“We abuse land because we regard it as a commodity belonging to us. When we see land as a community to which we belong we may begin to use it with love and respect.”

Aldo Leopold 1

Sustaining Ecosystems

5 Reasons Forests are Commercially Important:

They provide lumber for housingThey are biomass for fuelwoodThey provide pulp for papersThey harbor medicinesThey are a tremendous source of food

(agriculture)

5 Reasons forests are ecologically important:They slow down runoff, minimizing soil

erosionThey provide water recharge for surface

water/groundwaterThey can influence climate (water cycle,

photosynthesis, cellular respiration)They are vital to global carbon cycle (carbon

sinks)They are natural air purifiers

Why is Biodiversity loss considered a key environmental problem?

Biodiversity is a wealth vital to all life & economies

The ecological processes associated with biodiversity such as matter cycling, energy flow, and species interactions are vital to all biota and economies

Biological consequences of biodiversity loss through environmental degradation impact all lives and economies.

The ecological health of an area is described in terms of biodiversity richness and ecological integrity which is the conditions and natural processes that generate and maintain biodiversity and allow evolutionary change as a key mechanism for adapting to changes in environmental conditions.

Conservation Biology“maintaining earth’s life support system”

Age of ConservationBetween 1872-1927, there was increased

involvement of federal governmentTheodore Roosevelt

Persuaded Congress to give him power to designate public land as federal wildlife refuges.

Established first wildlife refuge in 1903 at Pelican Island in Florida - for preservation of the endangered brown pelican

Tripled the size of the forest reserves and transferred administration from DOI to Dept of Agriculture

In 1905, the US Forest Service was created Gifford Pinchot appointed as its first chief Adhered to principles of sustainable yield and multiple use

Public Lands in the USIn the US, the largest amount of land is

dedicated to public landsMostly in Alaska (73%) & Western US (22%)

Classified as:Multiple use landsModerately restricted landsRestricted-use lands

Multiple Use Lands These are Grasslands & Forests managed by the US Forest

Service US Forest Service Principles of Management:

Sustainable yield (cutting trees no faster than they could regenerate)

Multiple use (timber harvesting, grazing, recreation, wildlife conservation)

These are the actual uses of grassland and forested areas: Logging Mining livestock grazing oil extraction Recreation sport/commercial fishing Hunting watershed, soil & wildlife conservation

Multiple Use Lands“National Resource Lands” – Alaska is managed

by the Bureau of Land Management It is managed under the multiple use principal

with an emphasis on providing a secure domestic supply of energy and strategic minerals, and on preserving rangelands for livestock under a permit system.

Moderately Restricted-Use Lands Currently there are 508 National Wildlife Refuges

managed by USFWS NFR’s Protect habitats and breeding areas for waterfowl

and big game to provide a harvestable supply for hunters, and protect endangered species (it is illegal to hunt, capture, and/or kill endangered species)

Some permitable uses include: Sport hunting Trapping Sport/commercial fishing Oil & gas development Mining Logging Grazing Military activities Farming

The US DOI must find these uses “compatible” with the purpose of each refuge

Restricted Use LandsPermitted Uses in restricted lands include:

camping, hiking, sport fishing, boating, sport hunting, mining, and oil/gas drilling

Roughly 49% of the National Park System is designated as wilderness area.

These areas are managed by National Park Service, FWS, Bureau of Land Management (BLM)

The 375 restricted use lands in the US include major national parks (like Yellowstone), recreational areas, monuments, memorials, battlefields, historic sites, parkways, trails, rivers, seashores, and lakeshoresExample: Fire Island National Seashore

Restricted Use LandsIt was T. Roosevelt who set up the initial systemJimmy Carter made the most additions,

especially Alaska in 1980Bill Clinton added a new national monument

area the size of Yellowstone in 1996 (the National Arctic Wildlife Refuge).

Managing & Sustaining RangelandsRangeland is defined as land that supplies

forage or vegetation for grazing (grass-eating) and browsing (shrub-eating) animals.They act as watershed areas, and habitat for

wildlifeRangelands support ruminants: animals that

digest cellulose in grasses and convert it to meat & milkCows, sheep, goats (domesticated)

Rangelands also provide recreational areas for hiking, camping, and hunting

Managing & Sustaining Rangelands Overgrazing occurs when too many animals graze for too

long and exceed the carrying capacity of a grassland area (TOTC)

Impacts from overgrazing include:

1) Loss of biodiversity

2) Soil compaction and a decrease water holding capacity

3) Increased erosion because it becomes drier – this causes plants like the prickly pear cactus and mesquite (shrub) to dominate, and leads to desertification

4) Impacts on adjacent riparian zones Riparian Zone – thin strips of lush vegetation along streams

which prevent floods by absorption of flood waters

How should rangelands by managed?

Goal: maximize livestock productivity without overgrazing rangeland vegetation

Methods:1. Stocking rate – most widely used. Control the number of each kind of

animal/unit area so an area’s carrying capacity is not exceeded “resource partitioning by ranchers”

2. Continuous grazing – occurs throughout the year and requires little rancher intervention. Problem – they tend to overgraze flat areas and riparian zones

3. Deferred-Rotation Grazing – moving livestock between 2 or more range areas to allow perennial grasses to recover from grazing

Ranchers must also consider predator control – coyotes, grey wolf, grizzly bear Solution: penning young lambs/cattle together for 30 days allow them

to graze together. Cattle kicking predators, protecting sheep

Grazing on public lands:Big Business pays very low fees for permitsHow can it become more sustainable?

Limit grazing in riparian areas Ban grazing on stressed rangeland Competitive bidding for grazing permits Allow environmental groups to purchase grazing permits,

even if they choose not to graze the land Raise grazing fees to fair market value Abolish rancher-dominated advisory boards

Managing & Sustaining National Parks

54 Nationally, 1100 GloballyNational Parks are threatened by:

Natural resources in developing countries Poachers popularity increases, but budget cuts to park service (1 park

ranger = 84,000 visitors) Plagued with litter, noise, traffic jams Increased crime Invasion of non-native species

Yellowstone ~1000 snowmobiles/day Tailpipe admissions of 1.7 million cars/year! Vanishing predators (wolves, bear, coyotes)

Developing CountriesIntegrated Management Plans (IMP)

Combine conservation practices with sustainable development of resources in and adjacent to parks

Core Protection Areas are managedAs well as Buffer Areas (surrounding the core)

Commercial logging, sustainable grazing by livestock, sustainable hunting/fishing

Involve residents in developing management and restoration plans for the park

IMP’s need adequate funding to be successful and inner core areas must be large enough to sustain larger animals

How can US National Parks be improved?Presently managed under “natural regulation”

– as if they were wilderness ecosystems that would sustain themselves if left alone.

The annual budget designated to NP’s is $1.5 billion There is a $6 billion backlog of maintenance, repairs &

high priority construction to accommodate increase visitors numbers

92% of the annual budget spent on visitor services 7% spent on natural resources protection 1% spent on environmental research for ecological

management strategies

How can US Nat. Parks be improved?

All entrance fees used for management, upkeep and repair instead of going into national treasury

Require IMP’s for all parks and nearby federal lands. Increase new parkland near the most threatened parks Increase budget for buying private lands within parks Identify all available visitor parking Concessionaires should lease, not own the land Increase entrance fees Restrict numbers of visitors Encourage volunteers to give lectures/tours - NOT National

Park Service personnel Encourage donations from individuals/corporations for public

maintenance/repair

Biodiversity Sanctuaries In addition to National Parks, setting up Biosphere Reserves

worldwide (presently there are 300) is a great way to sustain biodiversity and ecosystemsGoal: large enough to support species and combine

conservation and sustainable use of natural resources Conservation biologists believe that in order to protect

biodiversity and ecological integrity, a worldwide network of reserves, parks, wildlife sanctuaries, wilderness and other protected areas is neededMinimum amount of space needed is 10% of Earth’s land area!

Based on theory of Island Biogeography (“habitat islands”)Many countries can’t set aside large tracts of land, so wildlife

corridors are established to connect fragmented habitat “islands” Establish wildlife corridors connecting small-medium sized bioreserve

areas. (allows for migration and genetic diversity)

Why preserve Wilderness Areas?

US Wilderness Act of 1964 Act authorized the government to protect undeveloped

tracts of public land as part of the National Wilderness System unless Congress later decides they are needed for the national good. Land in this system is to be used only for nondestructive forms of recreation such as hiking and camping.

Why preserve them? Aesthetic Value Psychological value (refuge from the “noise”) Preserve biodiversity and ecological integrity Preserve for scenic/recreational purposes Protect areas from exploitation and degradation

US National Wild & Scenic Rivers System1968 National Wild & Scenic Rivers Act

Rivers are protected if they have outstanding scenic, recreational, geological, wildlife, historical or cultural value

Development is prohibited in these areasOnly 0.2% of all US rivers listedThere is public urge for 1500 more to be added

US National Trails System1968 – Protects scenic and historic hiking trails

This is a very low priority law, and receives little funding or support