weathering and erossion
TRANSCRIPT
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WEATHERING AND EROSION
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WEATHERING AND EROSIONWeathering - processes at or near Earth’s surface that cause rocks and minerals to break down
Erosion - process of removing Earth materials from their original sites through weathering and transport
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WEATHERING AND EROSION
Weathering produces regolith (“rock blanket”) which is composed of small rock and mineral fragments. A loose layer of fragments that covers much of Earth’s surface.
When organic matter is mixed into this material it is called soil. The uppermost layer of regolith, which can support rooted plants.
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Joints A fracture of rock , along
which no appreciable movement has occurred
Abrasion The gradual wearing
down of bed rock by the constant battering of loose particles transported by wind, water or ice
The jointing in these rocks has exposed new surface area which has broken and smoothed due to wind, water and ice.
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WEATHERING-THE FIRST STEP IN THE ROCK CYCLE How rocks disintegrate
Weathering The chemical and physical
breakdown of rock exposed to air, moisture and living organisms
The rock in the photo has weathered in place with little erosion, forming soil
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WEATHERINGMechanical Weathering - processes that break a rock or mineral into smaller pieces without altering its composition
Chemical Weathering - processes that change the chemical composition of rocks and minerals
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PROCESSES AND AGENTS OF MECHANICAL WEATHERINGThese are actions or things that break down
Earth materials frost wedging thermal expansion and contraction mechanical exfoliation abrasion by wind, water or gravity plant growth
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PROCESSES AND AGENTS OF MECHANICAL WEATHERINGFrost Wedging – cracking of rock mass by the expansion of water as it freezes in cracks
http://www.uwsp.edu/geo/faculty/ozsvath/images/frost%20wedging.jpg
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FROST WEDGING (IN SOIL)
Ice crystals
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PROCESSES AND AGENTS OF MECHANICAL WEATHERINGThermal expansion and contraction –
repeated heating and cooling of materials cause rigid substances to crack and separate
http://content.answers.com/main/content/wp/en-commons/thumb/d/dc/250px-Weathering_freeze_thaw_action_iceland.jpg
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PROCESSES AND AGENTS OF MECHANICAL WEATHERINGExfoliation – As underlying rock layers are exposed, there is less pressure on them and they expand. This causes the rigid layers to crack and sections to slide off. The expanding layers often form a dome.
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DOME EXFOLIATION
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PROCESSES AND AGENTS OF MECHANICAL WEATHERINGAbrasion – Moving sediments or rock sections can break off pieces from a rock surface they strike. The sediments can be moved by wind or water and the large rock sections by gravity.
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WIND ABRASION
http://www.uwsp.edu/geo/faculty/ritter/geog101/textbook/images/lithosphere/eolian/rock_wind_abrasion_p0772932441_NRCS.jpg
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WIND AND WATER ABRASION
http://www.gsi.ie/Education/European+Landscapes/United+Kingdom.htm Photo Ref: P211442, "IPR/52-34CW BGS©NERC
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PROCESSES AND AGENTS OF MECHANICAL WEATHERINGPlant Growth – As plants such as trees send out root systems, the fine roots find their way into cracks in the rocks. As the roots increase in size, they force the rock sections apart, increasing the separation and weathering.
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PLANT WEDGING
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PROCESSES OF CHEMICAL WEATHERINGdissolving (dissolution)oxidationhydrolysis
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PROCESSES OF CHEMICAL WEATHERING
Dissolving (dissolution) Water, often containing acid from dissolved carbon dioxide, will dissolve minerals from a rock body leaving cavities in the rock. These cavities may generate sinkholes or cave features such as stalactites and stalagmites.
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CHEMICAL WEATHERING
DissolutionThe separation of
materials into ions in a solution by a solvent, such as water or acid
Rainwater acts as weak solution of carbonic acid
Anthropogenic actions influence acidity of rainwater
The marble grave marker has been attacked by acidic rain because of the calcite composition. The grave marker on the right, while old, has not been dissolved because of its granite composition
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CARBON DIOXIDE Carbon dioxide
dissolves in rain water and produces Carbonic acid.
This Carbonic acid easily weathers marble and Limestone.
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PROCESSES OF CHEMICAL WEATHERING
Oxidation Minerals may combine with oxygen to form new minerals that are not as hard. For example, the iron-containing mineral pyrite forms a rusty-colored mineral called limonite.
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PYRITE OXIDATION
http://www.windows.ucar.edu/earth/geology/images/pyrite_sm.jpg
http://www.dkimages.com/discover/previews/965/75014124.JPG
Pyrite
Limonite
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OXYGENWater + Oxygen
+Iron = RUST
When water and oxygen mix with Iron it creates rust. This is called oxidation.
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PROCESSES OF CHEMICAL WEATHERING
Hydrolysis Minerals may chemically combine with water to form new minerals. Again these are generally not as hard as the original material.
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FELDSPAR HYDROLYSIS
http://www.mii.org/Minerals/Minpics1/Plagioclase%20feldspar.jpg http://www.uwm.edu/Course/422-100/Mineral_Rocks/kaolinite1.jpg
Feldspar Kaolinite (clay)
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FACTORS IN CHEMICAL WEATHERING
Climate – wet and warm maximizes chemical reactions
Plants and animals – living organisms secrete substances that react with rock
Time – longer contact means greater change
Mineral composition – some minerals are more susceptible to change than others
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EROSION TRANSPORT AGENTS OR FORCES Water rain
streams and riversocean dynamicsice in glaciers
Wind Gravity
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STREAMSFlowing water will lift and carry small sediments such as silt and sand.
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STREAM EROSION AND DEPOSITIONWhere water moves more swiftly there will be moreerosion.
Where the water slows down, sediments will bedeposited.
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OCEAN DYNAMICS Tidal action and waves carry away
weathered materials.
http://www.dkimages.com/discover/previews/1000/50195183.JPG
http://edge.tamu.edu/waves2001/PC_tour/erosion_files/image002.jpg
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GLACIERSGlaciers are large ice fields that slowly flow downhill over time.
http://images.encarta.msn.com/xrefmedia/sharemed/targets/images/pho/t628/T628797A.jpg
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GLACIERSGlacial ice drags rocky material that scours the surface it flows over . The glacier deposits debris as it melts.
http://www.geology.um.maine.edu/user/Leigh_Stearns/teaching/kelley_island.jpg
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WIND TRANSPORT OF SEDIMENTSWind will carry fine, dry sediments over long distances.
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WIND TRANSPORT OF DUST
Photo shows Sahara Desert sand being transported overthe Atlantic Ocean.
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TRANSPORT BY GRAVITY When sediments are weathered they
may be transported downward by gravity. The general term for this is mass wasting.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mass_wasting
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TRANSPORT BY GRAVITY When sediments are weathered they may be
transported downward by gravity as a slump.
Slump
http://new.filter.ac.uk/database/image.php?id=594
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TRANSPORT BY GRAVITY Loose sediments transported by gravity are called scree.
Scree field
http://www.dave-stephens.com/scrambles/banff/aylmer/aylmer013.jpg
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DEPOSITION FORMATIONTransported sediments are deposited inlayers and generate strata like those found in the Grand Canyon.
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DEPOSITION FORMATION
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FACTORS AFFECTING WEATHERING Tectonic setting
Young, rising mountains weather relatively rapidly
Mechanical weathering most common
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FACTORS AFFECTING WEATHERING Rock
compositionMinerals
weather at different rates Calcite weathers
quickly through dissolution
Quartz is very resistant to chemical and mechanical weathering
Mafic rocks with ferromagnesian minerals weather more easily
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FACTORS AFFECTING WEATHERING Rock structure
Distribution of joints influence rate of weathering Relatively close
joints weather faster
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FACTORS AFFECTING WEATHERING Topography
Weathering occurs faster on steeper slopes Rockslides
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FACTORS AFFECTING WEATHERING Vegetation
Contribute to mechanical and chemical weathering
Promotes weathering due to increased water retention
Vegetation removal increases soil loss
Vegetation can both hold waterAnd increase weathering. If removedRocks may also be vulnerable to abrasion
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FACTORS AFFECTING WEATHERING Biologic activity
Presence of bacteria can increase breakdown of rock
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FACTORS AFFECTING WEATHERING
ClimateChemical weathering
is more prevalent in warm, wet tropical climates Mechanical weathering
less important hereMechanical
weathering is more prevalent in cold, relatively dry regions Chemical weathering
occurs slowly hereNote: temperate regions such
as at the center of the chart undergo both chemical and mechanical weathering, i.e. New York area
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FACTORS AFFECTING WEATHERING: COLOR DOTS ON MAP MATCH COLORS ON CHART
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PRODUCTS OF WEATHERING Clay
Tiny mineral particles of any kind that have physical properties like those of the clay minerals
Clays are hydrous alumino-silicate minerals
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PRODUCTS OF WEATHERING Sand
A sediment made of relatively coarse mineral grains
Soil Mixture of minerals with
different grain sizes, along with some materials of biologic origin
Humus Partially decayed organic
matter in soil
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Landslides & Mass Wasting
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Earth’s Surface is shaped by external processes…
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Earth’s Surface is shaped by external processes…
In sculpting the Earth’s surface, the two most important agents
of erosion are : 1) Mass wasting2) Running water
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PP.490-491
original artwork by Gary Hincks
There are a wide variety of manifestationsof the downslope movement of materials by gravity, some faster and some slower.
All of these processes have destructive effects…
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Mass Wasting: Downslope, mass movement of Earth materials
Driven by: The pervasive background force of …GRAVITY…
Contributing factors: Saturation of sediments by water
Over-steepened slopes
Removal of vegetation
Earthquakes
Water fills pore spaces between sediment grains,reduces internal resistance, adds weight.
Plants add slope stability byprotection against erosion.
Strong ground vibrations.
Slopes become unstable once they reach the angle of repose = The steepest angle a slope can attain without slumping.
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Stability againstgravity depends on the strength of a material, which can berepresented
by its angle ofrepose…
In sediments, thisangle depends on grain and sorting.
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In sediments, the angle of repose depends on grain size and sorting of materials…
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Mass Wasting
Types of materials:
Types of movement:
Rates of movement:
Soil/regolith -or- Rock/bedrock
Rock Falls - Free-fall of materialRock/Debris Slides - Coherent slabs
slide along fracture surfacesMudflows - Soil and rock mixes with water
and becomes fluidized.Earth or Debris Flows - Materials
move as a viscous mass.
Fastest - Rock falls & avalanches. Avalanches “float” on
entrapped air.Slowest - Creep (cm/year).
Talus slopes
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FIG. 16.12
W. W. Norton
Types of mass wasting processes arrayed by typical velocity of movement….
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FIG. 16.12
W. W. Norton
Rock Fall/Debris Fall
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Rock/Debris FallsMASSWASTING
Blocks of bedrock break free, and fall from a steep cliff face.
Contributing factors:- Steep slopes.- Rocks loosened along joint fractures…
…by expansion of water on freezing,…by thermal expansion/contraction,…by biological activity (e.g. root growth)
- Ground shaking during earthquakes.
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FIG. 16.14
Stephen Marshak
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FIG. 16.15
W. W. Norton
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FIG. 16.22
W. W. Norton
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FIG. 16.27 HI
W. W. Norton
Steps to mediate…
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W. W. Norton
Mediation…
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FIG. 16.08
Stephen Marshak
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Mediation by terracing
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FIG. 16.12
W. W. Norton
Avalanches
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Peruvian Valley Rock Avalanche, May 1970
Before After
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FIG. 16.12
W. W. Norton
Rock/debris slides
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Rock Slides…
Beds dip downslope.
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Rock SlideMASSWASTING
Blocks of bedrock break free, and slide down slope along a fracture surface.Often occurs where strata are inclined, with slip occurring along bedding planes of weak units,like shales.Other important contributing factors:
- Slopes become undercut by stream or wave erosion.- Rain or melting snow seeps into deposits andlubricates a slip surface.
Often deadly! If materials are unconsolidated called a “debris slide”.
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FIG. 16.18
W. W. Norton
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Common triggering mechanism: Saturation (water) of a weak,expansive, clay-rich shale unit.
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FIG. 16.20 A
W. W. Norton
Common triggering mechanism…undercutting of slopes by streams or waves…
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Rock slides candevelop in any type of rock
where there is are preferredplanes of weakness dipping downslope…
Sedimentary Metamorphic Igneous
Jointing may facilitate process.
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Mediation…
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FIG. 16.12
W. W. Norton
Mudflow/Debris Flow
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Mudflow / Debris Flow:Common in high rainfall areas
where fine materials mobilized by abundant water…
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FIG. 16.12
W. W. Norton
Slumps
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Slumps: Rotational TypeMASS WASTING
Mass of material slides downward alonga curved surface (slump surface)
Speed is usually intermediateand material doesn’t travel very far.
Slumping often involves several massesthat move separately (along diferentslump planes).
Common in weak, water saturated sediments that are over-steepened.
Common in coastal areas where sea cliffs are constantly removed by wave erosion.
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FIG. 16.04 B
Morphology of a Rotational Slump
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Rotational Slump: Headwall shows evidence of backward rotation.
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FIG. 16.27 F
W. W. Norton
Approaches to mediation…
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Earthquake-triggered slumps, Alaska EQ 1964
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Earth/Debris Flow
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Slumps: Earth/Debris Flow TypeMASSWASTING
Common in high rainfallareas.
Occur on hillsides.Develop in rock units
rich in clay/silt. Slow rate of movement. Stabilized by “toe” and
by “dewatering”. Destructive!
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Robert L. Schuster/U.S. Geological Survey
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W. W. Norton
Stabilization of slumpswith plant cover…
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FIG. 16.27 D
W. W. Norton
Stabilization by terracing…
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FIG. 16.27 C
W. W. Norton
Stabilization by lowering water table…
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FIG. 16.27 B
W. W. Norton
Reduce slope angle…
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FIG. 16.12
W. W. Norton
Creep
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Soil/Regolith CreepMASSWASTING Creep
- Slow (cm/year) downhill movement of material.- Driven by alternate expansion/contraction of material during freeze/thaw or cycles of wetting/drying.
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Gravitational force acts onrocks/soil to move them downslope…
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FIG. 16.02 B
W. W. Norton
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FIG. 16.02 A
W. W. Norton
Effect of cycles of freeze-thawon soil/regolith creep…
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Soil/regolith creep…
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Soil/Regolith Creep
Slow!
Assisted by:
“Frost heaving”(expansion of iceupon freezing).
SoilRegolith
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Evidence of soil/regolith creep…
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FIG. 16.02 C
W. W. Norton
Tell-tell signs of soil/regolith creep…
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Signs of soil/regolith creep…
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FIG. 16.02 D
(c) Martin Miller
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Signs of soil/regolith creep…
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FIG. 16.03 A
(c) Martin Miller
Solifluction: Soil creep in high latitude, cold climate areas where freeze-thaw is
active…
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Reducing soil creep…
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THE SOIL PROFILE
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THE 6 SOIL ROLESA Soil’s role includes: Serving as a foundation Emitting and absorbing gases Providing habitat Interacting with water Recycling nutrients Supporting human settlements
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THE 5 FACTORS OF FORMATION
Soil is formed by… Parent Material: the original “Mom & Pop” soil transported
from elsewhere, usually by wind or water, at different speeds Climate: the amount, intensity, timing, and kind of
precipitation that breaks down parts of ecosystem (i.e. rocks, trees) into soil
Topography: Slope and Aspect affect the angle of the land and position toward/away from the sun that soil will be exposed to
Biological: Plants, animals, microscopic organisms, and humans interact with soil in different ways
Time: the amount of time it takes for the four factors (above) to interact with each other
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WHAT IS A SOIL PROFILE? A Soil Profile is a vertical cross-section of layers of
soil found in a given area. Below are two examples of soil profiles.
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WHAT IS A SOIL HORIZON? Soil horizons are the layers in a soil profile used to
classify soil types. Horizons based on color, texture, roots,
structure, rock fragments, and any unique characteristic worth noting.
Master Soil Horizons are depicted by a capital letter in the order (from top down): O, A, B, C, and R
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O-HORIZONThe “Organic Matter”
Horizon Surface-layer, at depths of 0-2
feet Dark in color, soft in texture Humus - rich organic material
of plant and animal origin in a stage of decomposition
Leaf litter – leaves, needles, twigs, moss, lichens that are not decomposing
Several O-layers can occur in some soils, consisting only of O-horizons
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A-HORIZON“Topsoil” or “Biomantle”
Horizon Topmost layer of mineral soil,
at depths of 2-10 feet Some humus present, darker in
color than layers below Biomantle - most biological
productive layer; earthworms, fungi, and bacteria live this layer
Smallest and finest soil particles
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B-HORIZONThe “Subsoil” Horizon At depths of 10-30 feet Rich in clay and minerals like
Fe & Al Some organic material may
reach here through leaching Plant roots can extend into
this layer Red/brown in color due to
oxides of Fe & clay
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C-HORIZONThe “Regolith”
Horizon At depths of 30-48 feet Made up of large rocks or
lumps of partially broken bedrock
Least affected by weathering and have changed the least since their origin
Devoid of organic matter due to it being so far down in the soil profile
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R-HORIZONThe “Bedrock”
Horizon At depths of 48+ feet Deepest soil horizon in the
soil profile No rocks or boulders, only a
continuous mass of bedrock Colors are those of the
original rock of the area