Amicus Brief Europe

United Nations World Court of Historical Affairs

Post-Classical Situation ReportThe United Nations is charged with the maintenance and order of world affairs. Keeping in line with this mission to provide stability and justice in the world the UN Council on Historical Affairs has compiled the

following brief to serve as an overview of cultural affairs on the planet from 600 C.E. to 1450 C.E.

The UNWCHA will be charged with hearing evidence from the seven regions of the planet outlining their behaviors in creating frameworks of socio-cultural behaviors to provide for their people.

In the interest of full disclosure this amicus brief will provide litigation teams with all information already gathered by the court on each of the seven cultures. The following is that evidence.

1

Geographically, Europe is connected to Asia and is often not considered a continent on its own but is referred to as Eurasia. Some schools refer to Europe as a continent because of its unique culture and

important role in world events but geographically it is better thought of as a peninsula on the western edge of Asia. Europe is separated from Asia by the Ural Mountains which run north and south through Russia. Other important geographical features of Europe are the Alps, the Rhine River, Danube River,

Volga River, Mediterranean Sea and the European plain that includes much of France, Germany, Poland and Russia.

The History of Europe and European culture has been the most influential during the past few centuries. European culture can be divided into three primary regions based on geography. Western Europe is different linguistically, religiously and politically from eastern Europe. And the region currently called Russia is generally considered its own world region. All three of these areas are European and interact through trade and occasionally war which connects them but they are different enough that studying them individually is worth the effort.

2

Vikings - 600 to 1200 AD Scandinavian warriors who raided Europe, Eastern Asia, and Eastern North America, Iceland,

Greenland Poland, Latvia, Lithuania, and Russia. Pirates and warriors, traders and colonists.

Viking Politics tribal life in small villages generally ruled by chief who was the strongest/bravest adult man in

the village over time tribes begin to unite into larger groups for increased power; Local government = “thing” - irregular outdoor meeting of adult men to discuss issues. Ended

with a vote to decide action. Sometimes an “allthing” was held for region wide issues.Viking Economics

Agriculture, fishing and raiding of other villages important throughout. Trade across their conquered land makes them wealthy. Viking ships which were ocean ready and could sail up rivers allowed them to travel and trade

across their entire territory.Viking Religion

originally Norse polytheists emphasizing nature worship then slowly converted to simplistic Christianity

3

Viking Social Life was simple and difficult. Cold, harsh weather and regular violence. Few schools or churches

until late 1000 when Christians enter. Many Vikings tribes were civilized by the people they “took over”. (Normans, Anglos, Saxons, and others)

Three social classes; jarls, karls, and thralls. The jarls = nobles often with slaves from captured tribes Karls = most Viking families who owned or rented their farms and did most of the work

themselves. Thralls slaves who could buy freedom with hard work or great fighting skill in battle

Viking Intellectual Sagas (great oral stories eventually written down in 1100-1200s), Viking ships, excellent

weapons, settled Greenland, Iceland and explored NE North AmericaViking Art

Viking ship, burial ships, sagas, some gold and silver work Viking Chess men carved from Walrus c 1000 Saga of Erik the Red in Iceland c. 1250 Silver brooch from Iceland c. 1200

The Viking’s Impact Viking ship technology spreads thru Europe Some English common law comes from Vikings Languages, vocabulary, and place-names of the areas they settled. Unite N. Europe and create global trade across N. Europe for 1st time Spread Christianity after 1100 Caused European kingdoms to centralize by conquering and fear European kingdoms learned how to protect themselves and gain by trade and negotiation Create new cultures all over Europe (Rus in Moscovy, Norman England)

Viking Timeline 789 -Vikings begin their attacks on England.800 800 -The Oseberg Viking longship is buried about this time 840 -Viking settlers found the city of Dublin in Ireland. 844 -A Viking raid on Seville is repulsed. 860 -Rus Vikings attack Constantinople (Istanbul). 862 -Novgorod in Russia is founded by the Rus Viking, Ulrich. 866 -Danish Vikings establish a kingdom in York, England. 871 -Alfred the Great becomes king of Wessex; the Danish advance is halted in England. 872 -Harald I gains control of Norway. 879 -Rurik establishes Kiev as the center of the Kievan Rus' domains. 886 -Alfred divides England with the Danes under the Danelaw pact. 900 -The Vikings raid along the Mediterranean coast. 911 -The Viking chief Rollo is granted land by the Franks and founds Normandy in France. 941 -Rus Vikings attack Constantinople (Istanbul). 981 -Viking leader Erik the Red discovers Greenland.

4

986 -Viking ships sail in Newfoundland waters. 991 -Æthelred II pays the first Danegeld ransom to stop Danish attacks on England. 995 -Olav I conquer Norway and proclaim it a Christian kingdom. 1000 -Christianity reaches Greenland and Iceland. 1000 -Leif Eriksson, son of Erik the Red, explores the coast of North America. 1000 -Olav I dies; Norway is ruled by the Danes 1002 -Brian Boru defeats the Norse and becomes the king of Ireland. 1010 -Viking explorer Thorfinn Karlsefni attempts to found a settlement in North America. 1013 -The Danes conquer England; Æthelred flees to Normandy. 1015 -Vikings abandon the Vinland settlement on the coast of North America. 1016 -Olav II regains Norway from the Danes. 1016 -The Danes under Knut (Canute) rule England. 1028 -Knut (Canute), king of England and Denmark, conquers Norway. 1042- Edward the Confessor rules England with the support of the Danes. 1050 -The city of Oslo is founded in Norway. 1066 -Harold Godwinson king of England defeats Harald Hardrada king of Norway at the Battle

of Stamford Bridge 1066 -William duke of Normandy defeats the Saxon king Harold at the Battle of Hastings.

Viking Families Despite being forced to arranged marriages, Viking women had more opportunities than other

women of the time. A woman could stay at home alone while her husband was gone to fight in wars. She could also hold a job. Women were also in charge of keeping house by cooking, weaving, and taking care of their children and farm animals.

Children learned to do everything their parents did to prepare them for adulthood. Boys learned how to fight, hunt, and farm. Girls learned how to make cloth and take care of a household.

Homes Houses were typically between 50 and 100 feet long and had one large room. Animals often

shared the living space with the family when the weather was cold. The chieftain's home usually had a couple separate rooms in it. The houses were constructed of materials such as stone, turf, wood, and mud. Windows weren't included in most houses, which caused the light to be very dim. Candles and lamps had to be used for illumination. The dirt floor was covered with hay. Limited furniture was available to the Vikings. The head of the household might have a bed and a chair.

Food Fish, porridge, and barley bread were staples of the Viking diet. Women used herbs and spices

to season food. Wheat bread was considered a luxury. All Vikings drank beer because clean fresh water wasn't available. Men hunted deer and bears which were prepared to be eaten.

Clothes Women's outfits consisted of a long dress and a tunic. Once they were married, women wore

headscarves. Men wore wool shirts and trousers. They also wore tunics and leather belts. During the winter, cloaks were popular. Everyone wore leather shoes. Vikings liked long hair and jewelry.

5

European Feudalism 6th Century

European Feudalism

Feudalism developed in Western Europe at around 800 C.E. from the remnants of the Western Roman Empire. As a result of central authority being unable to perform its functions and prevent the rise of local powers, this decentralized organization formed. It is believed by some historians that the system was first initiated in France by the Normans from the time they first settled there. Many remarkable things were still accomplished during this era. For example, Monk Missionaries converted the Europeans and united Europe into Christendom, giving the region a common religion. This allowed for the Pope to become a political power. Also, Charlemagne introduced the importance of education. This is significant because it provided Europe with a common language: Latin. Together, these two things began to re-civilize Europe.

The System of Feudalism

When the Western Roman Empire fell in 476 C.E., a state of chaos encompassed Western Europe for many centuries. Essentially, the people of Western Europe needed some form of a political system to defend them. Thus, feudalism developed. The system literally accounted for all aspects of a society, aside from religion. Firstly, the King was in complete control. He owned a large land mass and leased it to trustworthy men called Vassals. The catch was that they had to swear an oath to remain faithful to the King at all times. The Vassals were wealthy, powerful,

6

and had complete control of their land, called a manor. They had to provide lodging and food for the King and his court when they traveled around the country. They established their own system of justice, minted their own money, and set their own taxes. However, the Vassals had to serve on the royal council, pay rent, and provide the King with military service when he demanded it. The Barons did this by leasing their land out to knights, who would fight for him, and thus, the king. Although not as rich as the Vassals, Knights were quite wealthy. The Knights kept as much of the land as they wished for their own personal use and distributed the rest to serfs. Serfs had to provide the Knight with free labor, food, and service whenever it was demanded. Serfs had no rights, were never allowed to leave the Manor, and had to ask their Lord's permission before they could marry. Serfs were the majority of people, and their lives were wretched.  Feudalism was a social hierarchy, a political system, and an economic system, all in one. The beauty of the system is that it achieved self-sufficiency. It was the giving up of freedom in exchange for protection. However, there was absolutely no mobility, no time for learning, and no intellectual advancements. Because people constantly feared for their lives, there wasn’t any leisure time; society couldn’t grow.

Feudalism and the spread of Christianity

In 687 C.E., Pepin of Heristal, a Merovingian ruler, united the Frankish territories and centered his kingdom in Belgium and other Rhine regions. His son, Charles Martel, took over after he died and formed an alliance with the Church which helped the Merovingian Dynasty (and Christianity) to expand into Germany. Pepin the Short succeeded him and strengthened the alliance between Benedictine missionaries and Frankish expansion. Benedictine missionaries completed the conversion of England begun by St. Gregory the Great. Also, Irish monks established early-medieval art. The greatest surviving creation of these monks is the Book of Kells, a Gospel book of decorative art.  It marks one of the lowest points in Europe’s history, leading all the way up until the Renaissance in the 14th century. Its demise was triggered by the Crusades because the Crusades called for people to leave their homes and fight. Since Feudalism was based on non-movement, it collapsed. Knights, soldiers, peasants, and pilgrims left their homes and migrated along European roads and trails, bringing back with them stories of differing cultures. They began to implement their architecture and advances in medicine.

Feudalism and the Catholic Church

The only force that was powerful enough to unite an extremely disorganized group of people was the Roman Catholic Church. For the time being, religion was very important. From birth to death, whether one was a peasant, a serf, a noble, a lord, or a King, life was all about church. Various religious institutions became important, rich, and powerful. This is because life sucked during the Middle Ages. Times were tough, and they looked toward God to make it better. Because of this, society basically attempted to structure itself politically on a religious basis. Often times, religion in government is effective, but if it’s the only thing, it won’t work well. The proof is in the Middle Ages. Religion in government is nice because it promotes morality. It, moreover, tells the people which is right and which is wrong. Religion is used as means for control. But when one begins to think for him/herself, all of the sudden, religion isn’t as effective. When people began to think about themselves and the amount of potential they had, society changed for the better. This idea, known as humanism, was the basis of the Renaissance.

7

Moving back, after the Roman Empire dissipated, the idea of Europe as one large church-state arose, called Christendom. Christendom consisted of two distinct groups of representatives: the sacerdotium (ecclesiastical hierarchy) and the imperium (secular leaders). Supposedly, these two groups were complements of each other, attending to people's spiritual and temporal needs, respectively. The Pope was considered higher in status than the emperor in those two areas. But, the emperors often attempted to regulate the Church. The church, in turn, not only owned cities and armies but also attempted to regulate the matters of the government as well.

 

Charlemagne

Pepin's son, Carolus Magnus (Charlemagne), succeeded his father to become one of the most important rulers in medieval history. His empire was known as the Carolingian dynasty, and it included the greater section of central Europe, northern Italy, and central Italy, in addition to realms already conquered by Frankish rule. Charlemagne's ingenious system of government divided the vast realm into different regions, ruled by local rulers, who were overseen by representatives of Charlemagne's own court. In addition, to aid expansion and management of this vast kingdom, Charlemagne promoted, what was later called, the "Carolingian Renaissance." Prior to this revival of learning, practically the entire region (excluding England) was illiterate due to the fall of the Roman Empire. The sub-director of this "Renaissance" was Anglo-Saxon

8

Benedictine Alcuin, who received his learning from a student of Bede. Alcuin set up schools, made sure that classical Latin texts were copied, and developed a new handwriting. On Christmas Day, Charlemagne was crowned emperor by the Pope in Rome. This event showed independence in Western culture that was based upon Western Christianity and Latin linguistics. Charlemagne established schools and monasteries everywhere. This had an enormous impact and probably would have altered history forever had he left competent successors to continue on his legacy. His sole surviving son, Louis the Pious, divided his new kingdom between his own three sons, who engaged in civil war. Charlemagne's united realm was invaded by Scandinavian Vikings, Hungarians, and Muslims during these civil wars. 

European Feudalism

Background to the Feudal Age

Europe after the Empire Roman Empire gone but city of Rome and the Papacy (Pope) survive 700- 1492 Spain is conquered by Umayyad Muslims and Cordova is founded 700-1200 Vikings conquering Northern Europe Central Europe is mostly barbarians (Goths, Franks, Vandals, Anglos, Saxons)

Central Europe Overview 500- 1450

Monk missionaries convert Europeans and unite Europe into Christendom Most people’s lives are "solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short.” (Thomas Hobbes) Franks become the dominant group in Europe until Crusades Crusades bring knowledge, trade and culture to Europe Castles, Cathedrals and Christianity grow towns until Renaissance begins

The Rise of the Franks

The Merovingian Family controls France450 – 687CE

496 – Clovis, King of Franks makes his tribe the first to accept Christianity. "Merovingian" dynasty, unites central Europe somewhat with improved religion and law

systems Clovis being baptized by Saint Remi at Cathedral of Reims, France Muslim threat to Christianity and the Franks

9

The Carolingian Dynasty takes over687 – c. 875

Charles Martel 714-741 In 732, defeated the Muslims at Battle of Tours and stopped their advance in the West.

A Beautiful Love Story: Pepin and Berthe

Charles Martel’s son was Pépin le Bref (Pepin = Pipin the Short?). Pipin married Berthe au Grand Pied (Bertha Big Foot). Pepin (at Pope’s request) defeated the Lombards of Italy and gave Italy to Pope For his reward, Pipin was re-crowned “King of the Franks and Patrician of the Romans”

by Pope Stephen II at Paris in 754. The Papacy retained control of them until 1870. Oh, by the way, Pepin the Short and Bertha the Big Foot had a son…

Charles the Great "Charlemagne“768-814.

“He was large and strong, and of lofty stature, though not disproportionately tall (seven-feet tall). His head was round and well-formed, his eyes very large and vivacious, his nose a little long, his hair white, and his face jovial. His appearance was always stately and very dignified, whether he was standing or sitting. …. His gait was firm, his whole carriage manly, and his voice clear.” Einhard, Life of Charlemagne, (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1880), pp. 56-7.

Unites Europe Fought constantly for 25 years and conquered/united central Europe Pope Leo III crowned him Imperator Romanorum (“Emperor of the Romans”) on

Christmas Day, 800. Holy Roman Empire begins here

Charlemagne & Education

Charlemagne promoted education for clergy and people Literacy increased especially for monks and wealthy Brought in teachers from Byzantium Charlemagne & Christianity founded monastery schools taught in Latin = universal language for Europe Built and repaired churches, universalized the liturgy of Rome = unity for Europe instituted tithes to support the clergy Charlemagne’s Empire Ends At his death, the empire was divided into three kingdoms ruled by his sons. They did not rule well and the Empire collapsed by 900

10

Charlemagne lasting impact

Holy Roman Empire, Latin common language, common religion, Pope as political power Art

gold and silver sculpturebook art.  Intricate designs common

The Rise of Feudalism

landowners had their own armies and resources Rather than fight each other constantly small landowners put themselves under the

protection of the large estates

Practices of Feudalism

Fief holding A fief is a hereditary position with land and peasants In order to keep a fief, a lord had to be able to protect his land. A lord could give one of his vassals a fief. Primogeniture The land went to the eldest son. Relief Taxes paid by vassals to their lord.

The Three Estates

The Church = 1st Estate

The greatest weapon of the church was spiritual. The threat of interdict could bring kings to their knees The church was able to establish two customs to extend its power over the nobles. No fighting during holy days No fighting on holy ground

The Nobility = 2nd EstateLords and vassals

Lord provided vassal a grant known as a benefice, usually grants of land often called fiefs - enabled the vassal to devote time and energy to serve the lord

- provided resources to maintain horses and military equipment Vassals owed lord loyalty, obedience, respect, counsel, and military service

- The lord-vassal relationship was not entirely new, but became dominant now

11

The Peasants = 3rd Estate1. Serfs

a. Slaves and peasants took agricultural tasks, frequently intermarried b. Free peasants often turned over themselves and their lands to a lord for protection c. Serfs as an intermediate category emerged about the mid-7th century

2. Serfs' obligations a. Labor service and rents in kind b. Could not move to other lands without permission c. Obligations fulfilled, serfs had right to work on land and pass it to heirs

3. Manors a. Principal form of agricultural organization b. A manor was a large estate, controlled by the lord and his deputies c. Many lords had the authority to execute serfs for serious misconduct d. Manors were largely self-sufficient communities

The Economy of Feudal Europe 1. Agriculture

a. Agricultural production suffered from repeated invastionsb. Small wooden plows of Mediterranean farmers did not work well in the north c. Heavy plows

Heavy plows appeared in the 6th century, could turn soils Became common from the 8th century, production increased

d. Cultivation of new lands, watermills, and rotating crops 2. A rural society

a. Agricultural surplus not enough to support large cities b. Towns were few and sparsely populated

3. Trade a. Trade and urban centers began to develop by the 10th century b. Trade took place in Mediterranean, North Sea, and Black Sea

Population In 200 C.E., European population stood at 36 million In 400 C.E., 31 million In 600 C.E., 26 million In 800 C.E., edged up to 29 million In 900 C.E., 30 million By 1000 C.E., back to 36 million

12

Economic Growth and Social Development

A. Growth of the Agricultural Economy 1. Expansion of arable land

a. Population pressure by the late 10th century b. Serfs and monks began to clear forests and swamps c. Lords encouraged such efforts for high taxes

2. Improved agricultural techniques a. Crop rotation methods b. Cultivation of beans increased - enriched the land c. More domestic animals - also enriched the land d. Books and treatises on household economy and agricultural

methods 3. New tools and technology

a. Extensive use of watermills and heavy plows b. Use of horseshoe and horse collar, increased land under

cultivation 4. New food supplies

a. Before 1000, European diet - grains b. After 1000, more meat, dairy products, fish, vegetables, and

legumes 5. Population growth: from 29 to 79 million between 800 C.E. and 1300

C.E. B. The Revival of Towns and Trade

1. Urbanization: Peasants and serfs flocked to cities and towns 2. Textile production

a. Northern Italian cities and Flanders became centers of wool textiles

b. Trade in wool products fueled economic development of Europe

3. Mediterranean trade a. Beside Amalfi and Venice, other cities also became important b. Italian merchants established colonies in Mediterranean and

Black Sea 4. The Hanseatic League

a. The Hansa - an association of trading cities, dominated trade of northern Europe

b. Major European rivers linked Hansa to the Mediterranean 5. Improved business techniques

a. Bankers issued letters of credit to merchants b. Commercial partnerships for limiting risks of commercial

investment

13

C. Social Changes 1. The three estates

a. "Those who pray" - clergy of Roman Catholic church, the spiritual estate

b. "Those who fight" - feudal nobles, the military estate c. "Those who work" - mostly peasants and serfs

2. Chivalry a. Widely-recognized code of ethics and behavior for feudal nobles b. Church officials directed chivalry toward Christian faith and

piety 3. Troubadours

a. Aristocratic women promoted chivalric values by patronizing troubadours

b. Troubadours drew inspiration from the love poetry of Muslim Spain

4. Eleanor of Aquitaine a. Most celebrated woman of her day b. Supported troubadours, promoted good manners, refinement,

and romantic love c. Code of chivalry and romantic poetry softened manners of

rough warriors 5. Independent cities

a. Expansion of cities fit awkwardly in the feudal framework b. Urban populations were increasingly able to resist demands of

feudal nobles 6. Guilds

a. Established standards of quality for manufactured goods b. Determined prices and regulated entry of new workers

7. Urban women a. Towns and cities offered fresh opportunities for women b. Women worked in a wide range of occupations c. Most guilds admitted women, and women also had their own

guilds

Feudal Warfare

Background Fall of the Roman Empire

Several century process Last emperor deposed in 476 AD Legions that had “maintained civilization” recalled/disbanded. No one entity to assume the empire’s role

Tribes are most viable political entity Loose coalitions of tribes

Militia based warfare

14

“Center” of Europe shifts from present-day Italy toward France, Germany, and, eventually, England.

Military Aspects of Feudalism

Dispersed population Lack of opportunities for “unit” training increases importance of individual skills Cavalry supplants infantry Flexibility:  fight mounted or on foot Fortified areas/castles Protection from Vikings/raiders Levy cannot cope with raiders Vikings:  amphibious, maneuver warfare, looted and pillaged….. Stratification of society

THE FRANKS

Germanic Tribes;  ancestors of today’s French Moved into Roman Gaul about 460 Infantry-centric Relied more on individual courage than organization or skill Carry “Francisca” or battle ax

Originally no social “classes”;  similar to American Indian Comitatus:  leader’s bodyguards; first among equals

Clovis initiated levy system in 496.     Each house owes 1 man to the nation for service.   

Comitatus evolves into Knights. Levy and cost of weapons begin stratifying society.

Frankish Cavalry Stirrup introduced in early 800s. Began shift in focus that ended with cavalry as the primary arm by 900.

Tactically sound, but operationally and strategically weak

“On the whole, therefore, it is easier and less costly to wear out a Frankish army by skirmishes, protracted operations…, and the cutting off of supplies, than to attempt to destroy it in a single blow.”  Byzantine manual

BASICS OF Battle of HASTINGS

October 1066 Harold defeats other invaders in N. England. William conducts amphibious landing in S. England. Harold countermarches to meet William. Normans under William have cavalry, infantry, and archers while English army (Harold)

is almost all infantry.

15

Norman cavalry fails to penetrate English infantry shield, but the English wings react to cavalry falling back, move toward them and are destroyed (twice).  Normans then fire missiles and weaken the English until they are vulnerable to cavalry attack.

Crusades

Mission to spread Christianity to the Muslim world Economic interests also fueled Crossbow developed Trading capital for labor Required transition from chain mail to armor.

First Crusade (1095-1099)

Acquired “Holy Land”/Jerusalem. Muslim light cavalry versus European heavy cavalry and infantry Some victories, but European success limited by logistical shortcomings Fighting Saladin Competing strategies Combat versus logistics Few serious casualties, but Europeans still surrendered Lack of cohesion Inability to maneuver No food or water = no morale Scorched earth Avoiding battle

Richard I

Set out to recover Jerusalem Developed new defensive tactic to deal with horse archers Pikes in front Ranks of crossbowmen Offensive Combined-arms task organization Delayed action to train together Sea-based logistics Light-fighters Contingency plan Smarter than predecessors, but still unable to retake Jerusalem. End of the Knight New weapons Longbow Gunpowder and firearms Heavier armor for the knight Armor for the horse (150+ lbs)

16

Crusade Results

Weight cancelled mobility, which was the cavalry’s reason for being. Economic changes (Europe opens to Silk Road/Indian Ocean products) Increasing concentration of wealth led to creation of standing armies of mercenaries and

decline of levy-based armies. Middle class arises from increased trade. 

The Flavor of the Middle Ages: Inferiority and VitalityWestern Europe changed rapidly during the postclassical period, but it remained commercially and culturally backward compared to Islam and the Byzantine Empire. But its development did usher in certain political and cultural forms that made this civilization distinctive.

Stages of Postclassical DevelopmentMedieval European development unfolded in two sub-periods up to about 1300. Between the 6th and 10th centuries, chaotic conditions prevailed, despite gains made by the church and Charlemagne’s brief empire. Then, improvements in trade and agriculture brought new strength and diversity. Feudal monarchy developed as a stronger political form. During this period, western Europe also developed expansionist tendencies, particularly in the Crusades.

Western Culture in the Post-Classical EraChristian culture formed the clearest unifying element in western Europe during the post-classical centuries, although it changed as European society matured. Theologians and artists developed distinctive expressions, although there were other philosophical and artistic currents as Europe’s cultural creativity increased.

Changing Economic and Social Forms in the Post-Classical CenturiesWith the revival of trade and agriculture, commercial ties spread through most of Western Europe. Urban merchants

The Decline of the Medieval SynthesisAmid problems of overpopulation and disease, post-classical Western civilization declined after 1300. The decline was evident in feudalism and the church.

Conclusion: The Post-Classical West and its Heritage – A Balance SheetThe term “Middle Ages” suggests a backward period in Western history between the glories of Greece, Rome, and the Renaissance. This view neglects the fact that the area had never been integrated into a regional civilization and was building institutions and culture for the first time. It was backward in some aspects and did not participate in world contacts as the equal of the great Asian societies. The Middle Ages was a formative force of its own.

17

The Byzantine EmpireThe Byzantine Empire unfolded as part of the larger and older Roman Empire. As this classical framework shattered with Roman decline, the eastern provinces, which became the Byzantine Empire, took on a life of its own, particularly from the reign of the Emperor Justinian onward. It centered on a territory different from and smaller than the Eastern Mediterranean as Rome had defined it. This was the result of pressures, particularly the surge of Islam throughout North Africa and the Middle East, and popular migrations throughout the Balkans. Despite many invasions and domestic trends, the empire flourished until the 11th century invasion by the Seljuk Turks. The collapse of the empire in Anatolia led to repeated conflicts with Turkish border- states and spurred the Byzantines to ask the Pope for help. The Western Crusaders reconquered some old imperial lands but eventually sacked Constantinople.

The Spread of Civilization in Eastern EuropeChristian missionaries, Byzantine conquests in the Balkans, and trade routes running through western Russia and Ukraine created abundant contacts with portions of eastern Europe. Regional states formed. After the creation of a state by the Varangian Swedes and its conversion to Orthodox Christianity, Kiev developed some of the formative features of Russian culture and politics. Mongol invasions ended this period of Russian history, cutting parts of the region off from western contacts. A Turkish tribe migrated into the Balkans, intermarried with local Slavs, warred with Byzantium but converted to Orthodox Christianity; the Bulgars became the empire’s chief Balkan rival and threat.

Conclusion: The End of an Era in Eastern EuropeAfter Byzantium and Russia fell under foreign rule, east European civilization fell on hard times at the end of the era. The struggle to redefine a civilization after 1453 would not be easy. In the meantime, the connection of border territories such as Poland to the west European cultural zone would deepen, while the Balkans lay under Turkish rule. These difficulties confirmed the largely separate paths of West and East in Europe. Western Europe remained free from outside control and, despite some new problems, maintained a clearer vigor in politics, economics, and culture. When Eastern Europe did reemerge, it was at a major disadvantage to the West in terms of power and economics and cultural sophistication, a very different situation from that of the days of Byzantium and Kievan Rus.

18

JudaismTraditionally, historic Judaism was founded by Moses approximately 3,300 years ago. The patriarch Abraham is also considered the founder of the Jewish people. But most modern scholars believe Judaism coalesced from various associated tribes in Palestine more than 3,000 years ago.

Historically, the Judaism based on the Books of Moses, historical books, and prophetic books, which Christians call the Old Testament, and which Jews call the Tanakh, did not come into printed existence until around 600 BCE when the Jews were in exile in Babylon.

The earliest teachings of Judaism revolved around eretz yisrael, or the land of Israel, and geography is central to Judaism. In the Hebrew language of the "Old Testament", whenever the scriptures speak of a Jew entering the land, he "ascends". Whenever a Jew departs, he "descends". The Torah threatens exile from the land as the punishment for disobedience (Deuteronomy 28). Until the last 2,000 years of exile, the land was essential to the religion. Many of the laws of the Torah are only applicable when Israel is in the land. To emphasize the importance of the land to the fathers, each Pesach, or Passover is ended with the exclamation, "Next year in Jerusalem!" And have you ever wondered why hell is hot – deserts surround Israel and the Twelve Tribes were punished for sins by God and made to wonder in the desert for forty years under Moses. Besides, who would not want a land flowing with milk and honey as opposed to one of heat, scorpions, and rocks?

Judaism is usually considered an ethnic religion because of its association with a specific land. The Hebrew calendar is based on the agricultural cycle of Palestine. In that autumn is when the grains were harvested, the two holiest of Jewish holidays, Rosh Hashanah (New Year) and Yom Kippur (Day of Atonement) are both autumnal holidays associated with plenty and the end. Other holidays such as Sukkot (Feast of Booths) celebrate the Final Gathering of the Fruits, and prayers, especially for rain are offered. And because of the association of the human body with dirt and dust, the dead must be interred within one day of death.

The Torah mandated many practices, which were dictated by the environment. For example, the prohibitions against animals classed as unclean, such as pigs, affects what animals are raised. The very strict separation of meat from dairy products affects the handling and distribution of food products. Both milk and pork spoil quickly in hot climates. Historically, the Torah mandated a total rest of all farmland throughout Israel every seven years. In fact, the failure to observe this commandment is cited by the rabbis as being one of the contributing reasons for the first exile.

Although Judaism is primarily an ethnic religion, it does have universalizing elements. In the Second Temple era (approximately 2,000 years ago) there was active proselytization. However, the political atmosphere of the times eventually led Jewish leaders to discourage further proselytization. However, converts have made significant contributions to the faith. Judaism was the first major monotheistic religion. This monotheism eventually gave birth to two other world religions; namely, Christianity and Islam. The Jewish people were given the mission by God in the Hebrew Bible (referred to as the "Old

19

Testament" by Christians) to be a blessing to the world. The three major tenets of Judaism are God, Torah, and Israel.

The books of the Tanakh, or the “Old Testament” are recognized as canon. Tanakh is an acronym for the three Jewish divisions of the Bible: Torah, the five books of Moses containing the Jewish Law; Nevi'im, the books of the prophets; and Ketuvim, the books more commonly known as "the Writings" such as the Psalms and the Proverbs. The Torah takes central stage in Jewish doctrine and way of life: it contains the 613 commandments that God gave to Israel (not the Christian ten). The Talmud Bavli, or Babylonian Talmud, is also authoritative. Various works on Halakhah, or Jewish Law, such as the Shulkhan Arukh are held in high regard.

20

Orthodox ChristianityOrthodox Christianity arose as part of the general Christianity observed throughout the Roman Empire. From the beginning, it co-existed with the Roman Catholic tradition, the main difference being its use of Greek instead of Latin for worship. Gradually, the Church of Rome began to assume preeminence over the rest of Christianity, but not necessarily with the acknowledgment or cooperation of the eastern churches.

Eventually, doctrine differences coupled with questions of papal authority led to the "Great Schism" of 1054, when Rome excommunicated the Patriarch of Constantinople, Michael Cerularios. Thus, the question of when Orthodox Christianity was founded depends on who one asks. An Orthodox Christian will tell you 33 AD, but a Roman Catholic will say 1054 AD.

Many of the Orthodox churches consider themselves "Catholic" and some will have the word in their official titles. In Greek, the word “catholic” means universal. The Eastern Orthodox Church was the "One Holy Catholic and Apostolic Church" of the Byzantine Empire. The Christians that follow the Eastern Orthodox religion follow the doctrine defined by the first seven ecumenical councils. They recognize Christ as the head of the Church, and their doctrines are founded on the Holy Scriptures, holy tradition, and the decisions of the ecumenical councils. Others prefer the term orthodox because Eastern Rite Christians feel they more closely represent Christ’s intended church on earth.

The Church is also known as "Eastern Orthodoxy" because the most Orthodox are from the eastern regions of Europe and Asia, as in Russia, Greece, the Balkans, and the Coptics of Egypt.

Orthodox doctrine agrees with that of most of the other high liturgy churches as Roman Catholicism and the Anglican Church. In fact it is often hard to see how they differ. The major cause of the Great Schism was the addition of the “filoque” to the Nicene Creed by the Roman Church. The Nicene Creed stated that the Holy Spirit proceeds from the Father alone, whereas the filoque teaches that the Holy Spirit proceeds from both the Father and the Son. To Western Christians, this has resulted in a stronger notion of the Trinity of God the Father, the Son and the Holy Spirit as co-equal and co-eternal, whereas the Orthodox fell God the Father and the Son existed before the Spirit and created it.

Another issue of contention with the Roman Church is the authority of the Pope overall of Christendom, with which the Orthodox could not agree. Orthodox have always felt that while the Pope was the single most important leader of the Church, first among equals so as to speak, he alone could not speak for the Church. God spoke through the general Church councils and synods and his Holy Spirit guided the Church councils, not the Pope. Consequently, whereas the Roman Catholics feel the Pope is infallible, the Orthodox feel the Councils will not err religiously. Another distinct trait of Orthodoxy is the veneration of icons, with which many western Christians cannot agree. While Roman Catholics also venerate icons, at the time of the Great Schism in 1054, many Orthodox Christians opposed the use of icons in worship. Today they accept them. Other differences between Orthodox and Catholics include the Orthodox tradition of married priests, which Roman Catholics discontinued around

21

1000, and the use of the local or vernacular language in worship, which until 1964, Roman Catholics did not allow.

Orthodox Christians recognize the New Testament and the Old Testament. In addition to these scriptures, the Church recognizes several other books as canon, not recognized by Protestants and Catholics. These books are known by Protestants as the Apocrypha, and to the Church as the Deuterocanonicals. The Orthodox also use four more books of the Bible than do Roman Catholics. Furthermore, Church tradition as revealed to the people through the councils is regarded as additional sources of divine truth. Because Orthodox Christianity arose in areas with strong political leaders, it did not develop the independence of the Roman Catholic Church. In fact, the church was often considered a department or a bureau under the political influence of the emperors or tsars. Consequently, the Orthodox did not develop the exclusive monopolies over social welfare or educational institutions, which occurred in medieval Western Europe. Moreover, the clergy did not possess a monopoly on intellectual resources because the state and private enterprises maintained schools for the wealthy and talented. Only in areas where political authority collapsed through invasion or conquest, such as in Russia following the Mongol invasion or in Ethiopia, which was cut off from the Christian world by Muslim control of Egypt, did the Orthodox churches ever develop the level of power Roman Catholic clergy possessed. And unlike the Roman Catholics and after their wars with the Monophysites, the Orthodox rarely launched crusades against non-Christians (Jews are a major exception). In fact, the spread of Orthodoxy around the world was more often as not accomplished by missionaries, merchants, and movement of the already Orthodox to new lands to settle.

22

Roman Catholic ChristianityThere are two central ideas to Roman Catholicism: the Church as a teaching authority and as a sacramental agent. The Church as a teaching authority means that the Church is the ultimate interpreting agent of the Bible, in the same way the US Supreme Court is of the U.S. Constitution. To accomplish this, the Church has a pope, who speaks officially as the leader of Christianity on matters of faith and morals. When speaking officially, the pope is considered infallible or unable to religiously make a mistake. The Church as a sacramental agent means that the church institutes sacraments for its adherents so that they can live spiritually. Consequently, the Church’s influence and the centrality of its role in life are more pronounced for Catholics than for most other religion except perhaps Islam.

Roman Catholics recognize the New Testament and the Old Testament, but feel that the New Testament is more important than the Old Testament. In addition to these scriptures, the Church recognizes more books as part of the Bible than do the Protestants. The books are known by Protestants as the Apocrypha and to the Church as the Deuterocanonicals. Furthermore, tradition, canon law, and the infallible authority of the Pope are regarded as sources of divine truth.

The Church believes that seven sacraments are needed to help Catholics live the kind of life Jesus would have wanted and these sacraments spiritually parallel the great moments and needs of human life. The Church sees Christ as having explicitly joined the sacramental agency of the Church to its teaching authority in his closing commission to his disciples. These sacraments include:

1. Baptism: As birth brings a child into the natural world, baptism draws the infant into the supernatural order of existence by planting God's first special grace in its soul. Baptism also washes away the original sin a person is born with due to Adam's fall from grace in the Garden of Eden.

2. Penance: If one errs, or sins, penance is needed as a step to take so that one may be restored to the human community and divine fellowship. The Church teaches that if one confesses one's sins to God, which should be in the presence of one of God's delegates, a priest, and truly repents for the sins committed, the sins are forgiven.

3. Holy Communion: Also called Holy Eucharist, the Mass, and the Lord's Supper, it is seen as the central sacrament of the seven. In Catholicism, the Mass is viewed as a reenactment of Christ's Last Supper with his disciples, not as a commemoration of the supper as viewed in Protestantism. The Church teaches that the consecrated bread and wine become Christ's human body and blood, and are actually present during the service even though no actual physical change takes place in the bread and wine. Rather, they are transubstantiated into the actual body and the actual blood of Christ.

4. Confirmation: When a child reaches the age of reason (between 12 and 14), the child is strengthened for mature reflection and responsible action as a soldier of God through an act of

23

consecration. At the time of confirmation, the child takes on the name of a saint of his or her own choosing.

5. Marriage: Sanctified marriage is the joining of two adults with the grace of God for lifelong companionship and procreation.

6. Holy Orders: One receives this sacrament when one decides to dedicate his or her life entirely to God. When a man undergoes this sacrament, he may become either a priest or a monk. He is considered married to the Church and is bound by the same laws as a married person. A Roman Catholic priest is not allowed to marry in the conventional sense and is bound by a vow of celibacy. A monk is bound to live by the laws of the particular order or community in which he is a member, and may or may not be a priest. When a woman undergoes this sacrament, she becomes a nun in the Church and is also a bride of Christ. She is also prevented from conventional marriage and is also bound by a vow of celibacy. Because of this celibacy, a nun or sister during the Middle Ages frequently received the legal status of a male, with all the power and rites that entailed. And within the Church, female clergy have powers and influence no other religion or philosophy except Buddhism tolerates. And because the Church insists on an educated clergy, often throughout European and world history, many of the leading scholars have been clergy. Today Catholic universities the world over, originally instituted to train Catholic clergy and laymen, provide superior educations.

7. Last Rites: Last rites are also called Extreme Unction and Sacrament of the Sick. This sacrament, at the ending of one's life, closes the earthly eyes of the person and prepares the soul for its last passage to the afterlife.

In addition to the holy days celebrated by most Christians, Roman Catholics observe a number of other holy days and saints days. These might include special masses, fasts, or feasts. The more significant of these are All Saints Day, Annunciation, Ascension Day, Epiphany, Feast of the Blessed Virgin Mary, Feast of the Immaculate Conception, Good Friday, Maundy Thursday, Nativity of St. John the Baptist, and Palm Sunday. And local Catholic Churches emphasize recognize certain national patron saints and martyrs’ days as Holy Days. The Irish’ St. Patrick’s Day on March 17 is but one famous example.

Catholicism's history began when adherents of Judaism accepted Jesus Christ as not just a prophet, but as the Son of God and the Savior of the world. Roman Catholics believe theirs is the form of Christianity founded by Christ and his commissioning of the Apostle Peter "as the rock on which the church is to be built." Catholicism, which means universal, received the adjective "Roman" due to the Church's adoption of the organizational grid of the Roman Empire and its use of Latin as a religious language. Until 1964, Latin remained the liturgical language of all Catholics the world over. The adjective was also used because of the tradition that Peter founded the Church in Rome and because both Peter and Paul were reportedly martyred and buried there. Moreover, much of the hierarchy of the Church is based on Roman social structure and political organization. While the Catholic clergy is similar to Roman judges, Roman Catholics emphasize the role of the father as head of the family and the importance of family.

24

Women are critical to the family, but have few rights outside of the family. All of these are Roman cultural traditions.

During the first five centuries, the Church in Rome gradually assumed preeminence among the churches of the western Mediterranean region. It came to be regarded as a kind of final court of appeal as well as a focus of unity for the worldwide communion of churches. After the conversion of the Roman emperor Constantine I, in the year 312, a new era for the Church began. In 314, the Edict of Milan recognized Roman Catholicism as a legal religion and by the end of the 4th century; Roman Catholicism was made the official religion of the Empire. The clergy received privileged status in the Empire. Constantine's conversion also provided the Church with extraordinary opportunities for proclaiming the gospel to all nations, usually through missionary work. Some, however, saw this as dangerous because Christian commitment would no longer be tested by persecution, as it was before the emperor’s conversion. Following this, a monastic movement developed in which monks became directly involved in the missionary expansion of the Church in Ireland, Scotland, Gaul, and England between the fifth and seventh centuries.

In the fourth and fifth centuries, there was a controversy over the relationship between the one God, Jesus the Son, and the Holy Spirit. It led to the first major schism in Christianity. The Council of Chalcedon in 451 CE “ended” the controversy by stating that "Jesus is at once divine and human. The divine and the human are united in one person, without confusion or change, without division or separation.” This separated the Catholic Latin and Greek traditions from the Monophysite Christian traditions in Egypt, Southwest Asia, and the Caucasus regions. Both Latin and Greek Catholic traditions mercilessly persecuted the Monophysites, who eventually sought protection from the Muslisms.

When the western provinces of the Roman Empire fell in 476 CE, Germanic tribes settled the area; of the old Roman institutions, only the Pope and remained effective forces for order and civilization. In the ensuing centuries, the clergy Christianized the Germanic invaders and cemented ties between a distinctly Roman form of Christianity and western European culture. Eventually, monks and missionaries converted Scandinavians, Magyars, and many of the Western and Southern Slavs to Latin Christianity. During the same period, the Church established and ran most educational establishments and provided the only social welfare such as orphanages, hospitals, and poor relief. And for ambitious men and women, who were not nobles, the Church provided the only avenue for social advancement. In an age when few could read and write, and in an era where intellectual pursuits were considered suspect by the aristocracy, the clergy generally were the only literate people. Consequently, they became official court scribes. Millions of Europeans sought out the Church, which was enriched by their talents and gifts of land and money.

A major tenet of Catholicism, in fact of all Christian sects, is the belief that God gave an unfinished earth to the humans to finish perfecting. Consequently, humans are expected to subdue and develop the land. This meant clearing forests, planting fields, and improving the land. During the Middle Ages and throughout its history, Catholic establishments especially monasteries took this belief literally and began a process of settling in the wilderness and making the land productive.

25