Copyright © 2016Avello Publishing Journal

ISSN: 2049 - 498X

Issue 1 Volume 6: A Synthesis of ‘Analytic’ and ‘Continental’ Philosophy.

The Specific Quantum Control of Cognitive Medieval Stoicism.

Jason Wakefield, University of Cambridge, England.

The cognitive, which the Stoics say is the criterion of things, is that which arises from what is and is stamped and impressed exactly in accordance with what is. (Diogenes Laertius VII.46)

A cognitive impression is one which arises from what is and is  stamped and impressed exactly in accordance with what is. (Sextus Empiricus VII.247)

Furthermore, its being stamped and impressed, so that all its impressors' peculiarities are  stamped on it in a craftsmanlike way ... just as the seals on rings always stamp their markings precisely on the wax ... (Sextus Empiricus VII.252)  Phantasia kataleptike is a fundamental element in the Stoic account of perception that explains the process whereby images of the physical world enter the mind of the subject. (Goldhill 2001: 176).

Zeno the Stoic philosopher was one of the founding fathers of Stoicism as a philosophical

movement and an authority for the scientific literature which is the lingua franca of a

significant part of the ancient Greek and Roman academic world. Only fragments of Zeno's

work now survives in the doxographic tradition, thus an extensive analytic comparison of

cognitive science in the phantasia kataleptike of Diogenes Laertius and Sextus Empiricus is

very limited. Many contemporary cognitive scientists in the pursuit of Nobel prizes through

inventing things such as quantum mechanics, have forgotten that the origins of the

experimental control of quantum systems began with Aristotle, Diogenes Laertius and Sextus

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Empiricus. Atomic physics as a test bed for the cognitive criterion of quantum mechanics to

enable the control of atoms' internal states, corresponds directly to the stamps and

impressions of tuneable radiation sources such as microwave oscillators and lasers. Quantum

control, or to be precise, controlling the quantum levels of individual trapped ions to

manipulate ion motion at the quantum level, requires an exact cognitive impression of what

is, so that the precise manipulation of the internal and external states of atomic ions can

occur. Technology has evolved so quickly in laboratories over the past century that most

Nobel Prize winning scientists no longer consult any ancient Greek or Roman fragments,

however my argument is that many inventions, demonstrations and precise measurements

have had their methodology developed previously in the rare, philosophical manuscripts of

the Greek and Roman empires.  Not only should we trace perceptive scientific

experimentation in the physical world back to the precise craftsmanship of Stoic philosophers

by analysing their original documents that have survived, we should also speak directly to the

current authors who are creating data graphs of the same cognitive frequency impressions

today. King's College, Cambridge University's Simon Goldhill introduced me in person, on

different occasions, to Lord Martin Rees our Astronomer Royal, the Union Theological

Seminary's Cornel West and University of California, Berkeley’s Judith Butler; thus it can

also be argued that no credible contemporary philosophy can be written without analysing

rare, original source documents and speaking to other authors (that appear in citations)

directly face to face for any analysis to be precise. Measurement precision often requires a

laser with high enough spectral purity to exploit narrow optical transitions, thus Sextus

Empiricus was correct that markings need to be stamped precisely from our cognitive

impressions. Stoicism did not disperse or expire with the ancient Greek and Roman waves of

science, its philosophy was a significant component of medieval laboratory publications.

Incunabula are books printed on either parchment or paper before the year 1501. The history

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of the binding and rebinding of these books, as well as, scrolls and codices needs to be

analysed. English Medieval seals where usually made from beeswax, using a pigment such as

vermillion for the colour red. One has been analysing rare, unique and sacred medieval book

archives at the University of Cambridge, thus we are agreed that any serious scholar who

wishes to write any contemporary philosophy today, must include where parchments are

paginated; whether if there any codicologically similar manuscripts; the scribe names of

decorative initials; descriptions of folios; fragment conservation history and any ink changes

in the original sources. Hopefully all future philosophy conference delegates will avoid

cryptic, morbid, disorder - in favour of analyzing and repairing fragments of leaves of papyri,

uncials and lectionaries to restore theological verses with missing folio leaves. Schola

Linguarum (Hebraicaie et Graiecaie) with Schola Geometricae et Arithmeticae at the

Bodleian Library, University of Oxford often repairs damaged manuscripts, with missing

leaves and covers by replacing them with new covers featuring blue cloth and the gold stamp

of the Bodleian Library on both covers on either side of the book. Inscriptions on the original

binding are often lost during this process which can obscure the provenance of the book.

When Alvin Toffler conceptualised the term cognitariat in the 1970's and then articulated it in

print through his publications of the 1980's, he forgot that the power of cognitive labour is not

completely technocentric in reaction against technophobia, thus its provenance can be traced

back to the concerns raised by the medical physician Sextus Empiricus against

epistemological workers in Πυῤῤώνειοι ῤποτυπώσεις. Sextus Empiricus might have been

writing de-massification treatises against professorial, epistemological workers many

centuries before Alvin Toffler's Previews and Premises (1983) interested German readers who

have been trying to locate the original missing 1840/1 Doctoral dissertation manuscript

written by Karl Marx on the difference between the demo and Epicurean physics. Marx

described the qualities of the atom in his second chapter specifically referencing a letter

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mentioning Diogenes Laertius conflicting with the analysis of the substratum of matter in the

seventh book of Aristotle's Metaphysics.

Perceptible substances as part of a cognitariat, when Marx's thesis at the

University of Jena is read in the original German, is evident in his illumination of the

contradictions between the physics of Aristotle and Diogenes Laertius, a century earlier than

Toffler's disillusionment with technocentric, cognitariat labour. In 2014, the wealth of the

richest 1% people in the world amounts to approximately $110 trillion, which is a chilling

reminder that the eighty five richest people in the world share a combined wealth of £1

trillion, which equals the wealth of the poorest 3.5 billion people. This inequality and

exploitation of cognitariat labour through economic class struggles, Marx articulated through

the notion of the extensive and intensive quantum influenced not only by the physics of

Aristotle and Diogenes Laertius, but also by chapter three of Georg Hegel's

The Science of Logic (1816), where Hegel cites Aristotle's example of qualitative alteration

and gradual quantitative change in his definition of measure as a specific quantity of the

specific quantum. Hegel's interpretation of Aristotle has been put to the test by David

Wineland in quantum system control experiments. Typically, the motion of each mode is

shared among all the ions and can act as a data bus for transferring information between ions.

A single-qubit gate or rotation (the relatively easy part) is implemented by applying a focused

laser beam or beams onto that ion and coherently driving a carrier transition as described

above. The harder part is to perform a logic gate between two selected ions. This can be

accomplished by first laser cooling all modes to the ground state. The internal qubit state of

one ion is then transferred onto the qubit formed from the ground and first excited state of a

particular mode of motion. (Wineland 2013: 1109). Somatechnicity is another way that

Wineland can verify Hegel's alterations of the quantum, to ascertain by experiment if the

infinity of the quantum

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is a quantum and at the same time the non- being of quantum. This is how biophysics works

when we study atoms' internal energy differences when we attempt to control atoms' internal

states and external states for movements. The precise manipulation of these states means that

the cognition exemplars of various biophysicists rationally cannot provide different or

divergent paradigms when given the same evidence. The bioengineering of quantum

electrophysiological states has to be precise, otherwise the desired modification of the

specific atom of the test subject's nervous system would not be possible. Biophysical

evolution through somatechnicity is not directed at evolution towards a perfect, optimal

version of the human species, rather its purpose is to control the quantum levels of individual

ions and manipulate ion motion at the quantum level. The biotechnology is available to us

now in 2014 to apply Hegel's definition of measure in The Science of Logic (1816) to

manipulate the cognitive responses that form cognitive habits beyond natural, biological

stimuli to artificially created biological stimuli. Where Hegel was mistaken, due to his lack of

nanotechnology that is now available to Wineland today, is that he thought there was a

primacy of phenomenology over cognitivism. This is biomedically incorrect, as

phenomenology has now been transcended by the cognitive revolution of nanotechnology in

biophysics. Those unaware of recent biomedical advancements in quantum control, are still

very critical of cognitivism in favour of Hegelian phenomenology, such as Karl Heinz-

Lembeck at the University of Würzburg. Despite Heinz-Lembeck's phenomenological

counter-argument about the cognitive basis of science systems, Wineland's entangled

superpositions has proved the computational superiority of cognitive quantum control over

Hegelian phenomenology through experiment and demonstration.

  Exploring the quantum as a cognitive process, should not skip from a fleeting

analysis of science attributed to Zeno the Stoic to Wineland's quantum mechanics without

reference to some of the royal medieval manuscripts as prime exemplars of the debate

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between phenomenologists of spirit and cognitariats. The only surviving copy of a late

reworking of Walter de Bibblesworth's Tretiz called the Femina Nova (1415) is archived in the

Wren Library, Trinity College, Cambridge. This features a Middle English translation, which often

misinterprets the text. Thus we can reclaim cognition away from its rejection by Hegelian

phenomenologists, when we analyse language as a cognitive process where poor translations

and bad pronunciation disrupts phenomenology. The cognitariat of Oxonian students in late

medieval England often learnt French in business courses, where French verbal paradigms

where explained in Latin rubrics. French was the language of the ruling class who regulated

the cognitariat labour of the English Middle Ages, as it was the mother tongue of every

English King from William I, up until Richard II. New frontiers in high-energy physics

appeared in royal correspondence written in French throughout the later Middle Ages, thus

English, German, Greek and Latin translations all create cognitive problems for our species,

as much of our existential phenomena is defined by the way we share this scientific

information. Quantum biophysics is also of the utmost importance, because every single

organism, no matter how complex, began its existence as a single cell.

Hegelian phenomenology is often cited today in texts written by revolutionary

political philosophers outside of Germany, such as Filip Kovacevic, whose current lectures at

the University of Montenegro on Alexandre Kojève's critique of The Science of Logic (1816)

are very popular.

DNA can be extracted from the remains of people who died hundreds or thousands of

years ago, such as those in the English Middle Ages or the ancient Greek and Roman

academic world. Ancient DNA samples degrade over time in to fragments, thus reassembling

genome sequences is a very similar process to repairing damaged manuscripts with missing

folio leaves. Since our DNA sequencing technology can sequence ancient DNA, then we

should also restore rare fifteenth century manuscripts that have had their folios worn or torn

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out. This way we can check how the original sources of philosopher's bibliographies or

references are assembled, so that we can map our variations and expressions of their sciences

accurately, with the correct structures in to the proper domains. This type of analysis has a

parallel in the somatechnic evaluations that harness Wineland's control of atoms through the

biochemical biophysics of stem cell differentiation by atomic force microscopy (AFM). This

evaluation measures the mechanical properties of a cell to measure cellular elastic moduli in

real-time determinations of RNA expression levels as a marker for stem cell differentiation.

AFM data can be used to measure the force curves around cell nuclei to investigate the

feasibility of the cells to differentiate into a broader number of cell types. When Aristotle and

Diogenes Laertius combined the unique properties of other philosopher's writing into their

own work, they checked that these original properties where fully immuno-compatible

 in vivo before transplantation ex vivo. It may seem unorthodox to use biotechnological

terminology to describe a textual process that is normally exclusive to classical philologists

and philosophers. The manual protocol steps of biotechnology has evolved and the

parameters of philosophy has advanced so much that the incubation of colonies and media in

pipettes, are now being used for implants to steal the exchange of information between

neurons directly, during the data preprocessing of presynaptic axon terminals and

postsynaptic membranes, for the malicious purpose of secretly eavesdropping on people's

private thinking in real-time without their consent. The molecular machinery necessary for

the docking of synaptic vesicles and the release of the neurotransmitter that they contain are

electro-dense, which is an area where Wineland's biophysics can be applied to help transmit

the stolen data preprocessing of presynaptic axon terminals and postsynaptic membranes to

the thief's hardware,  processor architecture or satellite in real-time. Somatechnicity has

evolved to the extent where the freedom of our self-consciousness through the sense of touch

stimuli processed by our primary somatosensory cortex no longer is a sequence of

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independent experiences, but one dependent on the artificial vectors we call nanoscale

electrodes for mapping electrical neuron activity. Kyoto University, Japan's Teruo Ono has

conducted chemical research in to transferring some of these nanostructure vortices by

electrical means, however Ziliang Carter Lin at Stanford University, USA has applied

Wineland's physics to nanowire transistors that can be manipulated to record the intracellular

electrical signals of targeted cells. Electrical engineers are now using quantum transport in

nanodevices to couple optoelectronic states in quantum dots and vibrations in nanowires, as

quantum coherence is very important for robust electrical conduction in quantum point

contacts. Despite our Stoicism or consciousness of phenomenology, the voltage pulses of our

neurotransmitters are enslaved every nanosecond to the masters of cognitive nano-machinery

and hidden, artificial nanowire transistor implant media in our tissues. Decision making and

the cellular function or physical growth of muscles connected to organs, is no longer

dependent entirely on our interaction with the phenomenology of our natural human

environment - it is now psychonomic towards implanted nanodevice media in our bodies. The

operating strategies of many biochemical engineers has shifted away from medical research

on molecular reactions to phenomenology, to simulate artificial dynamics for cognitive

function decay evaluation for molecular graphics interfaces. A few decades after Hegel

published The Science of Logic, he was appointed Rector of the University of Berlin in 1830.

Elsewhere in Germany, the philologist Christian Reisig had recently died leaving his student

Friedrich Ritschl to continue his professorial legacy of teaching ancient Greek and Roman

classics. Ritschl's Parerga zu Plautus und Terenz (1845) analysed the language of Plautine

manuscripts by suggesting that Titus Maccius Plautus had two semantic relations of sense and

denotation in his comic terms. Ritschl utilised the Ambrosian palimsest to derive the name

Titus Maccius Plautus from Plautine metres that many previous chairs of classical philology

in Germany had missed. As the plays of Plautus are some of the earliest surviving intact

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works of Latin literature from ancient Rome, an illustration may be necessary before we

progress further in to my analysis of the cognitive criterion of quantum mechanics in ancient

Greek or Roman fragments.

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Figure I. Friedrich Ritschl Parerga zu Plautus und Terenz Leipzig: Weidmanns

Bucchandlung. (1845: 9).

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Neurophenomenology as an embodied condition of colloquial styles of poetic wordplay is

what the plays of Plautus allow us to see as the scientific antecedents of situated cognition in

ancient drama.

The study of language and the study of cognition are ancient disciplines, extending back thousands of years. Often the enquiries have proceeded in isolation from one another, sometimes as a matter of principle, particularly in the more self-conscious modern period. (Chomsky: 1997: 15).

Cognitive linguistics through the stage directions of Plautus, has positive implications for the

theoretical physicist Karen Barad's critical reworking of Judith Butler's theories of

performativity in Meeting the Universe Halfway: Quantum Physics and the Entanglement of

Matter and Meaning (2007), as rather than these enquiries proceeding away from each other

in isolation, these studies have been integrated in a rather more unified discipline. A project

of completely unified science, despite Barad's elegant attempt and those of other quantum

theorists since Late Antiquity, has not been possible as of yet. It is clear that there is a

rejection of the Stoic, cognitive materialism of Zeno by some phenomenologists. What many

of these phenomenologists failed to take into account, is that quantum theory fused a lot of

physics and chemistry together to explain cognitive science in biochemical terms. Plautus

was often accused of scientific skepticism for mocking the gods in his plays by comparing his

mortal characters to gods like Jupiter, which could be thought of as Plautus questioning the

state control of his plays based on religious, spiritual fallacies or other phenomena without

any tangible, cognitive quality. Counter to my proto-cognitariat labour thus far, is the

phenomenological criticisms of Hubert Dreyfus as a fundamental mode of intentionality.

Dreyfus and I do share some agreement on the most basic level of intentionality, where

intentionality derives from pragmatic activity and practical comportment, however Dreyfus's

phenomenological conception of intentionality does not convince me beyond this. My

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understanding of intentionality is more aligned with the evolving structure of intentionality

that we see from Tim Crane's elementary exposition in The Mechanical Mind (1995), his

defence of intentionalism in Elements of Mind  (2001), which then culminates in a mature

exposition in The Objects of Thought (2013). The culmination of these three books structures

intentionality with a starting point of a non-existent object of thought before defining

different varieties of intentional object, varieties of intentional content, varieties of intentional

mode, propositionalism and existing objects of thought. 'Propositionalism is the thesis that

every intentional state is a propositional attitude' (Crane 2013: 116). What Crane grasps, that

Dreyfus misses, is that non-existent objects or things that are in a state of non-being, when

they are discovered to have a direction on to an object, or undergo a transition in to existence

or being, help science advance forward with a new invention. This process usually results in a

Nobel Prize being awarded. An example of this was on the 31st August 1964, when

The Physical Review of Letters published 'Broken Symmetry and the Mass of Gauge Vectors'

co-authored by Brout and Englert in Brussels, Belgium. Vector mesons where shown to

acquire mass in a vacuum, which later partially inspired Tokyo University of Education,

Japan's Sin-Itiro Tomonaga's work in quantum electrodynamics that won the Nobel Prize the

following year in 1965. A vacuum is a space devoid of matter. The word stems from one of

the Latin adjectives used by Plautus vacuus for void. Italian  physicists in the Middle Ages

influenced by Plautus often desribed the spaces between the nine celestial spheres of paradise

as sublime voids, which inspired a literary movement called Dolce Stil Novo coined by Dante

Alighieri in Divinia Commedia (1321). Comedy and our cosmic habitat aside, my position on

intentionality should be clarified in relation to Crane's propositionalism away from the

obscurantist views of Dreyfus. Dreyfus believes that all analysis of intentionality should be

phenomenological and that there are only two possible approaches to intentionality, which are

both German - the Hegelian and the Husserlian! For Dreyfus, skilled behaviour conforms to a

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rule, however when it becomes a cognitive structure in the brain, one no longer 

 Follows the rule as a procedure. Crane's objection to this is that Dreyfus is embarking on

logical, unconscious analysis here, rather than existential phenomenology. The systematic

ambiguity inherited by Husserl from Hegel's philosophy between ontology and

phenomenology might be producing inconsistencies in the science of Husserl, as ontology

and phenomenology are often incompatible lexicons. Dreyfus continues this tradition, but

does so without an elementary starting point of physical particles in fields of force, where

some biological carbon-based systems have evolved to have nervous systems with

intentionality. This applicability of semantics to science was transcribed by Alfred Tarski in

The Semantic Conception of Truth and the Foundation of Mathematics (1944). Dreyfusian analysis

is less polemical than Tarski's remarks, however the traditional cognitive science of Tarski,

Dreyfus often finds inadequate. Where Dreyfus, Tarski and myself sometimes agree is on

anaphoras, pure indexicals, polysemous words and lexicalised words – however despite this,

due to the lack of metaphysical science in the descriptive phenomenology of Dreyfus, Crane

still tends to dismiss Dreyfus as a mere teacher of jargon. The content of experience for Crane

is a propositional attitude, following Husserl, towards the object of the experience. Crane also

prefers Tarski's two conceptions of the content of experience: the semantic and the

phenomenological, to the nonconceptual phenomenon of Dreyfus. A survey of the analytical

history of cognitive science's scope must be avoided, as my argument will fall in to a caveat

of Margaret Boden OBE style informatics. Instead my focus will return to the late medieval

chivalric orders of interdisciplinary texts brought to my attention at recent meetings with

John Marenbon in his office at Trinity College, Cambridge University. Cognitive phenomena

as the joint product of our brain and environment is evident in the language use of one of

Dante's favourite source philosophers Boethius. The scholar Boethius, although a Christian,

was a literary and theological author, who worked on treatises continuing the antique heritage

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of Aristotleian logic. The cognitive rhetoric of Boethius illuminates the cultural literacy of the

Middle Ages that precedes the beginnings of medieval philosophy as a conduit of ancient

Greek ideas to later poets such as Dante. The advantage that Bill Burgwinkle, John Marenbon

and I have over neomedievalists such as Anna Klosowaka, Eileen Joy, Jack Cade, Pru Forrest

and perhaps even Simon o' Sullivan, is that we possess rare collections of incunabula, which

include the original and only surviving copies of many of the world's finest medieval

manuscripts in our library archives. King Henry VIII who founded Trinity College,

Cambridge in 1546, wrote his love letters to Anne Boleyn in French and an original, official

petition letter addressed from the scholars of Trinity's Great Court to King Richard II

approximately in 1390, is archived in our University Library today. We also have a 13

th century Lancelot-Grail manuscript of Arthurian legend once owned by the Knights

Templar, thus we can analyse the original sources of the cultural impact of French on

medieval Europe as perhaps replacing Latin as the global language of commerce and

literature. Many neomedievalists, as they do not consult rare manuscripts or fragments, are

mistaken by the false idea that post-classical Western literature begins with the Renaissance.

Many of the earliest versions of the legends of Arthur were originally written in French, not

Latin or English. The parchment making, medieval palette and illumination process of these

source manuscripts seems to be omitted by Eileen Joy and Jack Cade in their premodern

cryptomnesia. Pope Pius II commissioned and first owned the manuscript Chronica, thus the

wreath at the bottom of the opening folio page is decorated with scroll work and his gold coat

of arms. Critical details like this are often never mentioned by the fraternity of speculative

perspectives on neomedievalism. This is not an attack on the rhizosphere of these

neomedievalist narrators who have emerged out of Georges Bataille's wake, as it is clear that

French theory is a critical part of the unique narrative we have describing King Arthur's reign

in the medieval manuscript treasure archived in our library as MS. Add. 7071. This Arthurian

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romance directly inspired Dante's Divinia Commedia (1321), however what is perhaps more

exciting is that the manuscript's original 15th century binding is completely intact, despite

much of the glue degrading. The proceedings from the two Speculative Medievalisms

symposia held at King's College, London and City University of New York in 2011, both

failed to analyse fragmented French medieval manuscript treasures (entirely written in

French) and circulated in England. King George I donated some of these rare treasures to

Cambridge University Library after he was bequeathed the archives of the deceased Bishop

of Ely in 1715, containing the earliest version of the Anglo-Norman Tristan legend to survive

to the present. The discussions of Aristotle at the two Speculative Medievalisms symposia

held at King's College, London and City University of New York in 2011, where both

excellent, however the timespan of this variety of neomedieval, meta-historical anachronism

might be short lived. Aristotle's cognitive logic that we see inherited by Boethius, later

influenced Cassiodorus, then Eriugena up until 1100-50 where the tradition manifested itself

again most clearly in Abelard's philosophy of logic. 'When I wrote Early Medieval

Philosophy five years ago, I thought of philosophy as a single, identifiable subject'

(Marenbon 1983:vii). Aberlard perhaps advanced further than Boethius, as Aberlard

developed a propositional logic for cognitive science.

Science advances by discerning patterns and regularities in nature, so that more and more phenomena can be subsumed into general categories and laws. Theorists aim to encapsulate the essence of the physical laws in a unified set of equations, and a few numbers. (Rees 1999: 2).

Bodleian Library, Oxford shelfmarks are always very important in tracing the binding, size of

leaf and provenance of rare pre-1500 printed scientific books that have made significant

advances to our understanding of cognition; however my paths crossed with Lord Martin

Rees at Lady Mitchell Hall, Cambridge – rather than Oxford. We discussed briefly the

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causation of sense-data and its relation to existential risk with Jaan Tallin (one of the C#.

JavaScript, PHP algorithm programmers who founded Skype) and Huw Price at Lady

Mitchell Hall. This discussion was then debated by myself with various research staff from

the Future of Humanity Institute, Faculty of Philosophy, Oxford - in a pub near Queens'

College, Cambridge. The Gutenburg Bible is the first book printed using type, thus we need

to resist the temptation to engineer our species too much with quantum modifications and

adhere to some of the Vatican's original principles so that we do not potentially erase future

members of our species who might develop cognitive weaknesses such as Stephen Hawking.

My concise, clear and succinct conclusion to this scientific debate is a return to the splendour

of rigid ethical logic, to reclaim cognition from quantum engineering and to respect what is

archived in the purple velvet bound Certaine Sermons (1596) by John Udall embroided in red

for Queen Elizabeth I's Royal Library at Whitehall with her royal coat of arms.

Bibliography

Abelard, P. 1140. Ethica. tr. Paul Spade. Hackett Publishing. Barad, K. 2007. Meeting the Universe Halfway: Quantum Physics and the Entanglement of Matter and Meaning. Duke University Press.

Bibbesworth, W. D. 1415. Femina Nova. MS B. 14. 39-40, ff. 87v.88r. Wren Library, Trinity College, Cambridge.

Catholic Church.1470. Heures de Nôtre Dame. Hours of the Virgin. f. 116. MS Richardson 7. Houghton Library, University of Harvard.

Codex Vaticanus. 325. Vat. gr. 1209; no. B.The Vatican, Bibl. Vat.

Chomsky, N. 1997. 'Language and Cognition' in The Future of the Cognitive Revolution: Alternative Futures. eds. Erneling, C.E. & Johnson, D.M. Oxford University Press.

Crane, T. 2013. The Objects of Thought. Oxford University Press. Goldhill, S. 2001. Being Greek Under Rome: Cultural Identity, The Second Sophistic and the Development of Empire. Cambridge University Press.

Goldhill, S. & Hall, E. 2009. Sophocles and the Greek Tradition.

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