The Bolshevik RevolutionHow Russia Became the Soviet Union

1. Before the RevolutionBefore the 1917 revolution, Russia was an enormous empire under an absolute ruler, the

Tsar. Tsar Nicholas II was an emperor with unlimited political power. He controlled

absolutely everything in the Russian Empire. The upper class owned much of the land but

had no political say. There was no senate, and political parties were not allowed. The press

and books were subject to state censorship. This drove all opposition underground. In the

19th century there were a large number of secret societies dedicated to political change or

revolution. The Tsar's secret police frequently infiltrated and spied on these organizations.

By 1914, Russia had a population of 165 million. It was a mostly an agricultural country, as

industrialization only began in the late 1800s and was slower to advance than in many

other European countries. The majority of the Russian population were peasants who were

uneducated, poor and powerless to change their living conditions. The government and the

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ruling classes exploited them harshly. A large portion of the masses was made up of serfs.

These were farmers or peasants who worked the land of the nobility and were the legal

property of the landowner for whom they worked. They had no rights and were forbidden

to leave their landlords, who could order them to do whatever they chose. (Being a serf in

Russia was in some ways similar to being a slave in the United States.) In the 1860s, Tsar

Alexander II freed the serfs so that they became free peasants, and could move about in

search of different work. Some stayed in the rural areas as farmers or peasants, but others

chose to go to the cities to work in the developing factories.

Here’s where it gets tricky. According to tradition, serfs had to be bought in order to be

freed. The government believed that because it had freed the serfs, it had bought them from

the nobility, and demanded repayment. In other words, since the government had freed the

serfs, the government expected the serfs to pay them back. For many serfs, this demand

was impossible to meet. They never earned enough, and large numbers of them continued

to live in desperate poverty. Without land of their own, they were still forced to work for

others to barely survive.

2. Bloody Sunday

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Although Europe had begun a process of industrialization since the beginning of the 19th

century, Russia lagged far behind. A big reason for this was the lack of available workers for

factories. Serfs were still forced to stay on the land and were therefore not free to be used

as workers for the new industries. Only after the serfs were free to move and work in the

urban areas was real industrialization possible. For this reason, Russia's economic

development fell far behind the rest of Europe. The Russian government took steps to catch

up. Millions of rubles (their currency) were borrowed from European banks to set up state

industries, and a large number of British and French companies were invited to build and

operate factories in Russia. As the freed serfs provided an increasing pool of cheap labor

for factories, a small but significant working class began to develop. They lived in appalling

conditions and were paid very little. Coupled with the oppressive rule of the Tsar’s

government, this rampant exploitation created fertile ground for unhappiness and strikes.

The Tsarist regime was unable to deal with the pressures of the workers’ unhappiness. The

Tsar tried to divert attention away from internal problems by launching wars to increase

Russia's size and influence. The first such war took place in 1904- 1905 and was followed

with another in 1914. The wars were disastrous, and instead of distracting the masses,

made them even unhappier with the Tsar. In both instances they propelled the country into

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revolution. In the 1904- 1905 War, Russia suffered a severe military defeat against the

Japanese. The economy slumped, prices rose, and worker unrest increased. On January 20,

1905, a church-led procession of workers marched to the Tsar's Winter Palace in St.

Petersburg to hand over a petition requesting amnesty for political prisoners, a meeting of

the Constituent Assembly, and an 8-hour working day. Fearing an attack on the palace,

guards opened fire on the marchers. Several hundred people were killed, and the incident

became known as Bloody Sunday.

Following the Bloody Sunday massacre, civil unrest and strikes erupted throughout the

country. In October, Tsar Nicholas II was forced to offer some reforms, which were laid out

in the October Manifesto. These reforms included the formation of a parliamentary

government along European lines, which would be called the Duma. The opposition then

backed off. However, Tsar Nicholas was not prepared to let go of power so easily. He

constantly manipulated the Duma, disbanding it when it displeased him. It became clear

that freedom would only be achieved through drastic measures, even violence.

3. Opposition to the Tsar

Although the Tsars of Russia ruled completely and political parties were not allowed, this

did not prevent organized opposition to them. By not allowing anyone to speak out against

it, the Tsar’s government simply forced political resistance underground. The opposition to

the Tsar can be divided into three main groups: the peasant revolutionaries made up of the

Populists, who wanted power in the hands of the peasants, the Socialists or the Social

Democrats who wanted power in the hands of the urban workers, and the Reformers or

Liberals who wanted to keep the Tsar, with his power limited by elections and a

constitution.

A. The Populists (Narodniks)

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Russian Populism began in the 1870s. It was a revolutionary movement that believed that peasants represented the future of Russia. The Narodniks opposed both the Tsar and industrialization, and rather than following the capitalist system of Western Europe, they wanted Russia to build a cooperative system based on agriculture. The Narodniks were unable to persuade the peasants to adopt their revolutionary program. As a result of the failure of their campaign, many Narodniks turned to violence as the only means of getting rid of the Tsar. In 1902, the peasant revolutionaries formed another party that combined the violent actions of the Narodniks' extremist groups, with their own efforts to organize the peasants into mass action. With the slogan "all land to the peasants," they were hugely popular with the peasants and became an important political force in the Russian Revolution.

B. The Social Democrats

The Socialists believed that working class interests should guide society, and their goal was to overthrow the capitalist system for this purpose. The Socialists wanted workers to control the factories and share the profits fairly among themselves, rather than industries being owned by a wealthy minority who paid their workers exploitative wages to make ever bigger profits for themselves. Serious differences soon emerged among members and in 1903, the party split in two.

When they split, the minority group was called the Bolsheviks and the majority was the Mensheviks. The Mensheviks believed that a Socialist party should be a mass organisation open to anyone. They did not want push out the government by force, but thought that conditions of workers could be improved by driving changes within the existing state framework. In this way, a Socialist society would develop peacefully from the existing government. The Bolsheviks, on the other hand, wanted to overthrow the government in order to establish a “dictatorship of the proletariat,” a society where the masses (workers and peasants) held control.

C. The Reformers (Liberals)

The middle class was not a strong force in Russia, but it had a strong enough political voice to put pressure on the Tsar. The policy of Liberalism centred on achieving political and social change through reform, rather than violent revolution. The Tsar would still be in power but there would be a constitution and elected

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parliament to keep Tsarist rule in check. The parliament would share at least some of the political power held by the Tsar.

4. The First World War and Worker Unrest

In 1914, the First World War broke out. The Tsar believed that Russia's participation in the

War would help to establish it as a great nation. Russia joined Britain and France in the war

against Germany. More than 6 million soldiers were mobilised and the economy was

reorganized to support the war effort. Much of the food, clothing and livestock of the

country also went to the army. For a short time, the war united the Russian people in a

burst of patriotism (they called the First World War the Great Patriotic War). Within 12

months, patriotism gave way to despair. Between 1915 and 1916, more than 4 million

Russian soldiers were killed or wounded in action. Incompetent leaders, corrupt

administration, shortages of weapons and other war supplies left the Russian army

shattered. By 1917, the army was retreating from the advancing Germans and thousands of

soldiers deserted their ranks. The war made the workers’ problems even worse. Since most

production was directed at the war effort, peasants and workers bore the brunt of the

sacrifice. Livestock and grain grown by peasants was sent to the army, leaving them to go

with very little. Food was often difficult to find in the urban areas and the working and

living conditions were cruel. As food prices continued to soar, hunger and suffering grew.

While the Russians were at first united in the war effort, they now only craved peace. And

food.

When World War One began, the Bolsheviks, led by Vladimir Ilych Lenin, started an anti-

war campaign. Unhappiness among the peasants and workers exploded and across the

country strikes and riots were staged. The Bolsheviks saw that the workers and peasants

had nothing to gain from the war. They called upon their fellow Russians to use their

involvement in the war as an opportunity to attack the Tsar. By 1916, the campaign had

gained a lot of support. So, while the Tsar entered the war to help build Russia's image as a

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Great Power, the war now spelled disaster for his rule. His lack of popularity increased

even further as he and his wife (the Tsarina) proved ineffective as leaders during the War.

In the midst of the War, Tsar Nicholas and Tsarina Alexandra (a German by birth) made

some decisions that seriously damaged the position of the government. Firstly, the Tsar

decided to take over military command himself, not realising the risk in being held

personally responsible for Russia's defeat and suffering. Secondly, his military

engagements meant that he left the Tsarina in charge of all other political affairs. The

Tsarina was wildly unpopular. Not only was she German and therefore associated with

Russia's great enemy in the War, but her close relationship with a bogus "holyman"

Gregory Rasputin was viewed with distrust and fear. Rasputin was regarded as evil and

immoral, following a religion of sinning in order to obtain forgiveness. Rasputin captured

the Tsarina's blind devotion after proving capable of treating her only son and the crown

prince and heir to the Romanov dynasty, Alexei, of his hemophilia, a hereditary disease

where the blood does not clot. The grateful Tsarina came to depend on Rasputin, who

manipulated her to serve his own interests and political ambitions. This became disastrous

after the Tsarina was left in charge of the country while the Tsar was leading the war effort.

Rasputin proceeded to fire those he did not like and hire his own followers. Fearing his

growing influence and the support he had from the Tsarina, he was murdered by two blood

relatives of the royal family in 1916. Rasputin proved not easy to kill. He was poisoned,

shot, beaten and eventually thrown into an icy river where he finally drowned. It was clear

that Russia lacked an effective leader capable of real reforms. Russia also lacked a leader

who could obtain the support of the revolutionaries and the liberals, and stabilise the

economy and the chaos caused by the disgruntled Russians. The dissatisfaction that the

Russians felt over their poverty, suffering, and lack of political rights reached a climax

during the years of the First World War. Overthrowing the Tsar’s government seemed the

only way out, and revolution was not far off.

5. The March Revolution 7

Although the climate was ripe for revolution by 1917, the March Revolution took people by

surprise. Not a single Bolshevik leader was in Russia when the revolt broke out, as many of

them were exiled because of their anti-war campaign. Lenin himself was in Switzerland at

the time. Since 1916, workers had held strikes and protests against the Tsar’s government.

In January, a mass strike was planned on the anniversary of Bloody Sunday, the event that

had sparked the 1905 Revolution. The following month, more strikes were held. The Tsar

did not react because he didn’t suspect the danger posed by the strikes. Later in March,

when the strikes had become bigger and more widespread, he tried to suppress the

protesters who were anti-war and wanted the Tsar out of power. Confrontations with the

police led to injuries and arrests. The Duma requested the Tsar to respond to the revolt

with reforms, but their appeals were ignored. The Tsar dismissed the Duma, who refused

to obey his orders. The protests turned into full blown mutiny and one of Russia's biggest

cities, Petrograd, was taken over by the resistance movement- which freed the political

prisoners there. The Tsar lost all control of the country, and it became necessary for a

provisional committee to rule Russia until a new government was established. Two

governmental bodies were put in place: the Provisional Committee of the Duma, and the

Provisional Committee of the Soviet. The Duma represented the wealthy upper classes. The

Soviet represented the workers and soldiers, and was to look after the interests of these

people. There were serious differences between the two bodies, but they were forced to

work together to prevent the Tsar from suppressing the revolution. Out of these two

bodies, a Provisional (temporary) government led by the Duma emerged in March, 1917.

This meant the end of the Tsar and the 300-year reign of his family, the Romanovs. The first

stage of the Russian Revolution, namely the March Revolution, was over. The Tsarist

regime was overthrown, and in its place was a Provisional Government.

The Provisional Government was instituted in March, 1917, and consisted mainly of middle

class liberals. It had no real power without the support of the Soviet. The Soviet formed

workers' strike and revolutionary committees during the 1905 Revolution, and after the

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March Revolution included all peasants, soldiers and workers. By this stage, the Soviet

included the majority of the Russian population, and without their support the Provisional

Government could not be effective. The Provisional Government had legal power but the

Soviet had the real political power. They stayed in the background, not taking control and

leadership of Russia, but were able to influence and reject government decisions and

actions. At first, the Provisional Government enjoyed great support, especially among

political groups like the Social Revolutionaries, Mensheviks, and Bolsheviks, as long as the

interests of the peasants, workers and soldiers were protected. The government was

unable to keep this support, because they could not meet the most basic needs of the

masses- peace, food, and land. The workers wanted bread, relief from poverty, and an end

to the hunger that they had suffered for so long. The soldiers wanted peace, but Russia's

involvement in the First World War continued. The Provisional Government failed to

withdraw Russia from the War. Land distribution, the major concern of the peasants and

minority groups, could not be addressed while there was a war effort. The Provisional

Government was also dragging its feet on the issue of elections for a new government. Its

role was intended to be temporary, but the new leaders did not want to lose this power.

These factors seriously damaged the Provisional Government's popularity, and they lost a

great deal of public support. The Russian masses wanted someone who could solve their

problems and provide “peace, bread and land.” A new leader promising them this arose. He

was Vladimir Lenin, and he became the first communist leader of Russia.

6. Vladimir Lenin and the November Revolution

Lenin was a leader in the Bolshevik Party who was exiled to Europe during the March

Revolution. He returned to Russia soon after the revolution and soon realized that the

Provisional Government was ineffective and deaf to the people's demands. In April, 1917,

the Bolsheviks, influenced by Lenin, withdrew their support from the Provisional

Government. Lenin then released several statements in which he revealed his aims. These

“April statements” would become his plan of action. He called for an end to Russia's 9

involvement in the First World War, the disbanding of the Provisional Government and its

replacement by the Bolshevik led Soviet, as well as the release of land to the masses. At

first, the reaction to his proposals was negative, as many felt his aims were too radical. But

Lenin's statement spoke to the hearts of the workers, and in promising to address the

issues of peace, bread, and land, he gradually gained more and more support. Lenin wanted

the Bolsheviks to gain control of the great network of Soviets all over Russia. The Soviet

were an established instrument of authority and power, and if the Bolsheviks had control

over them and their vast support base, the Provisional Government could be overthrown.

Lenin was therefore in favor of a new revolutionary phase to force real transformation in

Russia. Meanwhile, the Provisional Government made some attempts at reforms. They

invited the Soviets to form a partnership with them, but the Bolsheviks refused to have

anything to do with the Provisional Government. The Bolsheviks were nervous of being

blamed for the government's mistakes, and this choice gained even more support for Lenin

and his Bolshevik Party.

The months leading up to the November Revolution were marked by growing unrest. By

July, 1917, Bolshevik supporters were eager for a revolution. They pressured the Bolshevik

Party to move faster than planned, and in July they attempted a coup. But the Bolsheviks

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had not gained enough support, the coup failed miserably. The Provisional Government

reacted by imprisoning the Bolshevik leaders, whom they believed responsible for the

coup. Lenin escaped imprisonment by wearing a disguise and fleeing to Finland. The

Provisional Government still refused to withdraw from the First World War, and the

Russian Army continued to experience defeat after defeat. In September, the Tsar’s

supporters, nicknamed “the White Army,” staged a counter-revolution against the

Provisional Government. Sensing the danger, the government asked the Bolsheviks for help

against the counter-revolutionaries. This was an important event because the Bolsheviks

could claim that without participating in the ineptitude of the Provisional Government, it

had managed to prove useful and necessary. After this, support for the Bolshevik Party

grew considerably. Where they had been a minority party in June, they now gained the

majority of seats in some Soviet, most notably those in Moscow and Petrograd. From

Finland, Lenin began to urge Bolshevik supporters to prepare for the next revolution. He

was convinced that the time was ripe for a revolution and exploited the Provisional

Government's mistakes to gain support.

Lenin visited Petrograd on October 22 and persuaded the workers to follow him. A week

later, the Petrograd Soviet formed a “military revolutionary committee.” The Provisional

Government saw this as a direct challenge to their authority, and acted against Bolshevik

newspapers. In November, 1917, Lenin and his supporters staged a second revolution. Key

state buildings were taken over, such as the Winter Palace in Petrograd where the

Provisional Government was located at the time. The government gave little resistance and

was overthrown. Lenin issued a proclamation declaring that the Provisional Government

was no longer a ruling authority. He promised to immediately begin to fulfil the nation's

demands for peace, bread and land. He also promised that the Soviet would govern, which

gave power to the masses.

7. The Aftermath of the Revolution

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Shortly after the revolution, the Bolsheviks gained the majority of the seats in the main

umbrella Soviet governing body. They refused to cooperate with the other parties and to

share power with anyone else within the Soviet. Lenin announced that the new

government would begin peace talks with Germany to end Russia's involvement in the First

World War, and that the land of the Church and upper classes would be confiscated and

given to the landless. When the new government was formed, the Bolsheviks had almost

62% of the seats. The other seats went to the Social Revolutionaries and the Mensheviks,

and the leadership was shared between Bolshevik leaders Lenin, Leon Trotsky, and Joseph

Stalin. In less than a year, however, Lenin succeeded in consolidating power and seizing

leadership alone.

After the Bolsheviks seized power in the November Revolution (also known as the

Bolshevik Revolution,) they began turning Russia into a communist state. When it became

clear that the Bolsheviks had no intention of sharing power, anti-Bolshevik elements rose

against them. The result was a bitter civil war fought between the Red (Bolshevik) Army

and White (Imperial Counter-Revolutionary) Army. The Red Army eventually crushed its

enemy, but only after more than 100,000 people lost their lives in the war. The Bolshevik

Party changed its name to the Russian Communist Party and began to consolidate its

power. Control was taken over other, much smaller states bordering Russia and the whole

new state came to be known as the Union of Socialist Soviet Republics (USSR) or the Soviet

Union.

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