharingandreduceduplicationofefforts.
13. Requireallwateruserstomonitorwaterwithdrawalsandreporttheirusetogovernment.
14. CompileasummaryofwaterdataintoaStateofOurWatersreport,apubliclyaccessiblereportissuedeveryfiveyears.
Therecommendationswerepresentedtoover50watershedpractitionersataone-dayforuminOctober2017forinput.Thisfeedback,whilevaluable,doesnotconstituteofficialconsultation.Therewasgeneralagreementthattherecommendationsabovewouldbehelpful.Thosepresentreiteratedthataneedforresources,collaborationandsharingofresponsibility,clarityanddirectionandcontinuingeducationaskeyelementstosupportthesuccessfulimplementationoftheAct.
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1. INTRODUCTION: URBAN WATERSHED SUSTAINABILITY
1.1. Overview and Purpose
Urbanwatershedshavespecificchallengesthatrequiretailoredsolutions.AlthoughthevastmajorityofBritishColumbia’slandmassisclassifiedasrural,overthreequartersoftheprovince’spopulationlivesinhighlyurbanizedwatersheds.1ThevastmajorityofB.C.’sresidents,therefore,aredependentonasmallnumberofwatershedsforavarietyofecological,economic,socialandhumanhealthfunctionsthatarevitaltohumanwell-being.However,urbanwatershedsalsotendtobethemostdegradedwatersheds.2AspopulationpressuresgrowinB.C.inthecomingyearsandtheimpactsofclimatechangebecomemoreapparent,thesewatershedswillcomeundermorestrain.Developingeffective,comprehensivestrategiestoconserveandrehabilitateurbanwatershedsisatimelyandimportanttask.
InBritishColumbia,alllevelsofgovernmentplayaroleinwatershedmanagement,butlocalgovernmentshaveauniqueandsignificantroleinoverseeingactivitiesthatimpactwatershedhealth.ThelegalframeworkinBritishColumbiaprovidestoolsthatfacilitatelocalgovernments’abilitytoinfluencesuchactivitiesintheirjurisdiction.However,despitethesetools,manylocalwatershedmanagershaveexpressedconcernthatthecurrentframeworkandthewayinwhichitoperateshassignificantgapsthatcompromisetheirabilitytoensurethesustainabilityofurbanwatershedsintheircommunities.
TheWater Sustainability Actprovidesanopportunitytoaddresssomeofthesechallenges.CalledintoforceinFebruaryof2016,theWater Sustainability Act(WSA)istheprovince’sprincipallegislationgoverningwateruse,replacingtheWaterActof1909.ThenewActexpandsthescopeofthelegalframeworkforwaterinBritishColumbia.Forexample,itexpandstheregulationofwaterusefromsurfacetogroundwater,requiresthatdecision-makersconsiderenvironmentalflowneedswhenconsideringapplicationsfornewwaterlicenses,andprovidesforthecreationofregulatoryauthorityinseveralareas,includinglinkingland-usewithwatershedoutcomes.3
ThevastmajorityofdetailconcerningtheimplementationoftheWSAisandwillbecontainedinregulationsandoperatingpolicies.AninitialsetofregulationswasreleasedinFebruary2016,whentheActwascalledintoforce.However,therearemanyareasofregulationsthathaveyettobedeveloped.ThescopeoftheActalsoprovidesavarietyofopportunitiesfornewoperatingpoliciesandprogramstobedeveloped.
1Rothwell,Neil.Canada’sWatersheds:The Demographic Basis for an Urban-rural Dialogue.StatisticsCanada, AgricultureDivision,2006.2Hughes,RobertM.,etal.“Areviewofurbanwaterbodychallengesandapproaches:(1)rehabilitationand remediation.”Fisheries39.1(2014):18-29,citingStanfieldetal.2006andStranketal.2008. 3Brandes,Oliver;Carr-Wilson,Savannah;Curran,DeborahandSimms,Rosie.AwashwithOpportunity:Ensuringthe sustainabilityofBritishColumbia’snewwaterlaw.ThePOLISProjectonEcologicalGovernance(November2015).
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Thepurposeofthisreportistoidentifyopportunitiesforthedevelopmentandimplementationofregulations,policies,andprogramsundertheWater Sustainability ActthatcouldimproveenvironmentaloutcomesinurbanwatershedsacrossB.C.Itisintendedfortwoprincipalaudiences:(1)urbanwatershedmanagers4withinlocalgovernments(definedasmunicipalities,regionaldistrictsandirrigationdistricts)andFirstNations5inBritishColumbiaand(2)keystaffworkingonpolicydevelopmentoftheWater Sustainability Actwithintheprovincialgovernment.Thereportislaidoutaccordingly:
• Section2discussesenvironmentalchallengesinurbanwatersheds,andevaluatestheextenttowhichthesechallengesareprevalentincitiesinBritishColumbia;
• Section3providesanoverviewoftoolsthatcurrentlyexisttoimproveurbanwatershedsustainability,challengesthatimpedethispursuit,andpotentialsolutions.
• Section4assesseshowtheWater Sustainability Actcouldbeleveragedtoaddresstheidentifiedenvironmentalandmanagementchallengesthroughthedevelopmentofregulations,policiesandprograms.Thissectiondrawsfromandbuildsuponthesolutionslistedinsection3.
1.2 Approach
Thereportauthorsusedmulti-prongedresearchandengagementapproachwasusedtoinformthefindingsandrecommendationscontainedinthereport.Specifically,theauthorandadvisorycommitteeundertookaliteraturereview,conductedanonlinesurveyandinterviewswithwatermanagers,soughtexpertadvice,heldanonlineworkshopandorganizedaforumwiththeparticipationofapproximatelyfiftyurbanwatershedprofessionals.
Literature Review
Intheliteraturereview,weexaminedacademicarticles,greyliterature(includingtoolkits,guidancematerials;andreportsfromnon-profitassociations,variouslevelsofgovernment,academicandresearchinstitutions,andconsultingfirms),newsarticles,relevantlegislation,regulation,andpolicydocumentsinorderto:
• Identifykeyenvironmentalissuesaffectingurbanwatershedsingeneral,andB.C.’surbanwater-shedsinparticular;
• ContextualizeB.C.’scomplexjurisdictionalframeworkwithregardtourbanwatershedmanagement,includingexistingtoolsandmechanismsinplacetoaddressenvironmentalchallenges;
• Identifysuccessfactorsforeffectiveurbanwatershedmanagement,whichareintegratedintorec-ommendationsinSection4.
4Urbanwatershedmanagersinclude:land-useandenvironmentalplanners,publicworksmanagersandstaffinpublicworks,waterpolicyanalystsandrelatedprofessionswhoseworkcouldbeimpactedbytheimplementationoftheWaterSustainabilityAct.5RightsandresponsibilitiesofFirstNationswithregardtowatermanagementareuniqueanddifferfromthoseoflocalgovernments.Thegovernanceandmanagementcontextdescribedinthispaperappliesmostspecificallytolocalgovernments.However,sincemanyFirstNationsareinvolvedinlocalwatershedmanagement,thefindingsofthispapermaybeofinteresttostaffandcouncilofFirstNationsaswell.
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Online Survey and Interviews
TogleanmorespecificinformationregardingthescopeandseverityofenvironmentalchallengesinB.C.’surbanwatersheds,weengagedindividualsworkinginurbanwatershedmanagementinurbanareasintheprovince.
Anonlinesurveythatcontainedquestionsregardingurbanwatershedmanagementchallengeswassharedwithindividualsworkinginurbanwatershedmanagementaroundtheprovince.Wefocusedonthoseworkingin:
• TheMetroVancouverarea;
• TheOkanaganregion,specificallyindividualswhoseworkisrelevanttowatershedsinPenticton,WestKelowna,KelownaandVernon;
• TheKamloopsarea;and
• EasternVancouverIsland,withafocusontheNanaimoandVictoriaareas.
Theseareaswerechosenastheycorrespondtothedefinitionof“urban”chosenforthepurposesofthisresearch(seesection1.3,“Definitions”).Thesurveywassentto79individuals.Intheend,35individualsfrom25organizationsrespondedtotheonlinesurvey.Themajority(80%)ofrespondentswerefromlocalgovernmentsorganizations(municipalitiesorregionaldistricts)andFirstNationsgovernments,howeverthereweresomeparticipantsfromnon-profitorganizationsandconsultingfirmswhoworkextensivelyonurbanwatershedmanagement.AppendixAprovidesademographicbreakdownofsurveyrespondents.
Inadditiontotheonlinesurveypreparedforthepurposesofthisproject,wealsoanalyzedanearliersurveyonurbanwatershedchallengesadministeredbythenon-profitorganization,Evergreen,in2016.TheresearchcontainedinthisreportitselfbuildsuponEvergreen’spreviousworkregardingurbanwatershedsustainability.TheEvergreensurveycontainedresponsesfrom13individualsinthenonprofitstewardshipcommunityandlocalgovernment.Althoughthesurveycontainedsufficientlydifferentquestionsfromtheofficialprojectsurvey,relevantandrelatedthemesemergedfromresponses,whichhelpedtovalidateoraddbreadthtotheanalysis.
Inordertohoneinonanddeepenanalysisofinformationcollectedintheliteraturereviewandtheonlinesurvey,weconductedinterviewswithurbanwatershedmanagersandknowledgeholdersfromdifferenturbanareasinB.C.Intotal,weconductedfivefollow-upinterviews.WealsohadconversationswithfourprominentB.C.waterexpertstofurtherguidetheanalysis.
Inthereport,responsesofsurveyandinterviewparticipantsareanonymized.Anonymitywaschosensothatparticipantswouldfeelcomfortablespeakingfreelyaboutchallengestheyfaceinandoutsideoftheirorganizationwithregardtourbanwatershedmanagement.
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Expert advice
Inordertoensurearigorousanalysisofenvironmental,legal,andgovernancefactors,advicewassoughtfrompractitionerswhoholdin-depthknowledgeofthevarioussubjectareasthisreportcovers.Specifically,anadvisorycounciloffiveindividualsfromfourorganizationsguidedthedevelopmentoftheresearchandreport.Inadditiontothoseontheadvisorycouncil,thisreportwasalsoreviewedbytwocontentexperts.
Online Workshop
Totriangulatethefindingsfromtheliteraturereview,onlinesurveyandinterviewsandensuretheanalysiscontainedhereisconsistentwiththeexperiencesoflocalgovernment,weheldawebinartopresenttheworktodateandtogatherfeedback.Tenurbanwatershedpractitionerswerepresent.Feedbackfromparticipantsduringthewebinarconfirmedthefindings.Participantsalsoexpressedaninterestinseeingthefindingsmobilizedintoactionableitems.
Water Sustainability and the City forum
Finally,weinvitedwatershedprofessionalsfromdifferentorganizationsincludingmunicipalities,regionaldistricts,FirstNations,non-profitorganizationsandtheB.C.provincialgovernmenttoaforumtodiscussfindingsofthisreportandrecommendationsforactions,aswellastoprovideanopportunityforpeerlearningonaddressingurbanwatershedchallenges.Duringtheforum,weheldaone-hourworkshopsessionwhereparticipantsprovidedfeedbackontherecommendationscontainedinSection4.Adiscussionofthisfeedbackisprovidedinsection4.3.Itisimportanttonotethatthisfeedback,whilevaluable,doesnotconstituteconsultationwithregardtoregulatorydevelopmentoftheActandshouldbeconstruedassuch.
Rain in Coquitlam. Photo Credit: Jason V. CC BY 2.0
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1.3 Definitions
Urban
Forthepurposesofthisreport,wechoseanoperationaldefinitionof“urban”basedoncriteriausedbyStatisticsCanadaincensusanalysis.AlthoughStatisticsCanadausesapopulationdensityof400peoplepersquarekilometerwhendefininga“populationcentre”(formerly,an“urbancentre”)6,weoptedforabroaderdefinitionof250peoplepersquarekilometer.ThisallowedforgrowingmunicipalitiessuchastheDistrictofWestKelowna,theTownshipofLangleyandtheTownshipofMapleRidgetobeincludedinthisanalysis.Thisresearchalsofocusedonareasthathavepopulationsof10,000ormoreresidents.7 “Cities”isoftenusedinterchangeablywith“urbanareas”throughoutthereport.
UrbanwaterprofessionalswhoseworkappliestowatershedswithinMetroVancouverandtheOkanaganregion,aswellasKamloops,NanaimoandVictoriawereengagedforthisresearch.Althoughthereareareas(e.g.NelsonandPrinceGeorge)thatmeetthecriteriaoftheoperationaldefinitionof“urban”inthisresearch,wedecidedtolimitthescopeoftheresearchtotheaforementionedareas.Nonetheless,theoutcomesofthisreportarelikelytohaverelevanceforotherurbanareasbothinsideandoutsideofBritishColumbia.
Watershed Sustainability
“Watershedsustainability”doesnoteasilylenditselftoanoperationaldefinition.Instead,thedefinitionhereservesasaconceptualframethatgivescontexttothechallengesidentifiedinthereport.FollowingtheBrundtlandCommission,sustainabilityrequiresthatenvironmentalresourcesandecosystemsaremaintainedinconditionssuchthattheneedsofbothcurrentandfuturegenerationscanbemet.8,9Thiscanextendtonon-human(e.g.ecological)needsaswellashuman(e.g.economic,social,cultural,health-related)needs.Watersystemsaredynamicandabletorenewthemselvesiftheymaintainabaselineofecologicalandhydrologicalintegrity.Ensuringsustainablewatershedsmayrequirebothpreventingandreversingdegradationsothattheycansustainthefunctionsthatcontributetohumanandecologicalwell-being.
Whentheecologicalandhydrologicalintegrityofwatershedsisthreatened,wecanassumethatthewatershed’sabilitytosustainitselfandmeetecologicalandhumanneeds—i.e.watershedsustainability—isalsothreatened.AppendixBcontainsmorediscussionofconsiderationsrelatedtowatershedsustainability.
6StatisticsCanada,“PopulationCentre.”(2015).Retrievedfrom:http://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2011/ref/dict/geo049a-eng.cfm 7StatisticsCanadadefinespopulationscentreswith10,000residentsormoreasa“coreagglomeration”initscensus.8Brundtland,G.,&Khalid,M.(1987).UNBrundtlandCommissionReport.Our Common Future:ReportoftheWorldCommissiononEnvironmentandDevelopmenthttp://www.un-documents.net/our-common-future.pdf 9AlthoughtheBrundtlandCommissiondefinitioniswidelyusedindiscussionsregardingenvironmentalsustainability,itshouldbenotedthatthedefinitiondoesnotadequatelyencompassFirstNationsculturalandlegalconcepts.AmoreintegrateddefinitionthatincludesFirstNationsperspectiveson“sustainability”couldlendmorerobustnesstothisdefinitionandtoitsoperationalization.
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2. ENVIRONMENTAL CHALLENGES IN URBAN WATERSHEDS
2.1 An Overview of Urban Watershed Challenges
Populationtrendsassociatedwithurbanizationputpressureonwatersheds.Highpopulationdensitiesinurbanareasgiverisetodensebuiltenvironmentsthatareoftenextensivelyalteredfromnaturalstates.Further,thelargenumberofpeoplelivingincitiesmeansthattherearegreaterdemandsonnaturalresourcesinagivenarea.Thissectiondiscussesfourprincipalenvironmentalchallengesassociatedwithurbanization,asidentifiedinaliteraturereview:land-usechangeand“urbanstreamsyndrome”,wastewaterandemergingcontaminantsofconcern,competingdemandsonwater,andclimatechange.
i) Land-use change, “urban stream syndrome” and lost streamsLand-usechangesthatdisplacenaturalfeatureswithagriculturalorurbanlandcoverareamajorfactorthatleadsto“urbanstreamsyndrome”10.Urbanstreamsyndromeincludessymptomssuchas:
• Increasedvariabilityinstreamflows(mosturbanstreamsbecome“flashier”,i.e.experiencemoreandmoresuddeninstancesofhighflows;someurbanstreamsalsoexperiencemoreprolongedlowflows11);
• Impairedwaterquality(e.g.increasedturbidityandpresenceofchemicaland/orbiologicalcontaminants);
• Lossofcomplexecologicalfeatures(e.g.streammeanders,wetlandandriparianareas)thatresultsinphysicalhabitatlossforfishandwildlifeandoveralllossofbiodiversity;
• Higherwatertemperaturesdueto“urbanheatisland”effect.12
10Walsh,ChristopherJ.,AllisonH.Roy,JackW.Feminella,PeterD.Cottingham,PeterM.Groffman,andRaymondP.MorganII.“Theurbanstreamsyndrome:currentknowledgeandthesearchforacure.”Journal of the North American Benthological Society 24.3(2005).11Konrad,ChristopherP.,andDerekB.Booth.“Hydrologicchangesinurbanstreamsandtheirecologicalsignificance.”American Fisheries Society Symposium.47(2005).12Somers,KayleighA.,etal.“Streamsintheurbanheatisland:spatialandtemporalvariabilityintemperature.”Freshwater Science 32.1(2013).
Flooded residential neighbourhood. Photo Credit: Center for Neighbourhood Technology. CC BY-SA-2.0
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Thesesymptomsoccurbecauseofland-usechangesinorclosetostreams,butalsoduetoland-usechangesthroughoutthewatershed.Urbanizationbothcompactssoil,lesseningitsabilitytoinfiltrateandretainwater,anddisplacesnaturalfeatureswithimperviouselements.Consequently,stormwaterrunofffromprecipitationeventsenterswaterbodiesfromalloverthecatchmentarea,oftenwithouttreatment.Notonlydoesstormwaterputvolumepressuresonurbanwaterbodies(increasingtheriskoffloodingandstreambankerosion),but,initsoverlandflowcourse,itoftenpicksupcontaminantsandsedimentonthegroundthatendupinurbanstreams,rivers,pondsorlakes.Thesecontaminantscanaffectthephysical,chemicalandbiologicalpropertiesofurbanwaterbodies.Forexample,floodinginthespringof2017inB.C.’sinteriorpromptedwarningsaboutwaterqualityinbothsurfaceandgroundwatersources.13
Thereisastrongrelationshipbetweenthetotalareaofimpervioussurfacesinawatershedandurbanstreamdegradation.Themoresurfaceareaofthewatershedisimpervioussurface,themoreimpairedstreamhealthtendstobe.14However,evenrelativelyminimalimpervioussurfacecovercanhavenotableimpactsonstreamhealth.Studieshavefoundthatstreambiodiversitydeclinesrapidlyinwatershedswithmorethan5-15%imperviouscover.Inonesuch,researchersfoundthatsalmonidswereeliminatedfromstreamsinOntarioandMarylandinwatershedswithonly4-9%ofimperviouscover.15Typically,urbanareascontainbetween20-60%imperviouscover.16Howurbanstreamsyndromemanifestsaroundtheglobehasbeencharacterizedas“strikinglysimilar”,despiteregionalvariationsinclimate,geology,biotaandurbaninfrastructure.17Land-usechangeinurbanwatershedsalsomakesthemlessresilienttowithstandextremeevents,hastenedbyclimatechange.
Land-usechangenotonlynegativelyimpactsstreamsinurbansettings,butinsomecasestotallydisplacesthem.IntheVancouverarea,thevastmajorityofpre-settlementstreamshavebeenburiedorculverted.18These“loststreams”haveeffectivelybeeneradicatedoftheirecologicalandhydrologicalfunctions.SomecitiesinB.C.andhaveundertakendaylightingprojectstobringloststreamsbacktomorenaturalconditions.
13Britten,Liam.“FloodingraiseswaterqualityconcernsinB.C.Interior”.CBCNews.(2017,May12).Retrievedfrom: http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/british-columbia/interior-flooding-water-quality-1.4114039.14Wenger,SethJ.,etal.“Twenty-sixkeyresearchquestionsinurbanstreamecology:anassessmentofthestateofthescience.”Journal of the North American Benthological Society28.4(2009).15Hughes,RobertM.,etal.“Areviewofurbanwaterbodychallengesandapproaches:(1)rehabilitationandremediation.”Fisheries39.1(2014),citingStanfieldetal.2006andStranketal.2008.16Nowak,DavidJ.,andEricJ.Greenfield.“TreeandimperviouscoverchangeinUScities.”Urban Forestry & Urban Greening 11.1(2012).17Booth,DerekB.,etal.“Globalperspectivesontheurbanstreamsyndrome.”Freshwater Science35.1(2016).18Fisheries&OceansCanada.“Threatened,EndangeredandLostStreamsoftheLowerFraserValley.”SummaryReport.Lower Fraser Valley Stream Review 3(1997).Retrievedfrom:http://publications.gc.ca/collections/collection_2017/mpo-dfo/Fs23-304-8-1997-eng.pdf
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ii) Wastewater, Emerging Contaminants of Concern (CECs) and microplasticsAnotherproblemofurbanizedwatershedsisthereleaseofwastewatereffluentintoreceivingbodies.Thismightcomeascontrolled(andmostoften,treated)oruncontrolled(anduntreatedreleases).Uncontrolledreleasesoftenoccurbecauseofcombinedseweroverflows(CSOs),wherebysewersthatcollectbothrawsewageandstormwateroverflowintimesofheavyrainorsnowmelt.Insuchcases,stormwaterinfrastructurethatisdesignedtodrainexcesswatermayactuallyexacerbatepollutionintoreceivingwaterbodiesbymixingwithsewage.Thiseffectisfurtheramplifiedwhenstormwaterdrainagepipesarerouteddirectlytosurfacewaterbodies,asisthecaseinmanyurbanareas.Oldandaginginfrastructureincities,combinedwithimpervioussurfacesthatgeneratelargevolumesofstormwaterrunoff,aretwomajorculpritsleadingtoCSOs.CSOscancauseseriousdamagetowildlifepopulationsandhabitat,releasehighlevelsofdangerousbacteriaintoreceivingwaters,andcontributetoharmfulalgalblooms.19
Thereisincreasingconcernaboutthepresenceofunregulatedchemicalandorganicsubstancesandmicroplasticsinwastewaterandstormwater,andtheimpactthesecontaminantsarehavingonecologicalvaluesanddrinkingwaterquality.Evenwhenwastewateristreatedandreleasedatwatertreatmentsplants,manydonothavethetechnologytoadequatelyfilterthem.Therearehundredsofemergingcontaminantsinwaterways,manyofwhichareunregulated20,andthereremainsignificantknowledgegapswithregardtohowthesecontaminantsinteractovertimeandspaceandhowtheyimpactwaterqualityandecologicalandbiologicalfunctions.21A2011reportconductedperrecommendationsoftheCohenCommissionsuggestedthereisastrongpossibilitythatover200CECsintheFraserRivercouldberesponsiblefordeclineandabnormalitiesinsockeyesalmon.22Becausetheyareunregulated,monitoringforthesecontaminantsisnotcommonplaceinmanyurbanareas.RecentstudiesalsoconfirmthepresenceofmicroplasticfibersinforagefishinseabirdsintheSalishSea.Wastewatereffluentisbelievedtobeanotablesourceoftheseplasticsenteringwaterways.23
19Wengeretal.(2008).20Hughesetal.(2014).21Pal,Amrita,etal.“Impactsofemergingorganiccontaminantsonfreshwaterresources:reviewofrecentoccurrences,sources,fateandeffects.”Science of the Total Environment408.24(2010).22MacDonald,Donetal.“PotentialEffectsofContaminantsonFraserRiverSockeyeSalmon.”The Cohen Commission of Inquiry into the Decline of Sockeye Salmon in the Fraser River Technical Report 2.(February2011).Retrievedfrom:https://www.watershed-watch.org/wordpress/wp-content/uploads/2011/08/Exh-826-NonRT.pdf23Bertram,D.,Robinson,C.,Henneks,M.,Galbraith,M.,Dangerfield,N.,Gauthier,S.,&Woo,K.“PlasticingestionbyPacificSandLance(Ammodytespersonatus)intheSalishSea.”Salish Sea Ecosystem Conference. Vancouver, BC. (April2016).Retrievedfrom:https://www.eopugetsound.org/sites/default/files/Bertram_SSEC_Plastics%20in%20Pacific%20Sand%20Lance%2013%20April%202016.pdf
Photo Credit: ephien. CC BY 2.0
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iii) Competing demands on water Urbanareasaremajorwaterconsumers.Waterdemand,combinedwithhighpopulationdensities,canputstrainonwatersupply.Waterinurbanareasmaybeusedforavarietyofpurposes:domesticuse,commercialorindustrialuse,agriculturaluse,ecologicalusesandmore.Asaresultofthesemanydemandsonwater,manyurbancentresaroundtheworldareexperiencingwatershortagesandB.C.isnotexemptfromthistrend.Smallercommunitiesinparticularhavefoundthemselvesvulnerabletowatershortages.Forexample,duringthedrysummerof2015,theSunshineCoastsufferedseverewatershortages,comingwithin30daysofrunningoutofwater.24Inthesummerof2017,reservoirsinSummerlandwerenearlyemptiedwhenresidentsturnedonsprinklerstoprotecttheirpropertiesfromanearbywildfire.25Watershortagesraisequestionsaboutmonitoringandmeasuringwateruseincities.FewwaterpurveyorsinB.C.havemandatorywatermeteringpolicies,andthreequartersofresidentialwaterconnectionsintheprovinceareunmetered.Theabsenceofwatermeterslimitstheabilityofmunicipalgovernmentstomanagedemand,pricewaterappropriately,penalizeexcessiveconsumptionoridentifywaterleaks.26
Inadditiontowaterwithdrawals,urbanland-usechangeisafactorthatcanfurtherstrainwatersupplies.Forexample,groundwaterdepletion—aglobalphenomenoninagriculturalandurbanareas27—ishastenedbywaterwithdrawals,butalsobydevelopmentthatinhibitsaquiferrecharge(e.g.impervioussurfaces).Becausegroundwaterfeedsstreamsandwetlands,particularlyinthesummermonths,depletionofgroundwatercanresultinsustainedlowflows.InB.C.,evidencepointstodeclininggroundwaterlevelsinareasofintensiveurbandevelopment,suchasintheLowerMainland,theOkanagan,thesoutheastcoastofVancouverIsland,andtheGulfIslands.28
Strainedwatersystemscanresultinsignificantecologicalharm,forexample,bycompromisingsurvivalratesoffish,andmaypotentiallyprovokeconflictbetweenusers.Ensuringasupplyofwaterwhenitisneeded,whereitisneededandatasufficientquality,withoutcompromisingtheecologicalandhydrologicalintegrityofthewatershed,isasignificantchallengeforurbanwatershedsustainability.
24 Simms,R.&Brandes,O.M.(2016,September).Top5WaterChallengesthatwillDefineBritishColumbia’sFuture.Victoria,Canada:POLISProjectonEcologicalGovernance,CentreforGlobalStudies,UniversityofVictoria.25Bouey,Kate.(2017,September4).“Alarmed&usingupwater.”Castanet.net.Retrievedfrom:https://www.castanet.net/news/West-Kelowna/205769/Alarmed-using-up-water. 26Honey-Rosés,J.,J.Bailey,O.Brandes,D.Gill,L.Harris,J.Janmaat,D.Klein,C.Pareja,H.Schreier,S.Shah.2016.DroughtPreparednessinBC:WorkshopSummary.WaterPlanningLab.SchoolofCommunityandRegionalPlanning.UniversityofBritishColumbia.Retrievedfrom:http://hdl.handle.net/2429/5791027Howard,KenWF,andRaufG.Israfilov,eds.Current problems of hydrogeology in urban areas, urban agglomerates and industrial centres.Vol.8.SpringerScience&BusinessMedia(2012).28Nowlan,Linda.“Outofsight,outofmind?TakingCanada’sgroundwaterforgranted.”Eau Canada: The Future of Canada’s Water. UBCPress.Vancouver,BritishColumbia(2007).
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iv) Climate ChangeClimatechangeisanticipatedtoexacerbatetheaboveenvironmentalchallenges.BecauseclimatechangeinthePacificNorthwestisexpectedtobringincreasedandmoresevereprecipitation,morestormwaterrunoffislikelytobeproduced,whichcouldinturnmakeurbanstreamsyndromemoresevere.Thereisalsomountingevidencethatcombinedseweroverflowsarebecomingincreasinglycommonduetoclimatechange.29MoreandmoreintenseprecipitationhasbeendocumentedintheCityofSurrey.In2016,thecityrevisedtheirIntensity-Frequency-Durationcurveforrainfall,andfoundthatrainfallvolumeinthecityhadincreasedbyanaverageof30%since1991.30ArecentstudybytheFraserBasinCouncilestimatedthatchangingweatherpatternsareincreasingtherisksandimpactsofsignificantfloodingintheLowerFraserRiver.Theyestimatethatdamagesfromamajorfloodintheregioncouldcost$20-30billionormore.31
Ontheotherhand,evidencesuggeststhatclimatechangeisresultinginlessprecipitationandmoreevapotranspirationinthesummerandautumnmonthsinthePacificNorthwest32, and that there are “strongandsignificantdeclines”inannualstreamflowinmanyPacificNorthweststreams.33 Thiswillputgreaterstrainonwatersystemsthatprovidewaterformultipleneedsanduses.
29Fortier,Claudine,andAlainMailhot.“Climatechangeimpactoncombinedseweroverflows.”Journal of Water Resources Planning and Management141.5(2014).30PersonalInterview,August2017.31FraserBasinCouncil.“LowerMainlandFloodManagementStrategy,Phase2.”Flood Strategy Briefing: Bulletin 1(September2017).Retrievedfrom:http://www.fraserbasin.bc.ca/_Library/Water_Flood_Strategy/lmfms_fsb_sept_2017_web.pdf. 32Abatzoglou,JohnT.,DavidE.Rupp,andPhilipW.Mote.“SeasonalclimatevariabilityandchangeinthePacificNorthwestoftheUnitedStates.”Journal of Climate27.5(2014).33Luce,CharlesH.,andZacharyA.Holden.“DecliningannualstreamflowdistributionsinthePacificNorthwestUnitedStates,1948–2006.”Geophysical Research Letters36.16(2009).
Mill Creek flood in Kelowna. Photo Credit: Christine Mettler
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2.2 Survey Responses: Environmental Challenges in B.C.’s Urban Watersheds
Theprevioussectiondescribesmajorwatershedchallengesassociatedwithurbanization,andgivessomemoreextremeexamplesoftimesthosechallengeshaveaffectedcommunitiesinB.C.Inthisresearch,weaimedtoidentifynotjustextrememanifestationsoftheseenvironmentalchallenges,butalsohowtheyaffecturbanwatershedsonamoreordinarybasis.34 In order to assess this, we invited waterprofessionalsinurbanareastoparticipateinanonlinesurvey.Follow-upinterviewswerealsoconductedwithsixindividualswhoparticipatedinthesurvey.
2.2.1 Severity of environmental issues
Weaskedrespondentstorankfromascaleof1-5theseverityofsixenvironmentalchallengesintheirwatersheds.1was“notaconcern”,2was“mildconcern”,3was“moderateconcern”,4was“notableconcern”and5was“verysignificantconcern”.Surveyparticipantsreportedseveralconcernsregardingthesustainabilityofurbanwaterbodies.Thetopthreeconcernswere:
• Riparianhabitatloss.Thiswasratedasthemostsignificantconcern,withmeanresponsevalueof4.00.80%ofrespondentssaidthiswaseithera“notable”or“verysignificant”concern.
• Droughtand/orlowstreamflow,withameanvalueof3.91.
• Flooding,withameanvalueof3.66.
Respondentsweretheleastconcernedaboutdrinkingwaterquantityandquality,withameanratingof2.86and2.49respectively.
Figure 1: Perceived severity of environmental issues
Thesurveyalsoincludedquestionswhereparticipantscouldindicateenvironmentalchallengesorconcernsthatwerenotdirectlylistedinthesurvey.Oneparticipantnotedthat“instreamhabitat
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damage,especiallydredging”wasthemostsignificantchallengeintheirwatershed.Anothersaid“lossofhabitatalonglakeshorelinesandforeshore.”Onerespondentnotedthatinvasivespecieswasanissueofnotableconcernintheirwatershed.Theremainingcommentslargelyreiterated,inotherwords,issuesincludedinthesurvey.Forexample,therewereanumberofresponsesthatreiteratedtheperceivedchallengeoflossofriparianareasandhabitat. 2.2.2 Different Concerns in Different Regions
Breakingdowntheseresponsesbygeographicareayieldssomevariationinresponses.Forthepurposesofanalysis,respondentsarebrokendownintothreeregionalgroups:MetroVancouver-highlyurbanized35,MetroVancouver-moderatelyurbanized36,andSouthernInterior(specifically,urbanareasintheOkanaganandKamloops).37
Figure 2: Perceived severity of watershed issues by region
i) Metro Vancouver - moderately and highly urbanized ResponsesonlyvariedslightlybetweensurveyparticipantsinhighlyurbanandmoderatelyurbanareasofMetroVancouver,sowehavegroupedthemtogetherforthisportionoftheanalysis.Forthisgroup,riparianhabitatremainedthemostsignificantconcern,anddrinkingwaterqualityandquantityremainedthelowestconcerns.Thatdrinkingwaterconcernswouldbelistedlowinseverityisnotsurprising,sincethemunicipalitiesofMetroVancouverenjoydrinkingwaterfromtheCapilano,SeymourandCoquitlamwatersheds,whicharesourceprotected.38AlthoughrespondentsinMetroVancouverwereconfidentinthequalityoftheirdrinkingwater,thisgroupwasthemostconcernedaboutwaterqualityintheenvironment,rankingdegradedwaterqualityafullpointhigherthanrespondentsfromtheOkanaganandKamloopsarea.
34Thisinformationisrevealingbecauseitpointstotheextenttowhichecologicalandhydrologicalintegrityarecompromisedinurbanwatershedsand,consequently,theresilienceofwatershedstowithstandextremeevents.Themorecompromisedawatershed’sfunctions,thelessableitistowithstandextremeevents.35Includesrespondentsworkinginmunicipalitieswithpopulationdensitiesofgreaterthan1000peopleperkm2.36Includesrespondentsworkinginmunicipalitieswithpopulationdensitiesoflessthan600peopleperkm2.37SincetherewereonlytworespondentsfromVancouverIsland,itisdifficulttoinferwithanyconfidencewhethergeographywasasignificantfactorinresponsevariation.Therefore,wedonotexpanduponresponsevariationofrespondentsfromthatregion.38TheGreaterVancouverWaterDistrict(GVWD)hassoleuseandcontrolofthelandssurroundingMetroVancouver’sthreewatershedspertheLandAct,whichentitlestheWaterDistricttoa999yearleaseofthelands.In1999,theGVWDAdministrationBoardpassedaresolutiontoprotectthewatershedsfromusesthatwouldthreatenwaterquality.See:http://www.bctwa.org/AboutGreaterVanWatersheds.pdf.
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ii) Southern Interior (Okanagan and Kamloops area) ForthoserespondentsintheSouthernInterior,drinkingwaterconcernswereratedasnotablymoresignificantthantheircounterpartsinMetroVancouver.Here,respondentsnotedthatdrinkingwaterqualityandquantitywasamoderatetonotableconcern.DrinkingwaterintheseregionsdoesnotenjoysourceprotectionasdothewatershedsthatprovideMetroVancouver’sdrinkingwater.
WhilerespondentsinSouthernInteriorurbanareasweremoreconcernedaboutdrinkingwaterthantheircounterpartsinMetroVancouver,theywerelessconcernedaboutwaterqualityintheenvironment,ratingit2.77oramildtomoderateconcern.ThisislikelybecausetherearemoreintactnaturalareaswithintheboundariesofurbancentresintheSouthernInteriorand,onaverage,notablylessurbandensityandimpervioussurfaces.Respondentsintheinteriorwerealsolessconcernedaboutripariandegradationandhabitatloss,ratingitasa“moderatetonotable”concern(3.67forinteriorrespondentsasopposedtoanaverageratingof4.03),ostensiblyforsimilarreasons.Droughtsandfloodswereratedasthegreatestconcerns,onaverage,amongrespondentsintheinterior.Theseconcernsareparticularlypertinentin2017,wherethespringinitiallybroughtseverefloodingtotheOkanaganandKamloopsregions,followedbyprolongeddrought.
2.3 Survey Response: Causes and Culprits of Environmental Challenges in B.C.’s Urban Watersheds
2.3.1 Prevalence of environmental pressures
Surveyparticipantswereaskedtoidentifythefactorstheythoughtwerecontributingtotheaboveenvironmentalchallengesbyratingtheseverityofvariousenvironmentalpressures39 out of 5, where 1 was“notatallathreat”,2was“minorthreat”,3was“moderatethreat”,4was“notablethreat”and5was“verysignificantthreat.”Overall,themostsalientthreatswere:
• Land-usechange.Thiswasidentifiedasthelargestthreat,withameanscoreof4.17outof5.
• Impervioussurfaces,withameanscoreof3.97outof5.
• Climatechange,withameanscoreof3.91outof5.
Figure 3: Perceived severity of environmental pressures
39FollowingtheUnitedStatesEnvironmentalProtectionAgency’sDPSIRFramework,“pressures”aredefinedashumanactivities…thatinducechangesintheenvironment.”Anenvironmentalpressureisanactivitythatimpliesacause-and-effectrelationshipbetweenthatactivityandtheimpact.See:U.S.EPA.“UsingtheDPSIRFrameworktoDevelopaConceptualModel:TechnicalSupportDocument.”EPA/600/R-15/154(August2015).Retrievedfrom:https://cfpub.epa.gov/si/si_public_record_report.cfm?dirEntryId=311236.
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Inanopen-endedquestionregardingthebiggestthreattowatershedhealthintheirareaofwork,27outof35respondentsidentifiedland-usechange,developmentand/orimpervioussurfaces.
Ontheotherhand,respondentsindicatedthattheywerenotparticularlyconcernedaboutthereleaseofwastewatereffluentintoreceivingwaterbodies,ratingitonlyaminorthreat(meanscore2.06).Althoughsurveyrespondentsrateddroughtsandlowstreamflowsasoneofthemostsignificantchallengesintheirurbanwatersheds,mostdidnotlinkthiswithimpactsofwaterdiversions,ratingitaminortomoderatethreat(meanvalue:2.86).
2.3.2 Regional Differences
Someinterestingdifferencesemergedwhenbreakingdownperceivedthreatsbyregionofrespondents.
Figure 4: Perceived severity of environmental pressures by region
i) Metro Vancouver - highly urbanized ResponsesamongparticipantsinMetroVancouvervariedbasedonwhethertheyworkedinhighlyurbanizedwatersheds,ormoderatelyurbanizedwatersheds.Thoseinhighlyurbanizedwatershedsindicatedthat:
• Impervioussurfaceswerethelargestthreattowatershedhealth,withallparticipantsbutoneindicatingthatthiswasanotableorverysignificantthreat(meanvalue4.42).
• Land-usechangewasalsoratedasaconcernofnote,withameanvalueof4.25.
Thatrespondentshereplacedgreateremphasisonthethreatofimpervioussurfacesthanonland-usechangeisnotsurprising,sincehighlyurbanizedareasliketheCityofVancouverandtheCityofNorthVancouverarenearlyentirely‘builtout.’Therefore,itmaynotbeachangeinland-usethatisthemostconcerninginthesehighlyurbanizedareassomuchasimperviousareasthatalreadyexist.
Relativetorespondentsfromotherregions,participantsfromhighlyurbanizedwatershedsinMetroVancouverratedgrowingwaterdemandaslessofaconcern.Thisisperhapsbecausetherearenotmany newdemandsonwaterinhighlyurbanized,builtoutareassincethevastmajorityoflandthatcanbedevelopedhasalreadybeendeveloped.Nonetheless,respondentsheredidstillratethisconcernasmoderate(meanvalue3.08).
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ii) Metro Vancouver - moderately urbanized Inmoderatelyurbanizedmunicipalities,land-usechangeandimpervioussurfaceswereonceagainratedasthemostsalientthreats,buttheirorderofprecedencewastheinversefromrespondentsinhighlyurbanizedmunicipalities.Thatistosay,respondentshererated:
• Land-usechangeasthemostsignificantthreat(meanvalueof4.63),
• Impervioussurfacesasthesecondlargestthreat(meanvalueof4.25).
Respondentsinthiscategoryratedland-usechangeasamoresignificantthreatthanrespondentsfromothercategoriesratedanyotherthreat.Thissuggeststhatland-usechangeisasignificantconcerninmoderatelyurbanizedareasinMetroVancouver.ThisresultmakessenseinthecontextofpopulationpressuresinMetroVancouver,particularlyinareasoutsideofVancouver.Toillustrate,theDistrictofLangley’spopulationgrewby12.6%between2011-2016andMapleRidgegrewby8.2%.40 Althoughagriculturalrunoffwasrankedasoneofthelowestconcerns,asawhole,byrespondentsinhighlyurbanizedareasofMetroVancouver,thosewhoseworkappliestomoderatelyurbanizedwatershedsindicatedthisthreatismuchmoreprevalent(meanvalue3.50formoderatelyurbanizedwatershedsvs2.17forhighlyurbanizedwatersheds).Thisisnotparticularlysurprising,sinceagriculturaloperationsaremarginalinmosthighlyurbanizedmunicipalities,butprevalentinthelessurbanizedmunicipalitiesontheperipheryofMetroVancouver.Regardlessofdensity,forthoserespondentswhoworkinmunicipalitieswithmorethan10%oflandmassintheAgriculturalLandReserve(PortCoquitlam,Surrey,Delta,theTownshipofLangleyandMapleRidge41)concernsaboutagriculturalrunoffareevenmorepronounced:ameanvalueof4outof5,oranotableconcern.
Surveyparticipantsinmoderatelyurbanizedareasalsoappeartobemoreconcernedaboutincreasingdemandsonwaterthantheircounterpartsinhighlyurbanizedareas,withanaverageresponsevalueof3.75comparedto3.08.SinceallmunicipalitiesinMetroVancouvergettheirdrinkingwaterfromtheGreaterVancouverWaterDistrict,thisdiscrepancyislikelyduetotheprevalenceofagriculturallicensesinthelessurbanizedmunicipalities.
40Althoughtheseareaswereclassifiedas“highlyurban”forthepurposesofthisanalysis,theCitiesofSurrey,CoquitlamandNorthVancouveralsoexperiencedsignificantgrowthbetween2011and2016,withgrowthratesof10.6%,9.8%,and9.8%respectively.See:StatisticsCanada.Census Profile, 2016 Census.(2016).http://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2016/dp-pd/prof/index.cfm?Lang=E 41See:AgriculturalLandCommission.LandWithintheALRbyRegionalDistrictandMunicipality.(2000).http://www.alc.gov.bc.ca/assets/alc/assets/library/land-use-planning/planning_for_agriculture_resource_materials_part_4_appendices.pdf
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ii) Southern Interior (Okanagan and Kamloops) Land-usechangewasratedasthemostsignificantthreatbyrespondentsintheOkanaganandKamloopsarea(meanvalueof3.92).However,respondentsdidnotconsideritassignificantathreatasdidtheirpeersinMetroVancouver.Thismaybebecause,althoughtheseurbanareasarealsoexperiencingnotablegrowthrates42,thereisnotthesamelevelofcompetitionforlandinKamloopsandtheOkanaganasthereisinMetroVancouver.SimilartorespondentsfromlessurbanizedareasinMetroVancouver,surveyparticipantsfromtheinteriorsimilarlyindicatedimpervioussurfacestobelessofathreattowatershedsustainabilitythantheirpeersinhighlyurbanizedMetroVancouverwatersheds(meanvalue:3.54).
Interestingly,surveyparticipantsfromtheInteriorratedthesecondmostsalientthreatsfacingwatershedsas“climatechange”and“infrastructuredeficit”(meanvalueof3.77).Whilerespondentsfromallregionsthoughtclimatechangetobeamoderatetonotablethreat,infrastructuredeficitwasratedasahigherbyparticipantsintheInterior.Hereaswell,growingwaterdemandwashigherthanthegroupaverage.
42IntheCityofKamloops,thepopulationgrewby7.2%between2011and2016;thepopulationgrewby4.2%inVernon;by5.7%intheDistrictofWestKelowna;by8.4%inKelowna;andby2.4%inPenticton.
Streetside sprinklers. Photo Credit: Arlington County. CC BY-SA 2.0
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2.4 Connecting watershed degradation and pressures
Theenvironmentalchallengeslaidoutinsection2.2donothavealinearrelationshipwithanyonepressureinsection2.3.Rather,therelationshipiscomplex,multifacetedandoverlapping.ThetablebelowsummarizeswatershedchallengesinB.C.’surbanareasandsomeprincipalpressures.Thisisnotanexhaustivelist,butratheranoverviewofkeyactivitiesandcontextsthatmaybringabouttheaforementionedenvironmentalchallengesinwatersheds.
*Scale(severityoutof5)
4-4.5 3.5-4 3-3.5 2.5-3 2-2.5 1.5-2
Watershed Issue Level of concern* Pressures and Stressors
MV – HU MV – MU Interior
Riparian degradation and habitat loss • Land-use change in foreshore areas and riparian zones, which may directly displace natural
features
• Impervious and hardened surfaces in watershed, which produces more runoff that could
hasten streambank erosion
• Changes in and about streams (channelization, dikes, dams) which may directly alter habitat
or increase volume and therefore erosion
Low streamflows and droughts • Land-use change that displaces natural features with agriculture and built environments,
changing the ecosystem’s ability to hold onto water in the dry season
• Impervious and hardened surfaces in watershed, which inhibit groundwater infiltration
resulting in lower flows in dry season
• Water withdrawals from surface water and connected groundwater sources for domestic,
agricultural, industrial and commercial uses, which put pressure on water supplies
• Changes in and about streams (channelization, dikes, dams) which may impede or decrease
stream discharge
• Climate change, which is bringing about longer, hotter and drier summer seasons
Flooding • Land-use change that displaces natural features with agriculture and built environments,
changing the ecosystem’s ability to absorb excess water
• Impervious and hardened surfaces in watershed, which inhibit infiltration and produce more
runoff that overwhelms the carrying capacity of natural water bodies
• Old and aging infrastructure, which pipe stormwater directly into natural water bodies
• Changes in and about streams (channelization, dikes, dams) which may increase stream
discharge
• Climate change, which is bringing about more intense precipitation events that produce large
volumes of stormwater in short time framers
Degradation of water quality in environment • Land-use change that displaces natural features with agriculture and built environments,
changing the ecosystem’s ability to filter contaminants in runoff
• Impervious and hardened surfaces in watershed, which generates stormwater runoff that
carries pollutants on its overland flow course to natural water bodies
• Old and aging infrastructure, where combined sewer overflows introduce untreated waste
and stormwater into natural water bodies
Strained drinking water supply • Water withdrawals for domestic, agricultural, industrial and commercial uses, which put
pressure on water supplies
• Climate change, which is bringing about longer, hotter and drier summer seasons
Degradation of drinking water quality • Land-use change that displaces natural features with agriculture and built environments,
changing the ecosystem’s ability to filter contaminants in runoff
• Multiple activities (logging, resource extraction, recreation) in source water areas, which may
produce sedimentation and other concerns that compromise water quality.
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3. LOCAL WATERSHED MANAGEMENT: TOOLS AND CHALLENGES
3.1 Existing Tools
Avarietyoftoolsexisttohelpwatershedplannersandmanagersworkinginlocalgovernmenttoaddressandmitigatetheenvironmentalproblemsandunderlyingcausesoutlinedintheprevioussection.However,despitethesetools,watershedpractitionershaveindicatedthatthereremainsignificantchallengesthatcompromisesustainablewatershedmanagementinB.C.’surbanareas.Thesechallengeswillbediscussedinsection3.2.
Inthissectionofthereport,weprovideanoverviewofsometoolsthatexisttoaddresstheaforementionedwatershedchallengesandtheirunderlyingcauses.Therearemanytoolsavailableandthislistisnotexhaustive43,butratherprovidesasummaryoftoolsthataremorecommonlydeployedbylocalgovernments.Thesetoolsarenotnecessarilyexclusivefromoneanotherandmaybeusedincombination.Ofcourse,thesetoolsonlyapplyinareaswherelocalgovernmenthavejurisdictionandauthoritytoeffectchange,inparticularland-useplanning,oversightofdevelopment,servicinganddrainage,floodprotection,andinwaterandwastewatersystems.Althoughitisnotdiscussedinitsownrighthere,publiceducationandoutreachisatoolthatcan(andshould)beusedincombinationwiththetoolsdescribedbelow.Itshouldbenotedthatmunicipalitiesandregionaldistrictshavedifferent—althoughoftenoverlapping—jurisdictionandprocedures.44Toavoiddelvingintothiscomplexity,wedonotdistinguishbetweenthesetwohere.
3.1.1 Bylaws (including zoning), and Development Permit Areas
Pressurespotentiallyaddressed: land-use change, impervious surfaces, growing water demand, climate change
ProvinciallegislationinB.C.giveslocalgovernmentstheauthoritytoregulateactivitiespertainingtolanduseintheirjurisdictions.45Localgovernmentsprimarilyregulateland-usewithzoningbylaws—rulesthatestablishwhatkindofdevelopmentcanandcannottakeplaceonagivenparcelofland—andDevelopmentPermitAreas—toolsthatallowlocalgovernmentstorequirespecialpermitsbeforedevelopmenttakesplacesinenvironmentallysensitiveareas.Inadditiontoregulatoryauthorityrelatedtoland-use,municipalitiesmayalsocreatebylawsto“regulate,prohibitandimposerequirementsinrelationtothenaturalenvironment,”46aswellaspublicplaces,trees,animals,buildingsandother
43Foranextensivesummaryoftoolsavailabletolocalgovernments,seeD.Curran,E.Krindle&M.Hulse.Bylaws Toolkit for Conserving Sensitive Ecosystems.(2016).Retrievedfrom: http://www.greenbylaws.ca/.44FraserBasinCouncil.“RethinkingourWaterWays.”Vancouver,BC,Canada.(2011);Curran,Krindle&Hulse(2016).45ThisauthorityisgiventhroughtheLocal Government Act. 46Persection8(3)(b),(c),(j),(k),(l)and(m)oftheCommunityCharter.RelatedauthoritiesfortheCityofVancouverarealsodelegatedviatheVancouver Charter.
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structures,andtheremovalordepositofsoil.47Therefore,localgovernmentsmayinfluenceavarietyofactivities,suchasland-usechange,whereandhowdevelopmentcantakeplace,buildingandplumbingrequirements,wateruse,andactivitiesthatcouldimpactwatershedhealth,liketheapplicationofpesticidesonprivatelandortheobstructionofawatercourse.Assuch,bylawscanbeeffectiveinterventionstoaddressconcernsrelatedtoland-usechange,impervioussurfaces,andgrowingwaterdemand,whichcaninturnbuildlocalresiliencetoclimatechangerelatedimpacts.
Theadoptionandapplicationofthesetoolsareoftendeterminedbylargerpolicydirections,laidoutindocumentssuchasRegionalGrowthStrategies,OfficialCommunityPlans,neighborhoodandotherplans(e.g.liquidwasteandstormwatermanagementplans48)orstrategies.Provinciallegislationgiveslocalgovernmentsdiscretionaryauthorityinestablishingtheserulesandregulations,andthereforewhetherandhowlocalgovernmentsusethesetoolsvariesquiteabitfromonelocalgovernmenttoanother.However,theredoesexistlegislationthatrequireslocalgovernmentstoadheretoitsstipulationswhenconductingbusiness.AnexampleofthisistheRiparianAreasRegulation(RAR),provincialregulationsthatrequirelocalgovernmentstoprotectripariancorridorsinfishbearingstreamsfromimpactsofdevelopment.49ManylocalgovernmentsadheretothesestipulationsbyincorporatingthemintobylawsorDPAs.50
47Overlapping,orconcurrent,jurisdictionbetweenmunicipalitiesandtheProvincewithregardtothenaturalenvironmentmeansthatmunicipalitiesmaysometimesneedministerialapprovalbeforeenactingbylaws.Areaswherepermissionisnotneededincludepesticidecontrol,alieninvasivespeciesandwatercourseprotection.48InMetroVancouver,membermunicipalitieshavecollectivelyagreedtoprepareandadoptIntegratedStormwaterManagePlansforwatershedswithinmunicipalboundariesthatare20%ormoredeveloped.Theseplansmaytriggercommitmentsfromdecision-makerstofundspecificprojects(e.g.raingardens,bioswales,reforestation,etc.),developoramendbylaws,orrequiredeveloperstoadheretocertainstandards.49TheRARwasdesignedtomeetconcurrentobligationsunderthefederalFisheriesAct.Theregulationrequiresmunicipalitiestofollowaprocesssothatproposeddevelopmentswithin30mofwaterbodiesthatsupportfishhabitatdonotcauseharmfulalteration,disruption,ordestructionofnaturalfeaturesthatsupportfish.LocalgovernmentsmayadoptrulesthatexceedtherequirementsoftheRAR—forexample,byestablishingbylawsthatforbidanydevelopmentwithinaripariancorridorofagivenarea(e.g.15moneithersideofastream).50B.C.MinistryofForests,LandsandNaturalResourceOperations.Review of Local Government Implementation of the Riparian Areas Regulation.(2015).Retrievedfrom:http://www2.gov.bc.ca/assets/gov/environment/plants-animals-and-ecosystems/fish-fish-habitat/riparian-areas-regulations/lg_rar_implementation_compliance_report_september_14_2015_r.pdf
Kelowna Marsh. Photo Credit: OBWB/Okanagan WaterWise
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DespitetheabilityoflocalgovernmentsinB.C.toregulateactivitiesrelatedtothenaturalenvironmentandotherareas,suchrulesmustnotsupersedeprovincialorfederallegislation.Forexample,theFarmPracticesProtection(RighttoFarm)Actprohibitslocalgovernmentregulationfrominterferingwith“normalfarmpractices,”51aconstraintonlocalgovernments’abilitytocurbagriculturalpracticesthataffectwatershedhealth.
3.1.2. Water demand management programs
Pressurespotentiallyaddressed:growing water demand, climate change
Localgovernmentsmayencourageprudentuseofwaterthroughavarietyofmechanisms.Asdetailedabove,theymaydothisthroughtheestablishmentofbylaws.Forexample,theymayestablishbylawsrelatedtolandscapingrequirementsaroundnewdevelopmentsthatservetominimizethevolumeofwaterneededtoirrigatetheland,bylawsthatrequireefficientplumbingandfixturesinnewdevelopments,orbylawsthatallowthelocalgovernmenttorestrictwateruseatcertaintimes.52
Localgovernmentsmayalsouseeconomicandfinancialmeasurestoencouragelowerdemandonwatersupplies,suchasinstitutingconservation-orientedpricingandratestructuresforwaterdelivery,orofferingrebateprogramstoresidentswhoinstallwater-efficientfixturesintheirhomesorbusinesses.Theymayalsoconsiderprogramssuchasgreywaterrecoveryandrainwaterharvestinginordertoreducethevolumeofbluewaterthatisdivertedfromsurfaceorgroundwatersourcesfornon-drinking,cookingorhygienicuse.Installingwatermetershasbeenshowntoreducewateruseby10-40%,evenwithoutchangestotheratestructure.53
Thissuiteoftoolscanbeframedandprioritizedwiththeuseofawaterconservationplan.SuchplanshaverecentlybeenmadearequirementinordertoreceivecapitalgrantsfromtheProvincefordrinkingwaterandwastewaterinfrastructure.54
3.1.3 Funding integrated water infrastructure
Pressurespotentiallyaddressed: land-use change, impervious surfaces, wastewater effluent, growing water demand, climate change
Thereisanincreasingrecognitionamongurbanwatershedpractitionersoftheneedtounderstandandplanforinfrastructureholistically,andthatinadditiontotraditional“greyinfrastructure”(e.g.engineeredworkssuchaspipes,sewers,anddetentionponds),watermanagersshouldalsoviewnaturalassetsas“greeninfrastructure”(e.g.naturalandconstructedfeatures,suchasurbanforests,
51Curran,Krindle&Hulse(2016).52Belzileetal.(2013).Belzileetal.(2013).Belzile,J.withM.Martin,L.Edwards,G.Brown,L.Brandes,A.WarwickSears.WaterConservationGuideforBritishColumbia.Victoria:BCMinistryofCommunity,Sport&CulturalDevelopment,POLISProjectonEcologicalGovernance,OkanaganBasinWaterBoard.(2013).53Ibid.54Ibid.
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parkspace,wetlandsandriparianzones,greenroofs,raingardens,bioswales,andretentionponds)andincorporatethisintowaterplanning.Greeninfrastructurecanhelpremovestrainfromtraditionalinfrastructurebyminimizingrunoffandhelpingtoinfiltratestormwaterwhereitfalls.TheB.C.StormwaterGuiderecommendsthatlocalgovernmentsplanfordevelopmentandinfrastructurethatinfiltrates90%ofstormwaterwhereitfalls.55
Incommunitiesacrossthecountry,includingB.C.,therehasbeenareinvigorationininfrastructureinvestmentafterdecadesofunderinvestmentleadingtoan“infrastructuregap”valuedatapproximately$145billion.56TheFederalGovernmenthascommittedtodoublinginfrastructurespending,withaplantospend$180billiononinfrastructureover12years.57Manycommunitiesareupgradingtheirtraditionalwaterinfrastructure(waterandwastewatertreatments,pipesanddrains,etc.)aswellasmakingsignificantinvestmentsingreeninfrastructure.Insomecases,thisincludesriparianrestorationprojectsandurbanretrofits.Theseinfrastructureinvestmentscanslowandinsomecasesreverseland-usechangeandtheprevalenceofimpervioussurfaces;makedrinkingwatersystemsmoreefficient,takingpressureoffdemand;andimprovethequalityandquantityofstormwater and wastewater releases.
InB.C.,localgovernmentstypicallyfundinfrastructurewithassistancefromtheprovincialandfederalgovernments.Inparticular,theB.C.FrameworkforSustainableAssetManagementoutlinescriteriabywhichlocalgovernmentscanapplyforfundingfromtheProvinceforinfrastructureupgrades.Despitegrantsthatexist,anincreasingburdentofundinfrastructureprojectshasfallentolocalgovernmentsoverthepastseveraldecades.Whereasin1950localgovernmentscontributedonaverage27%toinfrastructureinvestments,by2010theywerepayingforover48%.58Therefore,localgovernmentshavehadtofindadditionalwaystofundinfrastructureimprovementsandmaintenance.Someareturningtofees,leviesortaxestodothis.Forexample,theCitiesofVictoriaandtheSurreyhaveestablishedspecializedutilitiestooverseestormwaterinfrastructure.Eachmunicipalityfundstheirutilitythroughdifferentfeemodels.
3.2 Challenges to Sustainable Watershed Management
TheenvironmentalchallengesoutlinedinSection2andthefactthattheyimpactB.C.’surbanwatershedstovaryingdegreesisnotnewknowledge.Indeed,manyoftheissuescontainedwithinthisreporthavebeenidentifiedbylocalgovernmentsthemselvesandavarietyoforganizationsandindividuals.Severaloftheseorganizationsandindividualshavedevelopedmaterialsandinterventionstohelpaddresstheseissues.Forexample,whileconductingresearchforthisreport,weidentifiedover
55 BritishColumbiaMinistryoftheEnvironment.StormwaterPlanning:AGuidebookforBritishColumbia.(2003).Retrievedfrom:http://www2.gov.bc.ca/gov/DownloadAsset?assetId=FA2C4B4B9B9F47F5981272B98894655D56MacKenzie,H.Canada’sInfrastructureGap:WhereitCameFromandWhyitWillCostsoMuchtoClose.(2013).Canadian Centre for Policy Alternatives.Retrievedfrom:https://www.policyalternatives.ca/sites/default/files/uploads/publications/National%20Office/2013/01/Canada%27s%20Infrastructure%20Gap_0.pdf. 57InfrastructureCanada.InvestinginCanadaPlan.(August2017).Retrievedfrom:http://www.infrastructure.gc.ca/plan/about-invest-apropos-eng.html 58MacKenzie,H.(2013).
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30toolkits,guidelinedocuments,andmanualspreparedbyavarietyofauthors(e.g.theGovernmentofBritishColumbia,researchersandlegalanalysts,localgovernments,environmentalorganizations,etc.)inthepasttenyearstohelplocalgovernmentsinBritishColumbiastaffmakesounddecisionsforwatershedsustainability.AppendixCliststhosedocuments.
Notwithstanding,theavailabilityofinformationdoesnotalwaysbuildknowledgeortranslateintoaction.Onesurveyrespondentremarkedonthisinanopencomment:“Informationisgood,butifwedon’tknowhowtoapplyitthenunintendedoutcomesarise.Weneedtobuildknowledge.Andweneedtocommunicatedecisionmaking.”Inresponsetothesurveyquestion“doyouthinklocalgovernmentsareabletoadequatelyaddresstheissuesandthreatsyounotedabove”,only2of35respondentschose“yes.”Sixparticipantschose“no”,21participantschose“someofthem/inpart”,and4chose“mostofthem.”
Figure 5: Can local governments adequate address watershed issues?
Inafollow-upinterviewwithaparticipantwhoselected“yes”tothisquestion,theyclarifiedthattheirresponsemeantthattheybelievelocalgovernmentshavetheknowledgeandtechnicalabilitytoimprovewatershedoutcomes,howeverthatknowledgeandabilitydoesnotalwaystranslateintoactionforanumberofreasons.
Participantswereaskedtoratewhattheythoughttobethelargestbarrierstosustainableurbanwatershedmanagement,with1being“notabarrier”and5being“averylargebarrier.”ResultsarepresentedinFigure7.
Figure 6: Barriers to urban watershed management
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Theseresponses,incombinationwithinterviewresponsesandkeythemesdeducedfromtheliteraturereview,allowedustoidentifysevenkeythemesthathinderlocalgovernments’abilitiestomanagewatershedssustainably.Eachbarrierisaccompaniedbya“solutionsbox”,informedbyideasfrominterviewees,surveyrespondents,andtheliterature,regardingwaysinwhichthebarriercouldbeaddressed.
1. Voluntary vs. mandated protections
AccordingtothePartnershipforWatershedSustainability,
BC is perhaps the least prescriptive province, and BC local government is among the most autonomous in Canada. The Province enables local government by providing policy and legal tools in response to local government requests. […] The enabling approach means the onus is on local government to take the initiative and implement.59
Inotherwords,provinciallegislationhasmadeitpossibleforlocalgovernmentstoenacttheirownrules,buthas,byandlarge,notrequiredgovernmentstoadoptrulesfortheprotectionofenvironmentalvalues,withsomeexceptions(e.g.theRiparianAreasRegulation).Further,therearenooverarchingprovincialstandardsforenvironmentalwaterquality,quantity(includingenvironmentalflows)andprotectingecosystemvaluestowhichlocalgovernmentsmustadhere.60,61
WhilesomehaveheraldedB.C.’sframeworkofenablinginsteadofrequiringactionasonethatallowsforflexibilityinadoptingresponsestolocalconcernsandneeds,thisresearchrevealedalackofstandardizationcanmakeforunevenimplementationofprotections.Tothispoint,inthesurvey,participantsrated“insufficientpolicies,guidelinesandstandardsfromhigherlevelsofgovernment”asa“moderate”to“large”barrier(meanvalue3.60outof5)toaddressingwatershedissuesatthelocallevel.
Onesurveyparticipantnotedthat“localgovernmentculturesvarywidelywithrespecttopriorityofwatershedissues.Sometakeenvironmentalissuesveryseriouslyandarequitepro-active.Otherscareaboutfloodcontrolandviewspeciesatrisk,fisheriesandotherenvironmentalvalueswithambivalenceorevendisdain.”Whenaskedwhattheythoughtaboutastandardizedapproachcomparedtoavoluntary,enablingapproach,anintervieweestatedthat“‘enabling’isafancywordfor‘downloading’.”Theyelaboratedthattheybelievedaninflexible,one-size-fitsallapproachisnottheanswerandthattheprovincialgovernmentneedstorespectlocalconcernsandtakethemintoconsideration.However,theyemphasizedtheneedforregulationthatcouldallowlocalgovernmentstomeetstandards.Theintervieweeexpressedconcernthatcorruptionismorelikelywithoutstandardizedapproaches,sinceoneorafewindividualscouldhaveadisproportionateinfluenceondevelopmentorotherdecisionsatthelocallevel.
59PartnershipforWaterSustainability.BeyondtheGuidebook2010:Implementing a New Culture forUrban Watershed Protection and Restoration in British Columbia.(2010).60Nowlan,L,andBakker,K.Delegating water governance: Issues and challenges in the BC context. (2007).Vancouver:ProgramonWaterGovernance,UniversityofBritishColumbia.61Althoughtherearenotstandardsforwaterintheenvironment,therearefederalstandardsforwastewatereffluentreleases.However,asnotedinSection2,theseregulationsdonotextendtocontaminantssuchasCECsandmicroplastics.
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Inasimilarvein,someparticipantsexpressedthatdecisions-makerscanberesistanttotakingactiononprotectingenvironmentalvalueswhentheyarenotrequiredtodoso.Surveyrespondentsrated“supportfromseniordecision-makers”asthesecondmostsalientbarrierwhenitcomestosustainablewatershedmanagement(meanvalue3.71,orbetween“moderate”to“large”barrier).Inaninterview,oneparticipantdescribedhowanimportantwaterwayinthecitydidnotqualifyforanintegratedstormwatermanagementplanbecause,eventhoughthelowerpartofthewatershedwasextensivelyurbanizedandhasexperiencedconsiderableenvironmentaldegradation,thewatershedasawholedidnotreachthedevelopmentthresholdnecessarytorequireaplan.Asaresult,decision-makershavenotsupportedthecreationofanintegratedmanagementplanforthiswatershed.Voluntaryprotectionsrequireacertainpoliticalwilltoimplement.However,twosurveyparticipantsnamed,unprompted,‘politicalwill’asasignificantbarriertosustainablewatershedmanagement.Thisisfurtherexemplifiedbysurveyrespondentsrating“supportfromseniordecision-makers”asthesecondmostsalientbarrierwhenitcomestosustainablewatershedmanagement(meanvalue3.71,orbetween“moderate”to“large”barrier).
Evenwhentherearerequirementsforlocalgovernmenttohaveplansinplace,itmightnotnecessarilyspuraction.Anintervieweespokeabouthowhavingarequirementforaplandoesnotalwaysresultinoutcomes.Whenaskedhowwellintegratedstormwatermanagementplanshavetranslatedintooutcomes,theynotedthatseniordecision-makersmaysometimesrespondthat“it’saplan,itdoesn’tmeanit’sa‘haveto.’”Inotherwords,therequirementwastodevelopaplan.Thisdoesnotnecessarilymeanthattheplanwillbeactedupon.
Towards Solutions
Developingprovincialstandards,orobjectives,thatrequirecommunitiesacrosstheprovincetomeetestablishedbaselinesforwatershedhealthwouldaddresstheissueofpoliticalwill.Includingperformancemeasuresinthestandards—i.e.measuringsuccessbyoutcomes,ratherthansolelybyprocessrequirements—couldaddresstheunevennesswithwhichwatershedprotectionsareimplementedandacteduponinB.C.whilealsoallowingforflexibilityandadaptationtolocal context.62MorethanoneparticipantfamiliarwiththeWater Sustainability Act noted how Water Objectivescouldbeaneffectivemechanismbywhichtodothis.Onesurveyparticipantplainlynoted:“Weneedtogetaprocessrollingwiththeexplicitoutcomeofsettingalegallybindingwaterobjectiverelatedtoeitherwaterqualityorquantity.”
Althoughlegallyenforceablestandardswereidentifiedasdesirablebymanyparticipants,thiswouldalsorequirealevelofoversightanddedicatedresourcestoensurecompliance.
62Cf.Curran,Krindle&Hulse(2016).
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2. Long-term watershed planning vs. short term political cycles
Restoringhealthywatershedprocessescantakealongtime.Thebeneficialimpactsofarestorationprojectmightnotrevealthemselvesforaslittleasafewmonthstoayear,toasmanyasoverahundred years.63However,localgovernmentsareunderpressuretoshowtheirconstituencieshowpublicfundsarebenefittingthecommunityonamuchshorterterm,orrisklosingelections.Thismaymeanthatotherpriorities—wherebenefitsmanifestthemselvesonamuchshorterterm—takeprecedenceoversustainablewatershedmanagement.
Aninterviewparticipantdiscussedthistension,remarkinghowbudgetsandpublicagendascanbedeterminedbywhatismostpoliticallypalatable,notnecessarilywhatisbestforthecommunity.Theynotedhowcrisesorpublicattentionmightcausecounciltodivertresourcesfromwatershedmanagementtoemergingprioritiesofpublicconcern.Thisconcernwasalsoechoedbyasurveyparticipant:“Wearenottakingadvantageofeveryredevelopmentopportunitytohelprestoreanaturalwaterbalance.Wehavethetechnologyandcapabilitytodothis.Wearesensitivetowhatourresidentsandcouncilfeelarehigherprioritiesandthereforemovingveryslowly.”
Towards SolutionsThetensiondescribedaboveisnotspecifictowatershedmanagementinB.C.,butisawell-documentedtensioninenvironmentalmanagementmoregenerally.However,thereareinterventionsthatcouldhelptomitigatetheissue.Forexample,anintervieweesuggestedthatthird-partyorganizationsthatarenotinfluencedbypoliticalpressurecouldlendaccountabilityandstabilitytolong-termwatershedmanagementandplanning.Forexample,inOntario,ConservationAuthoritiesaredesignedasnon-political,non-profitorganizationsthatarefundedthroughtaxlevies,provincialandfederalgrants,andself-generatedrevenuesthatareresponsibleforwatershedmanagement,enforcement,andrelatedtasks.64The“Solutions”boxinchallenge7furtherdiscussespossibilitiesforthirdpartyorganizationssuchaswatersheddecision-makingentitiesthatcouldaddressthischallenge.
Adoptingstructureddecision-makingprocessescouldalsolendconsistencyandtransparencytowatersheddecision-making.Structureddecision-makingisamethodthatfollowsaprocesstoevaluatepotentialoptions,andtheconsequencesandtrade-offsinvolvedforeachoption.Structureddecision-makinghasbeenwidelycreditedasakeyfactorinthesuccessofmanyofB.C.Hydro’swateruseplanningprocess.65
63Hughesetal.(2014).64ConservationOntario.ConservationAuthoritiesofOntario.(n.d.)Retrievedfrom: http://conservationontario.ca/about-us/conservation-authorities65Mattison,J.,Nowlan,L.,Lebel,M.,andOrr,C.“WaterforPower,WaterforNature:TheStoryofBCHydro’sWaterUsePlanningProgram.”Vancouver:WWFCanada.(2014).Retrievedfrom: http://awsassets.wwf.ca/downloads/wup_report_r04.pdf.
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3. Piecemeal approach
Manyofthetoolsthatexistforlocalgovernmentstoinfluenceactivitiesthatimpactwatershedhealtharetoolsintendedtopreventfuturedegradation(i.e.theyareaimedatmitigatingharmcausedbynewdevelopments)andaresitespecific(i.e.theyareenactedonalot-by-lotbasis).Forexample,theymayrequiredeveloperstoinfiltratestormwateronsite,ortoleaveamplesetbacksfromawatercourse.Althoughtheseinterventionsarenecessary,theymaynotbesufficient.Toolstorestorepastdegradation,andwhichallowrehabilitationatthewatershedscalemaybenecessarytorecoverlostordegradedhydrologicalconnectivity,geomorphologicalcomplexity,andecologicalfunctionofwatersheds.66
Oneinterviewparticipantelaboratedonthiswhentheydescribedhow,despitemeaningfuleffortstoimproveurbanwatershedmanagementinthelocalgovernmentwheretheywork,thetoolsattheirdisposalare“slowingdownloss”butarenothelpingtomakegains.Forexample,theysaiditwas“veryhardtomovetheneedleforward”onthingslikeincreasingwatershedforestcoverorrehabilitatingdegradedriparianareas.Thisrealitymightexplainwhy,despitetoolssuchastheRiparianAreasRegulationineffect,localwatershedpractitionersarequiteconcernedaboutthewelfareofriparianareas—particularlyinhighlyurbanizedwatersheds.Thecurrentsuiteoftoolsatbesthelptopreventfuturedegradationandatworseslowdowntherateofdegradation.Theyareonlyabletoaddresspastripariandegradationorlargeswathesofimpervioussurfaceareaswhenaparceloflandisre-developed,whichhappenssporadically.
66Hughesetal.(2014).67Ibid.68UnitedStatesEnvironmentalProtectionAgency(U.SEPA).StormwaterRetrofitTechniquesforRestoringUrbanDrainagesinMassachusettsandNewHampshire.TechnicalDocument.(April2011).Retrievedfrom:https://www3.epa.gov/region1/npdes/stormwater/assets/pdfs/BMPRetrofit.pdf 69U.SEPA.ManagingWetWeatherwithGreenInfrastructureMunicipalHandbook:GreenInfrastructureRetrofitPolicies.(2008).Retrievedfrom: https://www.epa.gov/sites/production/files/2015-10/documents/gi_munichandbook_retrofits.pdf.
Towards Solutions Strategiesthatadvancebasin-scalewatershedprocessesaremuchmorelikelytobringaboutpositiveenvironmentaloutcomesthansite-specificimprovements.67Completerestorationofecologicalandhydrologicintegrityinanurbancontextisnotpossible,butitispossibletorehabilitatewatershedstosupportdesirablewaterqualities,quantitiesandecosystemfunction.Somejurisdictionsemployregulatorytoolsthatfacilitateexistingdevelopmentsandinfrastructuretoberetrofitted.Forexample,MassachusettsandNewHampshirerequirepermitsforurbandrainagesthatreleaseintoimpairedwatersheds.ThesepermitsmayrequireretrofitsinordertoensurethedischargesmeettheTotalMaximumDailyLimitofcontaminantsenteringwaterbodies.68TheU.S.EnvironmentalProtectionAgencyhasfoundthatacombinationofincentives,complianceassistanceandregulationsweretogethereffectiveatretrofittingurbanareaswithgreenstormwaterinfrastructure.69
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4. Lack of resources to support on-the-ground work
Alackofresourceswasidentifiedbysurveyparticipantsastheforemostchallengetowatershedsustainability.Themajorityofrespondentsratedittobea“largebarrier”(16outof35respondents)ora“verylargebarrier”(9outof35respondents).Whenaskedtoelaborateontheirresponsetomanagementbarriers,onesurveyrespondentsimplywrote,“Hugewatershed.Somanystakeholders.Notime.Nofunds.”Surveyandinterviewparticipantsindicatedthatinsufficientfundswereavailableforactivitiessuchasimplementingandoverseeingrulesandpolicies,datacollectionandmonitoring,educationandoutreach,andensuringthecontinuityofwatershedprogramsmoregenerally.Othersnoted,asindicatedabove(insection3.2.2),thatfundingforwatershedmanagementmaybedivertedtocompetingpriorities.
Anintervieweereflectedonhow,despitetheregulatorynecessitytodoso,somemunicipalitiesinMetroVancouverhavenotimplementedtheirintegratedstormwatermanagementplanbecausetheydidnothavethefundsorcapacitytodoso.ThisobservationwasalsonotedinrelationtouptakeandimplementationofRiparianAreasRegulationrequirementsamonglocalgovernments.AreviewbytheMinistryofForests,LandsandNaturalResourceOperationsnotedthat“anumberoflocalgovernmentsraisedconcernsabouttheircapacitytoevaluateRARstandardsandtakeactiononcontraventions,which[…]oftenrelatestoavailableresources.”70
Thelackofresourcesforwatershedmanagementisnotonlyabarrierforlocalgovernment,butalsoforprovincialgovernmentoperations.Morethanonesurveyandinterviewparticipantnotedthatgovernmentofficesareunderstaffed,andthattheirabilitytoconductwatershedmonitoringandscience,issueandreviewlicenses,andenforcerulesisroutinelystrained.Asurveyrespondentnotedhowthelackofcapacityofprovincialstafferstorespondtorequestswasinturnhamperinglocalgovernment.Therespondentnotedthatlocalgovernmentsandnonprofitorganizationsoftenendedupfillingthegapandtakingonworkthatisundertheprovince’smandate.Theynotedthat“whileIapplaudtherecentchangestotheAct,IfeeltheProvincewillbehardpressedtorespondtothenewworkitwillgenerate.”Aninterviewparticipantaffirmedthispoint,notinghowtheprovinceoftentakesalongtimetoapprovelicensesnecessaryforlocalgovernmentstodoworkssuchasimprovementsinandaboutastream.
70B.C.MinistryofForests,LandsandNaturalResourceOperations.Review of Local Government Implementation of the Riparian Areas Regulation. (2015).Retrievedfrom:http://www2.gov.bc.ca/assets/gov/environment/plants-animals-and-ecosystems/fish-fish-habitat/riparian-areas-regulations/lg_rar_implementation_compliance_report_september_14_2015_r.pdf
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5. Accountability of provincial government
Anissuethatmaybe,inpart,relatedtoconstrainedresourcesisaperceivedaccountabilitygapofhigherlevelsofgovernmentwithregardtofulfillingtheirduties.Thisissuewasbroughtupseveraltimes,unprompted,bothinthesurveyandintheinterviews.Althoughthistrendwasobservedwithregardtoboththeprovincialandfederalgovernments,participantsmorefrequentlynamedthisasaprovincialissue,likelybecausetheProvinceistheleadjurisdictionformanagingwaterresourcesinBritishColumbia.Participantsnotedhowthisperceivedlackofaccountabilityunderminedlocalgovernmenteffortstoprotectandrestoretheirwatersheds.Onesurveyrespondentdirectlylinkedtheideaofunderwhelmingenforcementeffortsattheprovinciallevelwithbeingunderstaffed:“therearenotenoughenforcementofficersallocatedtoprotectwaterinaproactivemanner.Ithasbecomeareactivesysteminresponsetocalls,longafterthedamageisdone.”Anothernotedthat“theProvinceneedstobetterenforceexistingwaterlicenses(irrigationwithdrawalandpumpingback)aswellasillegal[water]withdrawals.Manyofourriversdonotflowinthesummerduetooversubscriptionofthewater.Waterqualityprovisionshouldalsobebetterenforcedwhenitcomestoprivatelanddischargingintothereceivingenvironment.”Athirdlamented“higherlevelsofgovernmentnotenforcingtheirmandates…[suchas]waterallocations(overallocatingwaterforirrigationornotchasingillegalwithdrawals),notenforcingriparianorfisheriesinfractionsorpollutionevents.”
71NowlanandBakker(2007).
Toward SolutionsAlthoughalackofresourceswasidentifiedasthelargestbarrierbysurveyrespondents,itis,arguably,oneoftheeasiestproblemstoaddress.Atthelocallevel,targetedleviesorfeesareincreasinglybeingadoptedbygovernmentstoraisefundsforgreeninfrastructure,restoration,orrelatedprojects.Forexample,anintervieweediscussedhowtheirorganizationadministersadrainageparceltaxthatfundsadrainageutility.Thefundsraisedthroughthistaxaresufficienttofundavarietyofinnovativestormwaterandfloodprotectionprojectsandstudies.Forthisinterviewee,resourceswasonlyaminorbarriertosustainableurbanwatershedmanagement.
Attheprovinciallevel,thenewWater Sustainability Actprovidesanexcellentopportunitytoprocureresourcestofundimportantwatershedmanagementinitiatives—bothatthelocalandprovinciallevels.Forexample,newgroundwaterfeesenabledbytheAct,ifsetatanadequateandsufficientrate,couldfundmorestaffhours,monitoringprograms,andothersupportstomakewatershedmanagementmorerobustandeffective.EstablishingnewfundingleverscouldputprovincialinvestmentinwatermanagementonparwithprovinceslikeOntarioandAlberta,whichallocatenotablymoreresourcesforthispurpose.71
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Twointerviewparticipantsalsobroughtuptheissueofprovincialaccountabilitywithregardtoenforcingrules.Onenotedthat“We[BritishColumbia]doactuallyhaveagoodcultureofrule-making.However,wehaveapoortrackrecordofenforcement.”Anothernotedthatenforcementwasparticularlyunderwhelmingoncrownlandareasintheupperwatershedsthatprovidesourcewaterfordrinking.TheintervieweenotedthattherearenotenoughConservationOfficerstoadequatelymonitorthreatstowaterquality(e.g.suchastheuseofmotorizedoff-roadvehiclesinsourcewaterareas),whichcanhavedownstreameffects.
72Brandes,OliverM.,andDeborahCurran.“Changingcurrents:AcasestudyintheevolutionofwaterlawinWesternCanada.”InS.Renzetti&D.Dupont[Eds.]Water Policy and Governance in Canada.SpringerInternationalPublishing.(2017).
Towards SolutionsInthisresearch,astrongdesirewasexpressedfortheProvincetoreinsertitselfinwatershedmanagementafteraperceivedwithdrawalfromitsduties.Asdiscussedabove,ensuringadequateresourcesareallottedtotheMinistriesofEnvironmentandForests,Lands,NaturalResourceOperationsandRuralDevelopmentforwatershedmanagementandenforcementwasseenasanimportantsteptowardthis.AsonerespondentoftheEvergreensurveynoted,“Theprovinceismostlyabsentexceptasaregulatorybody.[...]IbelievetheProvincecouldbeavaluablepartnerifwecouldbringthemtothetable.” Tobuildtrustwithlocalgovernmentandothercommunity-basedwatershedactors,theProvincecouldalsorenewitscommitmenttofulfillingitswatermanagementduties.OneaspectwheretheProvincecouldimproveaccountabilityistoprepareandreleasea“StateofOurWaters”report,acommitmentmadeintheir2008LivingSmartWaterPlan.ThePlanoutlinedtheintentiontoreleaseaninitialreportby2012,andeveryfiveyearsafter.Todate,nosuchreporthasbeenreleased.Reportingisanimportantwaytodemonstratetransparencyandacommitmenttoaccountability,twocornerstonesofgoodgovernance.72
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6. (Un)collaborative decision-making
Becausewatershedboundariescrossjurisdictionalboundaries,effectivewatershedmanagementrequiresorganizedcoordinationbetweenjurisdictions.Inrecentyears,manyjurisdictionshavemovedawayfromastrictly“top-down”approachtowardamorecollaborative,“bottom-up”approachtowatershedmanagement.Onewayinwhichthiscollaborativetrendhasmanifestedisthroughlocallybasedwatershedpartnerships.73Thissometimesinvolvesthedelegationofdecision-makingpowerfromhigherlevelsofgovernmenttothelocallevel.
AcrossCanada,includinginB.C.,therehasbeenanincreasingtrendtowarddelegatingwatersheddecision-makingtomorelocallevels.However,thereisnooverarchingpolicyorlawthatguidesdelegatedwatershed-leveleffortsandalackofguidanceonwhichlevelofgovernmentretainstheauthoritytomakewaterdecisions.74Consequently,thereisquiteabitofvariationacrosstheprovincewithregardtowhatkindofwatersheddecision-makingmechanismsexistandwhoisinvolvedindecision-making.Insomewatersheds,therearewatershedentities—althoughtheyvaryintermsoftheirlegalformality,mandates,humanandfinancialresources.Inotherwatersheds,therearenoformalwatershedentities,althoughtheremayexistmulti-governmentalcommitteesthatcoordinatedecision-makingrelatedtowatershedissues.
Anumberofsurveyparticipantsandintervieweesattestedtotheirfrustrationatthecurrentmechanismsthatexistforcollaborativemanagementintheirwatershed.Oneintervieweelamentedhowforumsforcollaborativedecision-makingintheirwatershedareveryadhoc,andthatthereislittlecapacityorpoliticalsupport.Theynotedhowtherewasformerlyacommitteethroughwhichwatershed-relateddecisionsweremade,buttheprovincialandfederalgovernmentsstoppedparticipatingandthecommitteewasdissolved.Anotherintervieweerecountedasimilarstoryoflackofparticipationfromhigherlevelsofgovernment,howevertheircommitteecontinuestoexist,largelytoshareinformationbetweendepartmentsintheirorganization.
Someparticipantsnotedhowcoordinationisparticularlyimportantduetothenatureofsharedresponsibilitiesforwatershedmanagement.Onesharedthat“citiesonlyhavelimitedpowers[and]DFOandMFLNROneedtostepinandhelpattimes.Also,somehigherlevels[are]allowedtodomorethanothers,especiallywhenlargeinfrastructureprojectsareinvolved.”Anintervieweenotedhowastormwaterprojecttheirorganizationwasundertakingwasderailedwhen,eventhoughtheyhadbeencoordinatingwithasectionintheB.C.MinistryoftheEnvironment,anothersectiondidnotgivefinalapprovalsrightbeforetheprojectwastogotoconstruction.Alackofeffectivemechanismsforcoordinationwithinandbetweengovernmentswasnamedasanissuethatultimatelycreatesmoreworkforallinvolved.
73Koontz,TomasM.,andJensNewig.“FromPlanningtoImplementation:Top-DownandBottom-UpApproachesforCollaborativeWatershedManagement.”Policy Studies Journal 42,no.3(2014). 74Ibid.
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AfurtherissuethatwasraisedwasthatFirstNationsareoftenexcludedfromwatersheddecision-making,andthatwhentheyareincluded,itisofteninaconsultative—notcollaborative—way.AparticipantlamentedthatFirstNationsparticipationinurbanwatersheddecisionsisoftenonthetermsofcolonialgovernments,andthatissuesarestillprimarilyframedwithWesternvalues.Theywrote:
Our watershed issues tend to be focused on traditional European values: property protection, water for consumption, water for industry (economic opportunities), water for recreation, etc. First Nation heritage values are overlooked as municipalities do not feel it is their duty to consult and accommodate (and therefore will not pay for it) and leave it to the province, even if there is no trigger for this process. Issues related to all values should be identified.
Towards Solutions Manyparticipantsexpressedadesireforaprovincialframeworkthatofferssustainedsupportforcollaborativewatersheddecision-making.AnEvergreensurveyparticipantrelatedthat“acollaborativeapproachwithasmanypartnersaspossibletoprovidediversityandexpertiseaswellassustaininitiatives[overthe]longterm”was,intheirview,animportantsteptoincreasingresilienceandsustainabilityinurbanwatersheds.Threeintervieweesdiscussedhowtheythoughtwatershedentitieswerethebestwaytofacilitatecollaborativedecision-making.ThissuggestionissupportedbyrecentB.C.researchbythePOLIS Project on Ecological Governancethatindicatesthatsome85%ofthoseworkinginwatershedmanagementandprotectioninB.C.agreethatlocalwatershedentitiesarenecessarytoimplementtheWSAtoitsfullestpotential.75Oneintervieweediscussedthepotentialofnestingbottom-up(e.g.watershed-scaleentities)withtop-down(e.g.aprovince-widebody)approachestowatersheddecision-making.Theysuggestedthataprovince-wideorganizationcouldfacilitatethesharingofknowledgeandresourceswithandbetweenwatershedentities.TheaforementionedPOLISreportdemonstratednotablesupportfora“central,province-widecapacity-buildingorganizationforwatershedgovernance,”76whichcouldpotentiallyfillthismandate.77
AninterviewparticipantnotedthenecessityofensuringwatershedentitiesenablecollaborationbetweenFirstNationsandotherlevelsofgovernment—animportantstep,theynoted,toadvancingreconciliationandmovingbeyondthecentralityofcolonialwatersheddecision-making.TherecentexamplewhereIndigenousandnon-IndigenousgovernmentsnegotiatedtheMackenzie River Basin Bilateral Water Management Agreementsusinga“collaborativeconsent”approachcouldserveasamodelforstructuringcollaborativedecision-making.78
75Brandes,Oliver,etal.Illumination: Insights and perspectives for building effective watershed governance in BC. POLIS Project on Ecological Governance.(2016).76Ibid.77Despitethepromiseofwatershedentities,BakkerandNowlanwarnthatresearchsuggestswatershedentitiesdonotalwaysleadtoimprovedenvironmentaloutcomes.Theyidentifysettingclearparametersforcollaborativeprocesses,ensuringscienceisgivensufficientweightindecision-making,andallottingadequatefinancialandhumanresourcesupportsasimportantconditionsforsuccess.ThissentimentissupportedbythePOLISreport,whichindicatessome91%agreethatlong-termfundingforwatershedentitiesisdesirable.Onesurveyparticipantsuggestedthatfundingforcollaborativewatersheddecision-makingcouldbe“fundedthroughwaterfeesfromgroundwaterextractionoperators.”78Phare,M-A.,Simms,R.,Brandes,O.M.,Miltenberger,M.CollaborativeConsentandBritishColumbia’sWater:TowardsWatershedCo-Governance.POLISProjectonEcologicalGovernanceandCentreforIndigenousEnvironmentalResources.(2017).Retrievedfrom:http://poliswaterproject.org/polis-research-publication/collaborative-consent-british-columbias-water-towards-watershed-co-governance/
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7. Complex and fragmented water framework
AlthoughtheWaterSustainabilityActisB.C.’scentralpieceoflegislationgoverningtheuseandprotectionofwaterintheprovince,thereareseveralotherlawsandregulationsthatapplytowatermanagementandaffectwhatkindofdecisionsandactivitiescanbetaken.AmongthesearetheDrinking Water Protection Act, the Local Government Act, the Water Protection Act, the Dike Maintenance Act, the Environmental Management Act, the Forest Range and Practices Act, the Land Act, the Building Act and more.AlloftheseActsandcorrespondingregulationsenableauthoritiesandsetoutrequirementsregardingissuesthatimpactwatershedmanagement.SomeoftheseActsenablethecreationofavarietyofplansrelatedtowatershedmanagement.79
Severalsurveyandinterviewparticipantsexpressedconcernaboutthecomplexityofthisframework,andhowprovisionsinsomeoftheseActshampertheirabilitytoengageinsustainablewatershedmanagement.Asurveyparticipantcommentedaboutperceivedconflictsofinterestbetweendifferentpiecesofthelegislation:“Regulationsareofteninconflictwithwaterandtheresourceitisregulating,[for]example...[theForest Range Practices Act],Mining Act,[and]Agriculturewasteregulations.”Otherparticipantsdiscussedhowthisframeworkprovidesoftenconflictingmandatesforlocalgovernments.Forexample,asurveyparticipantnotedhow“thereareconflictingmandatesforlocalgovernmentstoaddsourcecontrolsandenforcethe[B.C. Building Code],”becausethecoderequiresinfrastructuresuchaseavestroughstobeconnectedtostormdrains,whichunderminestheabilityoflocalgovernmentstoencourageinfrastructurethatinfiltratesstormwateratthesource.80
AnintervieweeexpressedthattheyfoundtheintersectionsbetweentheDike Maintenance Act and Water Sustainability Actconfusing.TheynotedhowtheDike Management Act is out of date, and does notappeartoallowforgreeninfrastructurealongshores.TheyexpressedtheneedtobringthisActuptodateandtosynchronizeitwithotherlegislation.AsurveyparticipantalsorelatedtheneedforsynchronizationbetweentheauthoritiesandrequirementsunderdifferentActs.Theyasked:“HowwillWaterSustainabilityPlansintersectwithWatershedAssessment&ResponsePlans?...[L]ocalgovernmentsarealreadychallengedtoachieveregulatoryrequirementssotheseplanningprocessesneedtobecoordinatedtoavoidduplication.”AninterviewparticipantlamentedhowaWaterUsePlanhadrecentlyexpiredandwasnolongerineffect,andwonderedwhatwouldhappennext.
Bioswales in a parking lot. Photo Credit: Green Communities Canada
79SeeAppendixCforalistofdifferentkindsofwater-relatedplansinB.C.80Areviewofempiricalstudieson“lessonslearned”fromwatershedpartnershipsnotedthat“adequatefunding”wasidentifiedasthemostimportantkeytosuccess.Thesecondmostimportantfactorwasparticipationbyaneffectiveleaderorfacilitator.See:Leach,WilliamD.,andNeilW.Pelkey.“Makingwatershedpartnershipswork:areviewoftheempiricalliterature.” Journal of water resources planning and management 127.6(2001).
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Towards SolutionsThefragmentednatureofB.C.’swaterframeworkfurtherunderlinestheneedforincreasedcollaborationandcooperationbetweenactorsinvolvedinwatershedmanagement.Asnotedabove,aframeworktofacilitateconsistentandsustainablecollaborativewatersheddecision-makingacrosstheprovincecouldbeparticularlyusefulinfurtheringthisgoal.Sustainablefundingiskeytoensuringthesuccessofdelegatedwatersheddecision-making.
Additionally,guidancematerialsthatoutlineauthoritiesandresponsibilitiesofdifferentlevelsofgovernments,currentlegalandpolicytoolsthatimpactwatershedmanagement,clarificationonhowandwhentoolsareemployedandwhichtakelegalprecedencecouldlendsignificantclaritytothecomplexwatershedmanagementframework.Developingnewtoolsthattakelegalprecedenceoverotherenactmentscouldensurethatwatershedprotectionisnotsidelinedbystipulationsinothernaturalresourcelegislation.Newtoolscouldrecognizeandbuilduponpreviouswatershedplanningprocessesundertakenatthelocallevel.
Downspout to permeable rocks. Photo Credit: Centre for Neighbourhood Technology. CC BY-SA-2.0
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4. LEVERAGING THE WATER SUSTAINABILITY ACT
4.1 Leverage Points
The Water Sustainability Act (WSA)presentsatimelyopportunitytoaddresssomeoftheenvironmentalandmanagementchallengesdiscussedabove.Localgovernmentshavemanytoolsattheirdisposal,anditispossibleforlocalgovernmentstoaddresssomeoftheissuesabovewithouttheadditionalsupportspotentiallyofferedbytheWSA.Localgovernmentsshouldincreasetheirunderstandingofwhatcanbeaccomplishedwithintheirpurviewandtakeactionaccordingly.However,giventhatprovincialstaffarecurrentlydevelopingregulations,policies,andprogramstosupportimplementationoftheAct,thereexistsarareopportunitytoimprovewatershedmanagementacrossB.C.LocalgovernmentsshouldseizethisopportunitybyaskingtheProvincetodeveloptoolsthataddresschallengestourbanwatershedsustainability.
TheActlargelyenablespowerspertainingtothelicensingandallocationofwaterresources,buttherearesomeareasintheActthatalsopertaintowaterqualityandecologicalhealth.SomeoftheseareascouldalsobeleveragedtoaddresstheenvironmentalandmanagementbarriersdiscussedaboveandoffersupportforeffectivemanagementforurbanwatershedsustainabilityinB.C.WehaveidentifiedthefollowingareasoftheActaspriorityareasforfurtherdevelopment:
• Provisionsthatenabletheconsiderationofwaterinland-usedecisions,inparticularWaterObjectives(enabledinsection43oftheAct)andWaterSustainabilityPlans(enabledinDivision4);
• Provisionsthatenabledelegateddecision-making,inparticularsection126(“Regulationsrespectingadministrationandgovernance”)andDivision4;
• Provisionsthatenabletheappropriationoffeesandcharges,whichcouldbechanneledforfinancialsupportforwatershedmanagement,inparticularsection118;
• Provisionsthatprotectenvironmentalusesofwater,inparticularsection15(“Environmentalflowneeds”)andsections86-88(“Declarationsofsignificantwatershortage”,“Criticalenvironmentalflowprotectionorders”,and“Fishpopulationprotectionorders”);and
• Provisionsthatenablereportingandmonitoringrequirementsforwaterusers,aslaidoutinsections15,17(“Sensitivestreamsmitigation”),23(“Thirty-yearreviewoflicencetermsandconditions”),30(“Beneficialuse”)and131(“Regulationsrespectingmeasuring,testingandreporting”)oftheAct.
TherearemoreareasoftheActthatcouldpertaintoandhaveramificationsforurbanwatershedmanagement,however,wehavefocusedonareaswherewethinktherearethemostobviousopportunitiestoaddresstheenvironmentalandmanagementchallengesidentifiedinthisreport.
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4.2 Recommendations for the Water Sustainability Act in support of urban watershed management
Insection3,weoutlinedmanagementchallengesthatimpedeurbanwatershedsustainabilityandpotentialinterventionsthatcouldmitigatethosechallenges.Therecommendationsbelowbuildontheideascontainedinthe“solutionsboxes”insection3bysuggestingwaystheWaterSustainabilityActcouldsupport—eitherthroughregulatory,policyorfundinglevers—decision-makerstosurpassthosechallenges.WealsosuggestsomeimplicitareasforpotentialdevelopmentthatarerelatedtobutbeyondthespecificauthoritysetoutinAct.Wesuggestthat,shouldtheserecommendationsgoforward,localgovernmentswouldbeinanimprovedpositiontomakedecisionsthatprotectandimprovethehealthofurbanwatershedsintheprovince.Therefore,wesuggestthatlocalgovernmentsadvocatetotheProvincetotaketheactionslistedbelowwhendevelopingaspectsoftheAct.
4.2.1 Connecting land and water through Water Objectives
Managementchallengespotentiallyaddressed:voluntary vs. mandated protections, long-term watershed planning vs. short term political cycles, piecemeal approach, fragmented water framework.
5. Developregulationsthatuseperformance-basedcriteriatoestablishobjectivesforwaterquality,quantityandecosystemhealth
a) InvolvelocalgovernmentsandFirstNationstoidentifyvaluesanddesiredoutcomestoinformtheseobjectives
b) GivelegalprecedencetoWaterObjectivesdespiteanyotherenactmentc) MakeWaterObjectivesapplicabletoallwatersacrosstheprovince,butallowforflexibility
andcustomizationatthewatershedleveld) Ensureobjectivesarespecificenoughtooperationalizeanddevelopcriteriaforevaluatione) Ensureobjectivesapplytoallactivitiesinthewatershedthatimpactwatershedhealthf) IncorporateparametersfromexistingAmbientWaterQualityObjectivesintoWater
Objectivesg) Includeobjectivesrelatedtomostcommoncontaminantsofemergingconcernh) Requireallrelevantdecision-makerstoconsiderobjectiveswhenissuingwaterlicenses,
permitsorotherauthorizationsthatmayimpactwatershedhealthi) iSupportlocalgovernmentstoensureWaterObjectivesareintegratedintolocalplanning
processes(OfficialCommunityPlans,RegionalGrowthStrategies,liquidwasteandstormwatermanagementplans,etc.)
j) Giveatimeframeforcompliancethatspursactionbutisrealisticandachievable (e.g.fiveyears)
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k) EnsureadequatesupportsareavailableforlocalgovernmentstobeabletoactonWaterObjectives(see:Section4.2.3forrecommendedwaystostrengthensupports)
6.DevelopWaterObjectivestoapplytourbanizedwatershedsa) Triggerfundingforrestoration/retrofits,wherenecessarytomeetobjective(see4.2.3for
suggestedfundingsource)b) Enshrineminimumrun-offcontroltargetsinregulationc) Developinfiltrationobjectivesforaquifersconnectedtosurfaceswatersd) IdentifyhowWaterObjectivescanbelinkedtogreeninfrastructureandsupportfunding
requestforcapitalgrants
7.MonitorandreviewWaterObjectivesa) Delegateauthoritytoathird-partyentity(seerecommendation10)toreviewandreporton
objectiveseveryfiveyearstoensureconsistencyinimplementationandenableevaluationofprogramoutcomes
b) Includespecificindicatorsrelevanttourbanwatersheds,suchaschangesinimpervioussurfacesandadoptionofgreeninfrastructure
c) IncludehighlightsofmonitoringinState of Our Waters report(seesection4.2.5)
4.2.2. Improving coordination and transparency in watershed decision-making
Managementchallengespotentiallyaddressed:Long-term watershed planning vs. short term political cycles, piecemeal approach, lack of resources to support on-the-ground work, fragmented water framework, (un)collaborative decision-making
8.Developguidanceandprocessesforlocalgovernmentsonhowwatersheddecision-making willbeaffectedbyimplementationoftheWater Sustainability Act
a) OutlinehowrequirementsandprogramsundertheActwillintersectwithotherlegislation,policiesandprograms
b) Indicateprocessesforcoordinationbetweendifferentlevelsofgovernmentc) Developandcommunicateaclearoutreachstrategythat(i)outlinestheprocessforengag-
inglocalgovernmentonregulatorydevelopment,and(ii)includestimelinesandprocessesforregularimplementationupdates
d) Adoptastructureddecision-makingprocessforprovincialwater-relateddecisionstoincreaseconsistencyandtransparencyandcommunicatethisprocessclearlytodifferentlevelsofgovernmentandstakeholders
9.Establishathird-party,capacity-buildingentitytocoordinateandfacilitateknowledgetransfer withinandbetweendifferentlevelsofgovernment
a) Ensurelocalgovernmentsaremeaningfullyinvolvedb) InvolveFirstNationsinaco-governancerolec) Ensureadequateandsustainedfundingisavailable(seesection4.2.3.)d) Includeaframeworkthatensuresconsiderationofscienceandtraditionalecological
knowledgeindecision-making
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e) Considerintegratingstructureddecision-makingprocessesintopilotsf) Drawfromthesepilotstodevelopastrategythatoutlinesconsistentparametersforthe
creationandoperationofwatershedentitiesacrosstheprovince
10.Establishathird-party,capacity-buildingentitytocoordinateandfacilitateknowledgetransfer withinandbetweenwatershedentitiesanddifferentlevelsofgovernment
a) Includeparticipationfromdifferentlevelsofgovernmentinthegovernanceofthisentityb) AllowthisentitytooverseethedeliveryofDivision4(Watersustainabilityplans)andmoni-
toringandevaluationrelatedtoWaterObjectives(seerecommendation3)
11.WhenWaterSustainabilityPlansaredesignated,ensureplansconsiderandincorporatethe effortsofpreviouswatershedplanningefforts(e.g.WatershedAssessment&ResponsePlans, WaterUsePlans,etc.)andlocalgovernmentCommunityPlansandbylaws.
a) RequireWaterSustainabilityPlansto“meetorbeat”watershedhealthobjectivesdetailedinWaterObjectives
4.2.3. Securing adequate funds for watershed management
Managementchallengespotentiallyaddressed: lack of resources to support on-the-ground work, accountability of provincial government, (un)collaborative decision-making
12.ReviewthecurrentfeesandratesstructuresetoutintheWater Sustainability Fees, Charges and Rentals Regulationtodetermine:
a) Whetherthecurrentstructureisabletoadequatelyfundprovincialresponsibilitiesandcommitmentsrelatedtowatershedmanagement,includingenforcementduties
b) Whetherthecurrentstructurereflectsthevalueofwaterresources,promotesconserva-tionanddrivestechnologicalinnovation
c) AssesshowthecurrentratestructurecouldbealteredtoraiserevenueforaWaterSus-tainabilityFundthatwoulddedicatedongoingfundingforwatershedmanagement,includ-ingwatershedentitiesandotherwaterstewardshipefforts
d) Alterwaterrates,ifnecessary,toadequatelyfundprovincialresponsibilitiesandcommit-ments,andsupportthecreationofaWaterSustainabilityFund
13.WorkwithaSustainableFundingTaskforcetoexploreandtestimplementationofother sustainablefundingmechanismsforwatershedmanagementattheprovincialandwatershed level,suchasincreasingrevenuefromlocaltaxbases,Crownresourcerentals,etc.
a) Ensurefundingsourcesdonotcompromiseorpotentiallyleadtoaconflictofinterestbetweenrevenueandwatershedhealthobjectives
b) WorkwithInfrastructureCanadatostreamlineinfrastructurestimulusspendingtogreeninfrastructureprojectsandurbanretrofits
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4.2.4 Ensuring water is protected for nature
Managementchallengespotentiallyaddressed:Long-term watershed planning vs. short term political cycles, piecemeal approach
14.Establishlegallyenforceableregulationstoprotectenvironmentalflowsa) Basetheseregulationsonapresumptiveprovincialstandardb) RequireWaterSustainabilityPlansforwatershedsthatdonotmeetthepresumptivestan-
dard c) IncollaborationwithlocalgovernmentandFirstNations,establishtheaquaticvaluesto
beincludedinthedecision-makingprocessfortheconsiderationofEnvironmentalFlowsNeeds
15.DevelopanEnvironmentalFlowsTaskforcewithparticipationoflocalgovernment,FirstNations, andthefederalgovernmenttoestablishwhetherexistingwaterallocationsaresustainable
a) Identifystreamsofconcernwhereenvironmentalflowsorcriticalenvironmentalflowsarethreatenedandreviewhowlicensesareaffectingflowregimes
b) Identifywhichgroundwaterlicensescouldbeconnectedtostreamsandworkwithpart-nerstodeveloptransitionstrategiesforthoselicenses
c) Conductactionstoreducewithdrawalvolumesifnecessaryd) Determinewhetheradditionstreamsshouldbedesignatedas“sensitive”persection128
oftheAct
4.2.5 Monitoring and reporting on watershed health
Managementchallengespotentiallyaddressed:Accountability of provincial government, (un)collaborative decision-making
16.Identifyopportunitiestocoordinateandstreamlinewaterdatafromdifferentmonitoring operationstoenhanceknowledge-sharingandreduceduplicationofefforts
a) Createacentralizeddatahubthathousesdatafrommonitoringoperationsbydifferentlevelsofgovernment
b) Enabledatacollectedfromcitizenscienceandcommunity-basedwatermonitoringopera-tionstobeincludedinthishub
c) Makehubaccessibletostaffanddecision-makersatalllevelsofgovernment
17.Requireallwateruserstomonitorwaterwithdrawalsandreporttheirusetogovernmenta) Includethisinformationindatahubb) Spacializedatabycreatingamaplayerwithcoordinatesofall“pointsofdiversion”associ-
ated with withdrawalsc) Phasethisrequirementinoverfiveyears,startingwithwaterscarcebasins
18.CompileasummaryofwaterdataintoaStateofOurWatersreport,apubliclyaccessible reportissuedeveryfiveyears
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a) Includeinformationpertainingtowateruse(asinrecommendation12),WaterObjectives(asinrecommendation3),andenforcementactionstakenbytheprovincialgovernmentundertheauthorityoftheAct
4.3. Practitioner feedback on recommendations
AttheWater Sustainability & the City foruminOctoberof2017,approximately50individualswhoseworkisrelevanttourbanwatershedmanagementgatheredtoassesstheserecommendationsandtolearnfromthecollectiveknowledgeofattendees.Participantsincludedplanners,engineers,watershedmanagers,environmentaltechnicians,researchers,policyanalysts,environmentaleducationspecialistsandmorefromB.C.municipalities,regionaldistricts,FirstNations,theProvincialgovernment,non-profitorganizationsandacademicinstitutions.
Afterpresentingasummaryofthefindingscontainedinthisreport,participantstookanhourtodiscusstherecommendationsinsmallgroups.Theywereaskedtoconsiderwhethertheysupportedtherecommendations,whatkindofsupportsmightbeneededshouldtheserecommendationsbeimplemented,andwhatroletheywouldliketoseedifferentorganizationsplayinthecontinueddevelopmentoftheWater Sustainability Act.Weassessedthisfeedback,andgroupedinputintomajorthemes,detailedbelow.Itshouldbenotedthatthisinput,althoughrevealing,doesnotconstituteofficialconsultationonmattersrelatedtothedevelopmentorimplementationoftheActandshouldnotbeconstruedassuch.
4.3.1 Reiterating the need for resources
Therewasstrongsupportinthegroupfortherecommendationspertainingto“securingadequatefundsforwatershedmanagement”(section4.2.3).ParticipantsidentifiedadequatefundingasanoverarchingissuethatfedintothesuccessfulimplementationofotheraspectsoftheAct.Theynotedthatfundingwasanimportantfactorinensuringtheparticipationofdifferentgroupsincollaborativewatersheddecision-makingandinthesuccessfulimplementationofWaterObjectives.ParticipantsalsonotedtheimportanceofincreasedfundingtosupportFirstNationsinrespondingtoconsultationrequestsandprocessapplications.Onegroupwonderedwhetherfundingfromincreasedlicensefeeswouldbechanneledonlyintoprovincialoperations,andnotedthatawatershedfundthatcouldprovideresourcesatthelocallevelcouldwasdesirable. 4.3.2 Collaboration and sharing of responsibility
Participantsreiteratedtheneedforcollaborationfrommultiplelevelsofgovernment,andreinforcedtheideathateffectiveurbanwatershedmanagementrequiredtheProvincetoresumeanactiveroleinlocalwatershedmanagement,particularlywithregardtomonitoringactivitiesandenforcementofrulesandviolations.TheyalsonotedtheimportanceoftheProvincesupportingcollaborativewatersheddecision-making—asopposedtofacilitatingpilotprojectsandsteppingbackfrominvolvementinthatprocess.Participantsnotedhowcreatinginformationinfrastructureforsharingwaterdataacrossjurisdictionswasanimportantstepforwardtocollaborativedecision-making.
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Municipalitiesvoicedtheneedforsharedriskandliabilitybecausetheyaretheonesthatarechargedwithreconcilingon-the-groundactivitieswithregulatoryrequirements,andbearconsequenceswhenandifthesecomeintoconflictwitheachother.Participantsalsoindicatedtheneedtoinvolveseniorlocalgovernmentdecision-makersincollaborativewatershedprocesses,asthisgivesgreaterlegitimacytotheprocess.
FirstNationsparticipantsspokeabouttheneedtobeinvolvedinindecision-makingearlieronintheprocess—forexample,beingincludedinhowdecisionsaremadeasopposedtobeingconsultedafteracourseofactionhasalreadybeenproposed.Somefeltthatinputfromconsultation,asitcurrentlyhappens,isnotmeaningfullyintegratedintodecisions.TherewasalsoaconcernthatFirstNationsvoiceswerenotacknowledgedwithintheActitself.Forexample,the“FirstInTime,FirstInRight”approachtowaterlicensesdoesnotrecognizetraditionalusesofwater.
4.3.3 Clarity and direction
ParticipantsemphasizedtheneedforclarityanddirectionfromtheProvinceastheWSAcontinuestoberolledout.ManywereunclearofhowtheActwouldapplyinurbanwatershedsandhowitcouldaffectlocaloperations.TheywonderedifandhowregulationslikeWaterObjectiveswouldtakelegalprecedenceoverotherlegislationandwhatthatwouldmeaninpractice.Therewasadesireforfutureregulationsandplanningeffortstobuilduponpreviouseffortsandknowledge(forexample,Integrated Stormwater Management Plans thathavebeenadoptedbyMetroVancouvermunicipalities).
Forumparticipantsalsoindicatedadesireforclearcommunicationonprocessesfordecision-making.Forexample,onegroupnotedhowactionsrelatedto“emergencyworks”didnotrequireconsultation,butitwasnotclearwhatconstitutedan“emergency.”
4.3.3 Investing in education
Finally,participantshighlightedtheneedforeducationinordertoensureimplementationoftheActanditsregulatoryrequirementsaresuccessful.Theynotedaneedforeducationgearedbothtowardthebroaderpublic,butalsoforfrontlinestaffanddecision-makerswithinlocalgovernments.Someattendeesnotedthatmanystaffintheirorganizationsdonothaveastrongunderstandingofprovincialandfederalrequirementswithregardtodecisionsthataffectwatersheds.Othersnotedthatabroad,publiceducationstrategyisnecessarytoengageconstituenciesinconversationsaboutthevalueoffreshwaterandthenecessityofactiontoprotectit—whichmaysometimesincludehowtradeoffsbetweenenvironmentalprotectionandhumanuses.
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5. CONCLUSIONUrbanwatershedsinBritishColumbiaprovideessentialservicestothemillionsofresidentsthatliveinthem,aswellastotheecosystemsthatdependonthem.However,thesewatershedsareunderstress.Aspopulationsgrowandtheimpactsofclimatechangebecomemoreapparent,thesestresseswillintensify.Localgovernmentshaveresponsibilitiesandauthoritytoprotectwatershedhealthwithintheirboundariesforthewellbeingoftheirconstituents.However,anumberofwatershedmanagersworkingforlocalgovernmentshaveexpressedconcernaboutthehealthoftheirwatersheds.Theyhaveidentifiedchallengesthathampertheirabilitytomitigateandreversethepressuresthatgiverisetowatersheddegradation.
ThenewWater Sustainability Actprovidesanopportunitytoaddresssomeoftheseenvironmentalandmanagementchallenges.TheActenablestheprovincialgovernmenttotakeactioninanumberofareastostrengthenwatershedmanagementatboththeprovincialandlocallevel.Thisresearchhassuggestedthat,iftheopportunityiseffectivelyseized,suchactioncouldengenderimportantstepstoharmonizingthewatermanagementframeworkinBritishColumbia,minimizingtheimpactsofland-useactivitiesonwatershedhealth,improvingcoordinationindecision-making,securingadequatefundsforwatershedmanagement,ensuringwaterisprotectedfornature,andestablishingarobustmonitoringandreportingprogram—actionsthatcouldgoalongwaytoaddresschallengesthathinderlocalgovernmentsinsustainablymanagingurbanwatersheds.
Streetside rain garden. Photo Credit/ Green Communities Canada
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APPENDIX A - Demographics of Survey Respondents
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APPENDIX B - On Watershed SustainabilityIfwatershedsustainabilityentailswatersystemsthatareabletomeettheneedsofcurrentgenerationswithoutcompromisingthoseoffuturegenerations,thenitfollowsthatasustainablesystemisonewherethecurrentgeneration:(i)consumesrenewableresourcesataratelessthantherateatwhichtheyarerenewed;(ii)consumesnon-renewableresourcesataratelessthantherateatwhichsubstitutescanbe found;and (iii)emitspollutionataratelessthanthecapacityoftheenvironmenttoabsorbthepollutants.81
Needsvarybetweenwatersheds.Theymayincludehumanhealth,economic,social,culturalandecologicalneeds.Watersystemsmustmaintaintheirecologicalandhydrologicalintegrityinordertoprovidewaterquantitiesandqualitiesthatallowsfortheseneedstobemet.Ensuringsustainablewatershedsrequirespreventingdegradationsothattheyareabletorenewthemselvesandsustainthevariouspracticesthatcontributetohuman(andnon-human)well-being.However,itmaynotbeenoughtopreventdegradationaswatershedfunctionsmayalreadybedegradedinwaysthatcompromisetheirintegrity.Inadditiontopreservingtheecologicalandhydrologicalintegrityofwatersystems,watershedsustainabilitymayalsorequireenhancingthecapacityofwatershedstoprovidequantitiesandqualitiesthatmeethumanandecologicalneeds.Althoughpristine,pre-developmentstatesareallbutimpossibleinurbanizedwatersheds,therearemanyactionsthatcanbetakentobringurbanwatershedstoasnaturalawaterbalanceaspossible,andencouragehighqualitywaterforhumanandecologicalhealth.82
Thisviewofsustainabilityimpliesthatprudentplanningandmanagementisnecessaryinordertoensurethatcurrentneedsdonotcompromisetheabilityofwatersystemstoprovideforfutureneeds.Watershedplannersandmanagersmustunderstandandaccountforhowwatershedprocessesfunctionoverspaceandtime,andhowhumanneedsandactivitiesimpactthesefunctions.Ofcourse,whatthefutureholdsandhowfuturesocial,economicandenvironmentalcircumstanceswillimpacttheneedsofgenerationstocomeisuncertain.Wedoknowwithsomecertaintythatclimatechangeandpopulationgrowthisexpectedtoputmorestrainonwatersheds,butexactlyhowtheimpactswillbeborneoutareunclear.83Therefore,planningforsustainablewatershedswillinvolvetakingintoaccountuncertainty.Aguidingprinciplehereistointerfereaslittleaspossiblewithwatershedfunctioning,inordertomaintainoptionsforfuturegenerations.Thismayinvolvetradeoffs,suchascostsassociatedwithpreservingorenhancingwatersheds,orreductionoftheimmediatebenefitsofcurrentgenerations.84
81 Daly, Herman E. Steady-state economics. Island Press. (1991).82 Loucks, Daniel P. “Sustainable water resources management.” Water international 25.1 (2000). 83 See for example McDonald, Robert I., et al. “Urban growth, climate change, and freshwater availability.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 108.15 (2011) and McDonald, Robert I., et al. “Urban growth, climate change, and freshwater availability.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 108.15 (2011). 84 Loucks, D.P. (2000).
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Sustainablewatershedplanningandmanagementrequirenotjustcommitmentstomaintainingwatershedsinhealthyconditions,butalsotheresourcestoachieveplans.Thisincludesbothfinancialresourcesandhumanresourcecapacity—includinginvestmentincapacitybuilding.Thiswillbefurtherenabledbyincreasedintegrationandcoordinationbetweenamultiplicityofindividualsandorganizationswhoseactivitiesaffectorareaffectedbywatershedsustainability,aswellasaninvolvedandsupportivepublicwhoareawareofthenecessityofplanningforwatershedsustainabilityanditsassociatedtradeoffs.
ItshouldbenotedthattheabovediscussiondoesnotexplicitlyincorporateoracknowledgeIndigenousworldviews.Althoughaspectsofthisdiscussionimplyaconnectednessbetweenhumansandtheirenvironmentandhumanstoeachother,theideathat“everythingisprofoundlyconnected”isacornerstoneofmanyIndigenousphilosophiesofsustainability.85ItisbeyondthescopeofthispapertoattempttoreconcileWesternperspectivesonsustainabilitywithIndigenousperspectives.However,suchworkcouldlendrichnessanddepthtofutureworkrelatedtooperationalizingandimplementingsustainabilityplanninginB.C.andelsewhere.
85 Hall, David Edward. Sustainability from the perspectives of indigenous leaders in the bioregion defined by the Pacific Salmon runs of North America. Portland State University (2008).
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APPENDIX C - Environmental Toolkits and Guides Climate Change
1. AdaptingtoClimateChange:ARisk-basedGuideforLocalGovernments,2010(NaturalResourcesCanadaandtheInstituteforCatastrophicLossReduction)
2. BCClimateActionToolkit(UBCM,GreenCommunitiesCanada,FraserBasinCouncil)
3. ChangingClimate,ChangingCommunities:GuideandWorkbookforMunicipalClimateAdaptation,2014(ICLEILocalGovernmentsforSustainability)
4. CreatingComplete,CompactandEnergy-EfficientCommunitiesinBC:HowFiscaltoolscanbeanOpportunityforLocalGovernments,2015(SustainableProsperity)
5. OfficialCommunityPlansSupportingClimateResilience,2015(ColumbiaBasinTrust)
6. PreparingforClimateChange:AnImplementationGuideforLocalGovernmentsinBC, 2012(WestCoastEnvironmentalLaw)
7. RetoolingforClimateChange(FraserBasinCouncil)
Green Community Planning
8. ConnectingtheDots:RegionalGreenInfrastructureNetworkResourceGuide,2013 (MetroVancouver)
9. DevelopwithCare2014:EnvironmentalGuidelinesforUrbanandRuralLandDevelop-mentinBritishColumbia,2014(BCMinistryofEnvironment)
10. GreenBylawsToolkitforConservingSensitiveEcosystemsandGreenInfrastructure , 2016(DeborahCurranandCompany)
11. EconomicRationaleforIntegratedStormwaterManagement2006(UBC,fundedbyBCMOE)
12. AGuidetoGreenChoices:Ideas&PracticalAdviceofLandUseDecisionsinBirtishCo-lumbiaCommunities,2008(MinistryofCommunity,SportandCulturalDevelopment)
13. TheGreenInfrastructureGuide,2007(WestCoastEnvironmentalLaw)
14. GreeningShorelinestoEnhanceResilience,2014(StewardshipCentreforBritishColumbia)
15. SmartPlanningforCommunities(FraserBasinCouncil)
16. TopsoilBylawsToolkit,2012(OkanaganBasinWaterBoard)
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Watershed Management
17. “BeyondtheGuidebook”documents(producedbythePartnershipforWaterSustainability inBC)
18. ClimateChangeAdaptationandWaterGovernance:SummaryforDecision-Makers,2011(AdaptiontoClimateChangeTeam,SimonFraserUniversity)aa
19. FromRaintoResource:ManagingStormwaterinaChangingClimate,2010(OkanaganBasinWaterBoardandtheBCWaterandWasteAssociation)
20. GroundwaterBylawsToolkit,2009(OkanaganBasinWaterBoard)
21. PeelingBackthePavement,2011(POLISProjectonEcologicalGovernance)
22. RethinkingourWaterWays,2011(FraserBasinCouncil)
23. ThinkingBeyondPipesandPumps:Top10WaysCommunitiesCanSaveWaterand Money,2006(POLISProjectonEcologicalGovernance)
24. SoakItUp!Toolkit,2016(GreenCommunitiesCanada)
25. StandardsandBestPracticesforInstreamWorks:UrbanStormwaterManagement, 2008(BCMOEandDFO)
26. StormwaterPlanning:AGuidebookforBritishColumbia,2002(GovernmentofBC)
27. ToolsforClimateChangeVulnerabilityAssessmentsforWatersheds,2013(CanadianCouncilofMinisteroftheEnvironment)
28. WaterConservationPlanningGuideforBritishColumbia,2009(POLISProjectonEcologicalGovernance)
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APPENDIX D - Types of Water Plans in B.C.85 PLANS TO ADDRESS WATER QUANTITY CONCERNS
Drought Management Plans
Droughtmanagementplansaretypicallydevelopedatthecommunityorregionalscale.Theyfocusonmanagingdemand,reducingconsumptionandimprovingefficiencyofwateruse,withanemphasisonreducingwaterdemandandaddressingextremecircumstancesassociatedwithdrought.Droughtmanagementplansdevelopspecificresponsestothesedroughtstagesandtriggers(e.g.,limitinglawnwateringifareservoirdropstoaspecifiedlevel).86
Water Allocation Plans
WaterAllocationPlansareconsideredregionalpolicy,andtheMinistryofForests,LandsandNaturalResourceOperationsusestheseplanswhileexercisingitsauthority(e.g.issuingwaterlicenses)underthe Water Act.TheplansareoperationaltoolsdevelopedandusedbytheMinistrytohelpdeterminethequantityofwaterrequiredinawatershedtoprotectecosystemhealth,andthequantityofwateravailabletobeallocatedforhumanuse.
Water Conservation Plans
Waterconservationplansfocusonmanagingwaterdemand,reducingconsumption,andimprovingefficiencyofwateruse.Theseplansextendbeyondhouseholdwatersavingstoincludeindustrial,commercial,institutionalandagriculturalwaterusers.LocalgovernmentsinBCarenowrequiredtohavewaterconservationplanstobeeligibleforprovincialcapitalgrantfundingfordrinkingwaterandwastewaterinfrastructure.
Water Use Plans
TheComptrollerofWaterRightsorotherappropriateauthoritiesundertheWaterActmayrequirethataWUPbepreparedforanyexistinglicence.Expectedprioritiesforthecompletionofplansarepowerdevelopments,municipalwatersystems,andlarger-scaleindustrialoperations.Forthemostpart,WUPshavebeenassociatedwithwaterpowerlicencesthatareheldbyBCHydro.WUPsmayalsoberequiredforotherwatercontrolfacilitieswherethereisanundesirableeffectonfish,aquatichabitat,orotherimportantvalues.WhileWUPsforexistinglicencesmayberequiredasneedsareidentified,plansmayalsoberequiredasaconditionofproponentsseekingnewlicencesforlarger-scaleoperations(industrial,agricultural,municipal,orotherfacilities),orforworkslocatedonparticularlyvaluableorsensitivestreams.
85 Content in this appendix was adapted from the Fraser Basin Council’s 2011 document Rethinking our Water Ways. 86 Metro Vancouver has a “Water Shortage Response Plan” (see http://www.metrovancouver.org/services/water/WaterPublications/WaterShortageResponsePlanFeb2016.pdf) which may trigger actions set out in local bylaws, such as the Surrey Water Shortage Response by-law (see: http://www.surrey.ca/bylawsandcouncillibrary/BYL_reg_15454.pdf).
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PLANS TO ADDRESS WATER QUALITY CONCERNS Drinking Water Protection Plans
DrinkingWaterProtectionPlans(DWPPs)aredesignedtoprotectwaterqualityandquantityfromawiderangeofpressures.Theplansaretypicallydevelopedforaspecificsourceofdrinkingwatersupply,suchasawatercourse,watershed,reservoiroraquifer.Part5oftheDrinking Water Protection ActoutlinestherequirementstodesignateanareaforaDrinkingWaterProtectionPlan,theplanauthority,andtheplanningandimplementationprocess.ThedecisionwhethertoinitiateaDWPPisonefortheMinistertomake.Asof2011,noDWPPshadbeencompletedordesignatedinBC.Theyareconsideredtobealastresortbecauseofthestringentrequirementsassociatedwiththem,andshouldonlybeconsideredwhereitcanbeestablishedthatregulatorytoolsarerequiredtoachievetheplanningobjectives.
Watershed Response & Assessment Plans
Under Part 3 of the Drinking Water Protection Act,adrinkingwaterprotectionofficermayorderawatersuppliertocompleteawatersourceandsystemassessment.Thepurposeoftheassessmentisto:
• assessthedrinkingwatersourceinrelationtolanduseswithinthewatershedandactivitiesthatmayaffectthesource;
• inventorythewatersupplysystem,includingtreatmentoptionsandoperationalprocedures;
• assessthemonitoringrequirementsforthedrinkingwatersourceandwatersupplysystem;and
• identifycurrentandpotentialfuturethreatstodrinkingwater.
Well Protection Plans
WellprotectionplansarebasedonatoolkitdevelopedjointlybyProvinceofBC,EnvironmentCanadaandBCGroundwaterAssociation.Theplansbyberequiredby:
• Healthauthoritieswhentheyreviewanoperatingpermitforalargedrinkingwatersystemthatincludeswells;
• Theprovincialgovernmentasaconditionofgrantinginfrastructurefundingfornewmunicipal/re-gionaldistrictwells;and,
• Asaconditionofaprovincialenvironmentalassessmentforproposedlargewithdrawals.
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PLANS TO FACILITATE INTEGRATED WATERSHED MANAGEMENT
Water Management Plans (WMP)
Part 4 of the old Water ActspecifiedthattheProvincemayissueanOrderforaWaterManagementPlantobecreatedtoaddressconcernsinawatershed.TheTownshipofLangleywasthefirstandonlylocalgovernmenttodevelopaWMPduetosignificantconcernsregardingcontaminationofthetown’saquifer.However,theplanhasnotbeenbroughtintoforceandmanyactivitiesoutlinedintheplanhavenotbeenimplemented.
Watershed Plans
WatershedPlansassessthestateofawatershedandpresentsdetailedmanagementinformationintermsofanalyses,actions,participantsandresourcesrequiredfordevelopingandimplementingtheplan.BChasnoformalrequirementsorstipulationsforundertakingwatershedplanningprocessesbeyondtheprovisionsundertheWater ActtodevelopaWMP,withapprovalfromtheprovincialgovernment.
Integrated Stormwater Management Plans (ISMPs)
MetroVancouver’smembermunicipalitiesISMPshavecollectivelyagreedtodevelopandimplementISMPsinaccordancewiththeIntegratedLiquidWasteandResourceManagementPlan.Theyapplytowatershedsthatare20%developedormore.