Sociology Paper 1 (November 2006)

Section A: Research Methods

1. Questionnaires and structured interviews are quantitative research techniques much loved by the positivists. Postal questionnaires containing 'closed' questions (that is questions requiring a 'yes' or 'no' answer) are ideal for scientific purposes. They are quick and cheap. The sample can be controlled to ensure representation, the data is easily collated, and the findings can be analysed statistically and generalised. There is no ambiguity in the data and therefore it is more straightforward to draw conclusions. Another group known as interpretive sociologists are rather critical about the value of using questionnaires and structured interviews. They prefer qualitative research methods, such as unstructured interviews and participant observation studies. Both positivists and interpretive sociologists accuse each other of producing research data that is affected by bias and distortion. Positivists also claim that qualitative research lacks reliability, while interpretive sociologists respond by saying that quantitative research lacks validity.

(a) What In sociological research, what is meant by the following terms

i. structured interviews [2] Interviews based on pre-set questions.

ii. representation [2]

The ability to reproduce accurately in a sample the qualities of the wider study group

iii. participant observation [2]

A technique for gathering data that involves the researcher taking part in the activities of the group under study

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(b) Describe two methods for selecting a sample when carrying out a postal questionnaire. [4]

random sampling one in which each member of the sampling frame has an equal chance of being selected because the samples are selected randomly

simple random sampling – straightforward – drawing names randomly from a hat or using a computer to select them

stratified random sampling - when the sample is divided into groups e.g age, gender and is equally representative.

cluster sampling – involves sampling people from different areas , 10 people from Leeds and 10 people form Manchester

Non-random sampling - one in which specific groups are targeted to suit the particular study

systematic sampling – having a list of names, sampling every 6th name

snowball sampling – this is where the researcher gets in touch with a group, then that group introduces the researcher to another group, then the other group introduces the researcher to the group the researcher really wants to research

(c) Explain one advantage and one disadvantage of using ‘open’ questions in an interview.

[4]

Advantages include:

the ability of the respondent to answer in their own words – the researcher can also clarify points and explore particular points with them to find out what they really mean

more depth to the questions – Allows the researcher to explore any issues that come up in more depth and find out what the respondent really thinks

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answers may throw up new leads for the researcher – what the respondent says get the researcher to think about other areas of the research that he might not have thought of before

More freedom for the researcher - The researcher is not restricted to pre-set questions.

Disadvantages include:

difficult to collate the answers and analyse statistically – Can be difficult to quantify results, as much of the data may be descriptive.

irrelevant material may be collected – The interviewee may digress from the topic

expensive - High cost because of high researcher involvement.

Time consuming - Can be time-consuming for the researcher and respondent to do in-depth interviews

(d) Distinguish between the terms reliability and validity. [4]

Reliability

This is a measure of whether we can trust the data presented.  It is usually a reflection of whether the research can be repeated gaining the same results.

Validity

This is a measure of whether the data presented is a true reflection of the situation being researched at that particular point in time.  In other words does it give us a true picture of the events?

(e) Describe two reason why bias my occur when collecting data using a postal questionnaire

[4]

Bias may occur:

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Because of the way the questions are worded – to get good results depends on the respondent’s ability to understand the questions if these are not very clear or are ambiguous then the respondent won’t be able to answer them properly

The low response rate of postal questionnaires – Can get a poor response rate because people forget to send it back or lack motivation or incentive to do so which will reflect in the results not being a good enough cross section of people

the difficulty of checking the authenticity of the answers - Respondents may like the anonymity of a postal questionnaire and therefore may be not very honest in giving answers to question and there is no way the researcher can verify the answers

(f) Describe two advantages and two disadvantages of

qualitative research [8]

Advantages include:

the depth and detail of information – Good for gaining an in-depth picture of the social behaviour of the group or individual being studied.

high validity – it is a true reflection of the situation being researched at that particular point in time. In other words it gives the researcher a true picture of the events?

the opportunity to study people in their natural surroundings - Good for observing ‘natural’ behaviour in the subjects own environment because the researcher can learn a lot more about the subjects

authenticity of data collected – Gives an in-depth and realistic picture of the social behaviour of the group being studied

The disadvantages include:

low reliability – May be difficult to generalise findings - Findings may only apply to a particular situation or group.

possible lack of objectivity/research results may be too subjective - the observer may start to become too close to their subjects and therefore write up their research too

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subjectively time consuming – this kind of research is time consuming.

Needs a high input from the observer in terms of time. Expensive – the costs are high because of high involvement

of the researcher and the amount of time spent doing the research.

Section B: Culture and Socialisation

2. The values of the culture in which we live define our roles and the patterns of behaviour that go with these roles.

(a) What is meant by the term values? [2]

Values may be defined as the beliefs and goals held to be important in society

(b) Describe two roles that a child might have. [4]

Examples might include the roles of

son/daughter – he/she is expected to respect and listen to the parents advice and not do anything to make them feel ashamed.

Sibling – he/she is expected to be a good kind loving brother or sister and to help them if they are in trouble

student – he/she is expected to study hard and get good grades so that the family will be proud

grandchild – he/she is expected to listen show respect because the grandparents are older. He/she is also expected to make regular visits even if he/she has other things she

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would like to do.

(c) Why might conflict arise between the different roles that a person has? [6]

Individuals generally have and manage many roles. Roles consist of a set of rules or norms that function as

plans or blueprints to guide behavior. Roles are social positions that hold expectations for what

we do. Roles specify what goals should be pursued, what tasks

must be accomplished, and what performances are required in a given scenario or situation

Each one of us holds multiple roles, and sometimes the expectations of our roles are mutually incompatible—they can’t all be met

This can lead to Role conflict:

Role conflict – results from the competing demands of two or more roles that

vie for our time and energy. The more statuses we have, and the more roles we take on,

the more likely we are to experience role conflict. people in modern societies have so many roles, so they are

more likely to experience role conflict.

For Example:A working mother is expected at work on time but is late because one of her children is sick. Her roles as mother and employee are then in conflict. The role for her mother status dictates that she cares for her sick child, while the role for her employee status demands that she arrives at work on time.

Role conflict can also happen if we are doing something we really don’t want to do.

People may often distance themselves from roles they don’t really want to perform

this is known as role distance 6

a way of minimizing role strain associated with something they don’t want to do but have to.

They can perform a role while behaving in a distracted manner.

For example An actor may have to work as a waiter while he is waiting for acting jobs to come along. He/she will create role distance by telling everyone it is just temporary until he finds something better.

A person may also be challenged if he is expected to do things that he doesn’t want to do but is required to by his boss or someone in a more powerful position.

For example If you work as a nurse in a hospital you may be required to perform abortions which may be against your own religious or moral beliefs. If you don’t do it you may lose your job which you can’t afford to do. So you do your job even though it is against what you personally believe.

(d) How far do people who live within a culture share the same values? [8]

Value consensus = shared norms and values

Cultural Values

A culture's values are its ideas about what is good, right, fair, and just.

Conflict theory focuses on how values differ between groups within a culture, while functionalism focuses on the shared values within a culture, Consensus

For example, American sociologist Robert K. Merton suggested that the most important values in American society are wealth, success, power, and prestige, but that everyone does not have an equal opportunity to attain these values.

Functional sociologist Talcott Parsons noted that Americans share the common value of the “American work ethic,” which encourages hard work.

Other sociologists have proposed a common core of American values, including accomplishment, material success, problem-solving, reliance on science and technology, democracy,

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patriotism, charity, freedom, equality and justice, individualism, responsibility, and accountability.

Conflicting Values

A culture, though, may have conflicting values. For instance, the value of material success may conflict with

the value of charity. Or the value of equality may conflict with the value of

individualism. Such contradictions may exist due to an inconsistency

between people's actions and their professed values, which explains why sociologists must carefully distinguish between what people do and what they say.

Real culture refers to the values and norms that a society actually follows, while ideal culture refers to the values and norms that a society professes to believe.

Sociologist look at society in two ways:

The consensus approach According to the consensus approach social order and stability

depend on cooperation between individuals and groups who work together for the same goals.

Generally, such cooperation occurs in situations where people believe that they share common interests and goals.

Functional sociologists for example, believe that society is based on consensus by which they mean that broad agreement exists among people on shared norms and values.

Such consensus arises from the process of socialisation during which we learn the shared norms and values of our society.

Functionalists argue that social order is maintained over time because most people support and agree to abide by the rules.

The conflict approach A second approach sees society as characterized by a conflict

of interests between different groups. Clashes occur because groups do not share common interests

and goals. Marxists for example, identify conflict between the two main social classes, the bourgeoisie and the proletariat.

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The bourgeoisie are the propertied ruling class and the proletariat are the property-less working class.

Members of the bourgeoisie own the factories that employ the workers (the proletariat).

Class conflict occurs because these two groups have opposing interests.

The bourgeoisie want to make more profits while the proletariat want higher wages.

Social order and stability are generally maintained, however, partly because members of the bourgeoisie have the power to enforce order.

Within any culture there is cultural diversity, or the presence of multiple cultures and cultural differences within a society. In reality, many different cultural groups make up a society.

Subcultures Smaller cultural groups that exist within but differ in some way

from the main culture. These groups are called subcultures. Examples of some subcultures include “heavy metal” music

fans, motorcycle gang members, and Nazi skinheads. Members of subcultures typically may have a distinctive

language, way of behaving and way of dressing. Even so they may still accept many of the values of the

dominant culture. Ethnic groups living in the UK—such as Indian or Chinese —

may also form subcultures. Most of these adjust to the mainstream culture , but may still

retain many of their cultural customs and in some cases their native ethnic language.

Countercultures A counterculture comes about in opposition to the norms

and values of the dominant culture. Members of countercultures—such as hippies and protest

groups—are generally teenagers and young adults, because youth is often a time of identity crisis and experimentation.

In time many, but not all, members of countercultures eventually adopt the norms and values of the dominant culture.

Therefore people in a culture often share some of the same

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cultural values. They can also retain their own group or ethnic values which doesn’t always clash with the main culture but can coexist in increasing multicultural societies

3. Historical research in Europe suggests that it is only in recent centuries that childhood has come to be regarded as a distinct and separate stage of life. This implies that far from being a naturally occurring phenomenon, childhood is socially constructed.

(a) What is meant by the term socially constructed? [2]

Socially constructed may be said to refer to the process by which social roles are produced through interaction and negotiation between actors

(b) Describe two examples of how children are treated differently to adults in modern industrial societies

[4]

family income – in industrial society children's prime responsibility was to contribute to the family economy as soon as they were able to. Now they are not expected to contribute to the family incomeeducation – for the good of the family as a whole, investment in a child's education beyond a minimum required level makes sense. Most parents now see how important education is and are willing to financially children at school and even at university.status – children’s status and ranking within the family has risen and their opinions and ideas are taken into account. Within the home itself children are expected to do less and less in terms of chores and the goal of many parents is an improvement in the life-chances of their children.

(c) Why has childhood come to be regarded as a distinct and separate stage of life in modern industrial societies?

[6]

Aries (1962) suggested that what we experience today as childhood is a recent social invention.

He argues that childhood is constructed socially. It was not recognised as a social category before the twentieth century and, consequently did not exist as we know it today. However childhood

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and adolescence are now seen as separate categories from adulthood

He claimed that in pre-industrial society

Children were ‘little adults’ who took part in the same economic work as adults.

Toys and games didn’t exist Children were regarded as an economic asset rather than as a

symbol of love between parents These attitudes continued after industrialisation especially

among the working classes whose children often worked very hard in factories, mines and mills

The Twentieth Century saw the emergence of a child-centred society

More children survived into adulthood because of improvements in living standards and nutrition (diet)

The higher standard of living also made having children more expensive so people chose to have fewer children

They invested more time, love, socialisation and protection in them.

The Twentieth Century also saw the introduction of legislation aimed at protecting children

For example the 1989 Children’s act states that the courts should always ensure that the child’s welfare must be the most important thing.

This means that children now have a legal say in decisions about who they will live with for example if their parents get a divorce

(d) To what extent does the experience of childhood vary depending on factors such as social class, gender and culture? [8]

Culture

Culture – a whole way of life that guides our way of thinking

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and acting. It provides all of us with the ability to understand and participate in society.

Culture is learned. Children learn their culture through socialisation.

Socialisation is the process of learning how to behave in a society. Primary socialisation happens early in childhood. This happens mainly within the family and home.

Secondary socialisation happens through other agencies. Other agencies of socialisation include: mass media (i.e. TV,

newspapers, magazines), schools, peer groups, and religion.

Children are socialised differently according to their class and gender. They learn the norms and values of their class

this will affect their childhood experience and their life chances

Class – mention a couple of these points There is often a very close relationship between social class

and life chances. The higher the class position of a child’s parents, the more

likely the child is to attain high educational qualifications and a well paid, high status job.

Research from Reay shows how middle class mothers are able to influence their children’s primary schooling more than the working class mothers.

This research shows how demands of the working class mothers affect their time to devote to the children.

Therefore the children will miss out on important socialisation with their mothers.

In contemporary society it is clear to see that social class does affect the socialisation of children.

The working class families often lack role models and quality time with their parents

The upper and middle class also create norms, values and expectations that pass down through generations.

Even though class divisions are getting more blurred, socialisation between these families is still very much present

The importance of Social Class – differences between the life chances of different classes. You could talk about health and infant

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mortality.

Accidents – children born into professional backgrounds were four times less likely to suffer accidental death than those from unskilled manual backgrounds according to figures in 1996

Infant mortality - babies whose fathers are in semi-skilled or unskilled manual occupations have a higher mortality rate (death rate) than those from a higher social class

Health – Children from low-income families are more likely than other children to have serious health problems. These problems can prevent poorer children from achieving economic success as adults

Education - the higher a child’s social class background the more chance he or she has of achieving high educational qualifications. For example, in 1990, 81% of university students came from middle class backgrounds

You could think about class and how it affects childrens’ education - mention one or two points

Class and education - while education is clearly very important in determining occupational outcomes, class background continues to play a role.

Working-class pupils, on average, do not do as well as middle-class pupils. One explanation for working-class underachievement could be due to the home environment.

Although school is free, parent are asked to pay for a lot. Optional school trips, revision guides, a private tutor are all things that middle-class parents could pay for in order to improve their children’s understanding of a subject.

Working-class families struggling to get by may not even have a proper breakfast in the morning – making it hard for the children to concentrate in lessons.

Aside from money, it could also be due to a difference in values.

Middle-class parents are more likely to put emphasis on higher education.

In the end, their children gain higher qualifications and higher status jobs.

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If you have time you could make a few points about gender

Gender

From the feminist point of view society is patriarchal – male dominated

This means that males are the leaders of society and exercise control in a number of areas for example within the family or at work

Girls are socialised differently from boys they learn to be more passive and submissive

At school, girls do better than boys in their studies In employment, however, women, earn less and have less

chances of promotion.

Section C: Social Stratification and Inequality 4 Despite all the talk about gender equality in employment today, women still tend to be disadvantaged in terms of earning and job conditions.

(a) What is meant by the term gender equality? [2]

Gender equality refers to the equal treatment of men and women in terms of access to and enjoyment of various benefits and rewards in society

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(b) Describe two ways in which women are discriminated against in employment. [4]

Likely answers may focus on: Relative to male employees, women may experience:

low wages – women are a cheap source of labour they earn about 20% less than men reflecting the different occupations and lack of promotion

poor job conditions – women often have to work in factories where the job conditions are not very good

less job security - women often work part-time so that they can fit in with family obligations this gives them less job security

greater likelihood of unemployment and redundancy – the lower paid jobs that women often do there is a bigger chance of being laid off or fired

segregation into a narrow range of work tasks based on stereotypes of traditional female roles – in general most women are employed in a narrow range of occupations and in work that is considered to need less skill this covers three main areas:

o clerical o service work like shop assistants receptionists etco professional and technical like nursing or technicians

less chance of promotion – women’s chances for promotion are less because they still have to combine the twin roles of mother and employee. Having time off for having children also affects their promotion chances.

(c) Why may an employer discriminate against female workers? [6]

Women form about half the workforce today yet they are seriously under-represented in management and the higher levels of the professions (such as medicine and law)

They earn on average about 80% of men’s wages They are far more likely to be in part-time work than men

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They are more likely to be concentrated in a few areas of employment, particularly clerical and caring work (like nursing) and the service industries

Reasons why an employer may discriminate against female employees include:

personal prejudice – a lot of male employers may be wary about giving women promotion because they believe that they will leave their jobs at some point to have children and this will cause disruption. They might also have to take more time off to care for children if they are sick economic factors – employers often exploit female workers by giving them less hours and less money.Fear – employers are worried that if they treat female workers too well there might be an adverse reaction from male employees or the male dominated trade unions which could affect their business.

REMEMBER

UK is still a patriarchal society.Even though women now dominate the workforce they are still discriminated against and treated very badly in relation to men.

(d) How far may the inequality experienced by women in paid employment be explained in terms of the position they occupy within the home? [8]

Introduction Feminist researchers are interested in examining the position

and role of women in society in relation to men. From the feminist point of view society is patriarchal this

refers to the domination of society and institutions within it (such as the family) by men

This means that males are the leaders of society and exercise control in a number of areas for example within the family or at work

Girls are socialised differently from boys they learn to be more passive and submissive

At school, girls do better than boys in their studies In employment, however, women, earn less and have less

chances of promotion

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The Status of women The status of most women within the family parallels (is the

same as) the status that they hold in the job market  Women, earn no money for the jobs that they perform in

terms of housework and child rearing, although these jobs are necessary for the survival of the family

Despite the importance of such work, Women’s work in the home and the childcare that they do is not valued by society they should really be paid for doing it

Men can earn money outside the home this gives them a higher status position within the family

The fact that women can’t go out to work adds to their dependence within the family

Gender inequality is historically related to the subordinate (lower) position of women within the family in terms of rule making and control of resources (e.g., money).

The person in the family who earns the money has the power This relationship is continued within the job market where

historically men have secured the best positions by making the rules (controlling management and labour) and by receiving unequal (greater) rewards.

The dominant partner in any social relationship can maintain power by a combination of control over decision making processes and control of wealth

Women who work women are likely to earn less than men women are likely to have less job security than men women are less likely to be promoted than men women are more likely to experience poverty than men

Women who don’t work Some married women who do not work experience a kind of

hidden poverty Their husbands may earn an adequate wage but only give his

wife a small amount for running the household So for example she may go without herself to make sure the

children are fed and clothed A woman may be poor in a household with an income above

the poverty line or she may be more deeply in poverty than the rest of her family

5. The discrimination experienced by some minority ethnic groups may in part be linked to the way that they are stereotyped by the

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majority population.

(a) What is meant by the term stereotypes? [2]

A stereotype is a fixed, narrow conception of an individual or group, usually prejudicial and generally resistant to easy change.

(b) Describe two examples of stereotypes that may be applied to minority ethnic groups. [4]

Negative connotations are often applied, such as:

Lazy – ethnic minorities don’t work, they just take money from the government culturally inferior – people from ethnic minorities may have different religious or cultural beliefs which seem ‘strange’ and so are seen as less valid than the popular culture in UKcriminals and parasites - people from ethnic minority groups are more likely to commit crime and are a danger to societyan economic burden on the rest of society – people from ethnic minority groups just come to UK and rely on the government to provide them with housing and welfare and don’t contribute to the country in any productive wayless moral – they may have different norms and values which may be regarded as less moral by the dominant culture

(c) In what ways may some ethnic minority groups be discriminated against? [6]

Discrimination There are a number of areas in which ethnic minorities are discriminated against Employment

Overall ethnic minorities are found in lower level jobs A fewer percentage are in Managerial positions They do more shift work and part-time work They have less chances for promotion

Housing18

They live in the worst areas They live in the worst accommodation With the highest rates of overcrowding

Education There is discrimination in the attitudes of teachers. It is

important to motivate students – often teachers have lower expectations of certain ethnic groups so they don’t do very well

there is discrimination in the process of streaming and options choices for ethnic minorities so they don’t have a fair chance to do well in school

Welfare ethnic minorities are less likely to use health services especially

older people possibly because they don’t speak English most of the welfare agencies don’t provide a translator so that

ethnic minorities can understand what is available to them

The media The media doesn’t always reflect the multicultural nature of

the country There are few role models in terms of presenters from ethnic

minorities There are few programmes that reflect the lifestyle or culture

of ethnic minorities Media content does not address particularly minority

audiences and it is almost never in minority languages.

Even though there have been various government attempts to eliminate discrimination such as the Passing of the Race Relations Act in 1965 It is difficult to change attitudes held deep within the culture

(d) What social factors are most important in explaining the inequality experienced by some minority ethnic groups?

[8]

Members of minority ethnic groups are more likely than the rest of the population to:

Leave school without qualifications To be unemployed To be living in poverty

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Many social factors such as economic deprivation, poor educational attainment and discrimination in the work place explain the inequality experienced by minority ethnic groups

Ethnic minorities are often disadvantaged in all these areas, this greatly affects their life chances:

Economic Deprivation (Poverty) People from ethnic minority groups are more likely to have a

lower income than the white majority Poverty among ethnic minority groups is linked to:

o Lack of qualifications and skills o High rates of unemployment o Low pay when employedo Living in deprived social environments i.e. areas with

poor housing, failing school etc

Poor Educational Attainment (Education)

Ethnic groups differ greatly in income, housing standards and level of job - these inequalities are the often the cause of differences in educational attainment

There is evidence that those ethnic groups which do very badly are those with the highest level of deprivation

The educational success children is closely related to the educational standards of the parents

Students born in Britain may have parents not fluent in English so they may not have shared cultural values

Discrimination in the work place

Generally people from ethnic minorities are less likely to be in professional and managerial positions and more often in lower paid and routine work.

They are all under represented in the professions (like law) and senior management positions

They are less likely to be promoted They are more likely to do shift work and part-time work They have higher unemployment rates than the average They have lower incomes than the averageEthnic minorities are often used as scapegoats for the problems that face society generally.

Scapegoating20

In periods of economic decline or social tension certain groups are picked on to be blamed for the problems of society

In Britain ethnic minorities are often used as scapegoats for unemployment, inner city deprivation and high levels of crime

The idea of scapegoating has been taken further by Marxist sociologists

They have suggested that when there is competition among poorer groups for scarce resources, such as housing and jobs.

The real reason for deprivation is exploitation by the rich However the media encourage poor white people to blame

non-whites. As a result there is hostility between the races that prevents

them from joining together to seek a common solution to their problems

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