NORTHERN CARIBBEAN UNIVERSITYDEPARTMENT OF BIOLOGY, CHEMISTRY AND

ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCESECOTOXICOLOGY

ECO-TOXILOGICAL ANALYSIS OF LEAD POISONING IN JAMAICA

SUBMITTED BY: LATRICIA FRANCIS

LENROY GREEN

ANTONIQUE WILLIAMS 18100441

LESLEY ANN JAMES

Executive Summary

For several decades Jamaican children have been exposed to lead, mainly from mine

waste in the Kintyre region, lead recovery mainly located in the Red Pond area of Spanish Town

and scattered illegal backyard smelting operations mainly in Kingston, St Andrew and St

Catherine. There is also leaded gasoline wherever cars are operated and lead-containing

household paints which are sources of lead contamination. Lead exposure has been associated

with numerous maladies including cognitive and behavioural deficits, hypertension,

osteoporosis, and a range of non-specific constitutional symptoms. Lead is also a potent

neurotoxin especially detrimental to the developing nervous system of the foetus, babies and

young children. The consequence of lead contamination are; social and financial burdens,

reduced intelligence and violent behaviour place demands on society that are far from trivial and

are quite unnecessary since lead poisoning is an entirely preventable malady. This makes the

project a necessary one and bring attention to an issue that has not been given due attention by

the authorities.

This project adds to previous work done on Lead decomposition, contamination and

poisoning in Jamaica and mainly the communities of Mona common, Kintyre and Red pond in St

Catherine. Lead contamination is looked at from an environmental, health, toxic and

psychological perspectives. The chemical structure of lead and its toxicity will be fully explored.

We will further decipher the chemical structure of lead and determine its reactions and

combinations with other substances that enable it to be so toxic. The causes of Lead Deposition

and Poisoning in Jamaica will be explored at different locations as we generally investigate the

locations of lead poisoning have occurred. Two locations namely Red Pond St Catherine and

Mona Commons St. Andrew will looked at for an in-depth comparative analysis. Current

mitigation policies that have been implemented by the government will also be identified while

possible ones that could be implemented will be provided.

The information gathered and analysed has proven that Lead exposure has been

associated with numerous maladies including cognitive and behavioural deficits, hypertension,

osteoporosis, and a range of non-specific constitutional symptoms. Lead is also a potent

neurotoxin especially detrimental to the developing nervous system of the foetus, babies and

young children. There has been an increased appreciation in Jamaica of the dangers associated

with lead deposition, however; backyard lead smelting is still being carried out. As such, there

remain a substantial number of chronically lead poisoned children who require suitable clinical

and environmental interventions. This is becoming better understood and there are increased

efforts to manage lead pollution in the Jamaican environment. Medical and environmental

interventions is needed to produce significant reductions in blood lead levels and such

interventions if they are going to be effective they will require longer term monitoring and

support.

Acknowledgments

This work was supported by the Northern Caribbean University Department of Biology

Chemistry and Environmental Sciences. Acknowledgements are also made to the staff of that

department who eagerly cooperated and shared ideas and knowledge on the topic. Dr. Vincent

Wright Dean of the College of Natural and Applied Sciences, Dr. Mark Harris, Geochemist and

Associate Professor Northern Caribbean University. The University of the West Indies, Ms

Kameaka Duncan, and Ms Pansy Matthews, principal of the Mona Commons Basic School.

Table of Contents

Title Page

Goals and Objectives...............................................................................................................1

Section A

Introduction.............................................................................................................................2

Environmental Impact of Lead Poisoning...............................................................................3

Health Impact of Lead Poisoning.............................................................................................6

Toxic Impact of Lead Poisoning..............................................................................................8

Psychological Impact of Lead Poisoning................................................................................8

Section B

Chemical Structure of Lead.....................................................................................................11

Reaction of Lead with other chemicals...................................................................................14

Section C

Description Study Areas for Lead Poisoning…………………………………………………17

Toxic Killing………………………………………………………………………………….24

Discussion on the causes of Lead Deposition and Poisoning in Different Parts of Jamaica...25

Section D

Mitigations against Lead Toxicity in Jamaica........................................................................29

Conclusions and Recommendations......................................................................................, 34

References..............................................................................................................................36

List of Tables

Title Pages

Table1- Showing the chemical properties of lead...................................................12

Table 2 - Blood lead levels results for a total of 107 children

from the Mona Commons.......................................................................................18

Table 3 – Summary of chelated children’s blood level over 3 months period........19

Table 4 – Variation of blood level (mg/dL) with time after discharge...................20

Table 5 – Lead contents of environmental samples in Mona Commons................21

List of Figures

Title Pages

Figure 1 – X-ray images showing lead in bone of lead poisoned children..................19

Figure 2 – Blood levels of the emergency cases before and after chelation

Therapy treatment..........................................................................................................21

Figure 3 – Contaminating effect of the lead smelting operation in Mona Commons

Illustrated by the concentration distribution of lead in the soils...................................22

List of Plates

Title Page

Lead Poisoning.................................................................................................7

Toxic Killing...................................................................................................24

Goals and Objectives

The goals of this project are to study the impact of Lead Poisoning in Jamaica. We will

accomplish this by looking at the impacts from an environmental, health, toxic and psychological

perspectives. We will further decipher the chemical structure of lead and determine its reactions

and combinations with other substances that enable it to be so toxic. The causes of Lead

Deposition and Poisoning in Jamaica will be explored at different locations as we generally

investigate the locations of lead poisoning have occurred. Finally two locations namely Red

Pond St Catherine and Mona Commons (Kintyre) St. Andrew will looked at for an in-depth

comparative analysis.

Other general objectives include:

To define lead poisoning.

To identify the sources of lead poisoning.

To determine the signs and symptoms of lead poisoning in children.

To determine the effects and complications associated with lead poisoning.

To identify current mitigation policies that have been implemented by the government

while providing possible ones that could be implemented.

To assess all the impact lead poisoning has on Jamaica

1

Introduction

For several decades Jamaican children have been exposed to lead, mainly from mine

waste in the Kintyre region, lead recovery mainly located in the Red Pond area of Spanish Town

and scattered illegal backyard smelting operations mainly in Kingston, St Andrew and St

Catherine. There is also leaded gasoline wherever cars are operated and lead-containing

household paints which are sources of lead contamination. One of the greatest concerns

associated with lead contamination is the lag period; this refers to the time the lead takes to get

out of the environment. In any event, the potential damage of lead seems to increase with each

discovery made, so for the future, lead exposure for children should be kept to an absolute

minimum and those previously affected require continuing medical attention for a long time.

Although lead contamination and poisoning continues to be an issue of concern, much

progress has been made in restricting the amount of lead in the Jamaican environment: The

sources of poisoning in the Kintyre and other areas have been isolated, the lead recovery plant

closed, backyard smelting has been greatly reduced, lead in household paint discontinued.

Leaded gasoline was banned by the Government in 2000, and toy imports are checked for toxic

levels. But the continuing warnings provided by worldwide studies on lead toxicity should

maintain a sense of urgency in protecting our children. And it should be remembered that the

greatest risk of lead poisoning in Jamaica is now the improper disposal of lead-acid batteries

The impacts of lead poisoning can be categorized as follows: Environmental, Health, Toxic and

Psychological. These will be looked at in details.

2

Environmental Impact of Lead Poisoning

3

Lead

poisoning

is not new

to Jamaica.

This

hazardous

material

has

affected

hundreds

of children

in

4

Lead contamination within the environment does not only caused by leaded

gasoline. Other human activities, such as fuel combustion, industrial processes,

mining, and solid waste combustion also contribute to concentrations of lead within

the environment. Lead can end up in water and soils through corrosion of leaded

pipelines in a water transporting system and through corrosion of leaded paints. It

cannot be broken down; it can only be converted to other forms.

Lead accumulates in the bodies of water organisms and soil organisms. In the areas

of study, Red Pond in St. Catherine is the accumulation of lead in water and

Kintyre in St. Andrew the lead accumulation is in the soil. The contamination of

the atmosphere, the water and the soil will lead to environmental degradation.

Air: Lead particles are emitted from automobiles to the atmosphere as lead halides

(e.g., PbBrCl) and as the double salts with ammonium halides (e.g., 2PbBrCl

NH4Cl); lead particles are emitted from mines and smelters primarily in the form

of PbSO4, PbO.PbSO4, and PbS (EPA, 1986). In the atmosphere, lead exists

primarily in the form of PbSO4 and PbCO3 (EPA, 1986). How the chemical

composition of lead changes in dispersion is not clear.

Water: Lead has a tendency to form compounds of low solubility with the major

anions found in natural water. In the natural environment, the divalent form (Pb2+)

is the stable ionic species of lead. Hydroxide, carbonate, sulphide, and, more rarely,

sulphate may act as solubility controls in precipitating lead from water. A

significant fraction of lead carried by river water is expected to be in an

undissolved form. This can consist of colloidal particles or larger undissolved

particles of lead carbonate, lead oxide, lead hydroxide, or other lead compounds

incorporated in other components of surface particulate matter from runoff. This

will block the sunlight from penetrating the water bodies thus affecting the

ecosystem of the water. Not only that but the water may be used for domestic

purposes and thus pose a risk to health.

Soil: Paint is a major contributor to soil lead contamination. Remediation of

communities such as Kintyre, Mona Commons, Marverly in St Andrew, Red Pond in St

Catherine and other locations in Kingston and St Catherine where illegal smelting operations are

flourishing. These communities have been plagued by incidents of violence over many years.

The continuous accumulation of lead in an environment may be caused by varying factors.

However the cause may be lead deposition is a detrimental activity since it will lead to poisoning

and as a result, lead deposition should be prevented in every way possible.

In 2001, the Jamaican law stipulated that the manufacture of lead in materials such as

paint and gasoline was illegal. However During our research it was seen that the reported

incidents of lead poisoning were seen in the urbanized areas such as red pond community St

Catherine along with the others as was previously mentioned. The causes of lead deposition and

poisoning are different based on location. Places who practice activities that use lead is more

susceptible to lead problems than those areas such as Middle Quarters St Elizabeth where little

or no lead based activity takes place. Based on studies between 1984 and 2000, and even up until

2012, it has been seen where the most exposure to lead is seen in the battery repair shops.

The Red pond community in St Catherine is an area where proliferation of “backyard

battery repair shops” has been a main cause in the lead poisoning rate in the country. The lead-

contaminated top soil from the community and other areas of deposition at unknown sites

resulted in high levels of lead poisoning among residents, especially small children.. People at

risk for lead poisoning based on these reports are battery repair workers, workers in the metal

refining industry, and children and other residents living in close proximity to backyard battery

smelters.

5

Other sources in the past were lead based paint, leaded gasoline and old water pipes, but

these have all been phased out over time. Uncommon sources include food stored in lead-glazed

pottery, low-quality toys, metal trinkets, and crayons. Toddlers commonly put their hands in

their mouths, suck their thumbs, and explore their environment by tasting things and are at

greater risk for lead poisoning. Even though it is illegal lead-based paint is still on walls and

woodwork in many older homes and apartments. Most lead poisoning in children results from

eating lead-based paint chips. Lead pipes, brass plumbing fixtures and copper pipes soldered

with lead can release lead particles into tap water thus allowing the risk of having lead poisoning

increase.

Lead seldom occurs naturally in water supplies like rivers and lakes. Lead enters drinking

water primarily as a result of the lead deposition by corrosion, or wearing away, of materials

containing lead in the water distribution system and household or building plumbing. These

materials include lead-based solder used to join copper pipe, brass and chrome plated brass

faucets older construction may still have plumbing that has the potential to contribute lead to

drinking water. Lead particles that settle on the soil from leaded gasoline or paint can last for

years. Lead-contaminated soil is still a major problem around highways and in some urban

settings. Household dust can contain lead from lead paint chips or from contaminated soil

brought in from outside. Glazes found on some ceramics, china and porcelain can contain lead

that may leach into food. Kohl is a traditional cosmetic, often used as eyeliner. Testing of various

samples of kohl has revealed high levels of lead and the exposure to this lead based equipment is

a frequent experience among women of every age group.

6

Numerous previous studies have confirmed the extent of lead poisoning worldwide, the

neurotoxicity of lead; it’s lowering of IQ values, the increased risk of severe learning disabilities

and impulsive sometimes violent behaviour, and contributions to increased crime rates in

juveniles and adults. It was after all such work that demonstrated the dangers of chronic lead

exposures and convinced governments to restrict the use of this very important material

ironically the removal of lead from gasoline was first done because it poisoned the catalytic

converters needed to meet new emission controls. This earlier work provided a logical core for

Nevin's and Reyes' analyses of crime rates and lead poisoning.

The United States data show two lead-poisoning spikes: the earlier Nevin links to lead in

household paint which was outlawed in 1978, the later post-World War II, they both attribute to

the great increase in the use of leaded gasoline which was gradually phased out in the US during

the 1970s and '80s. These blood lead and crime incidence data rise and fall together and there is a

very strong association between preschool blood lead and subsequent crime rate trends over

several decades, not only for the US but also for Britain, France, Australia, Finland, Italy, West

Germany and New Zealand, where the decisions on lead removal came somewhat later and other

conditions might reasonably differ. The relationship is characterised by best fit lags (highest R2

and t-value for blood lead), consistent with neurobehavioral damage in the first year of life and

the peak of offending for index crime, burglary and violent crime. The impact of blood lead is

also evident in age-specific arrests and incarceration trends. Regression analysis of average

1985-1994 murder rates across US cities suggests that murder could be especially associated

with more severe cases of childhood lead poisoning."

7

These international data helps to confirm what Dr Needleman had concluded in studies

done in AMAICA. Dr. Needleman, a paediatrician, researcher and professor at the University of

Pittsburgh, conducted studies on the neurodevelopmental damage caused by lead poisoning. He

concluded that when environmental lead finds its way into the developing brain, it disturbs

mechanisms responsible for the regulation of impulse. This, according to Needleman, could

ultimately lead to anti-social and criminal behaviour, hence the correlation of high crime levels

in Kingston, Spanish Town and other parts of the cooperate areas where the highest level of BPb

were found.

Mitigations against Lead Toxicity in Jamaica

8

Due to its devastating nature as a presence in both the environmental and human population,

steps and measures have been put in place over the years to eradicate, reduce and educate about

the adverse effects lead toxicity poses. There are a myriad of means with which individuals

especially children can be poisoned. These means include:

lead added to gasoline

lead from an active industry, such as mining (especially in soils)

lead-based paints and pigments,

drinking-water systems with lead solder and lead pipes

lead released by incineration of lead-containing waste

lead in electronic waste (e-waste)

lead in the food chain, via contaminated soil

Lead contamination as a legacy of historical contamination from former industrial sites.

Jamaica’s greatest exposure to lead poisoning came through the smelting to lead batteries and

from lead ore mining. In 1963, recovery of lead from used batteries was established in Red Pond

district near Spanish Town. This business became very lucrative and as a result backyard

smelting by other Jamaicans was established. This practice continued into the 1980’s until the

increase in incidences of lead poisoning became highly noticeable. Other incidences during that

period include: lead poisoning of children at the Kintyre Basic School which sits on the land that

used to house a mill which crushed and concentrated lead ore, research done by American

scientists who prove that lead poisoning of pregnant mothers can have implications on criminal

activity of the child when he reaches adulthood and other problems.

These issues have led to the development of, and implementations of mitigations which

are responsible for the reduction, eradication and education of lead and its effects on the

9

environment and the populace. These mitigations have worked effectively for the period that

they were implemented. But as is always the case, as soon as a government demits power or an

activist leaves office, the work declines and comes to a halt. Mitigation for such a situation

involves clean-up and then preventative measures to prevent the event from occurring again. The

following are examples of mitigations that have been implemented over the years and the results

they have garnered:

I. Ministry of Education and Child Development Centre (1988)

In 1988, The Ministry of Health in collaboration with the Child Development

Centre did extensive research which defined and publicised the scale of the problems

involved in backyard smelting and its resultant effect on children and handlers of the

substance. Measures were taken to close the company, ban smelting, and made the

dangers quite potent and evident to not only the residents of Red Pond but to the wider

island. This mitigation was as effective as it could have been at the time but the major

loophole is that the act of smelting was not completely eradicated. Many illegal backyard

smelting areas continued and so the possibility of contamination still existed.

II. International Centre for Environmental and Nuclear Science with Environmental

Foundation of Jamaica.

The International Centre for Environmental and Nuclear Science in collaboration

with the Environmental Foundation of Jamaica produced three mitigation products over a

period of ten (10) years which dealt with eradication, monitoring and education of

individual in areas that were susceptible to lead poisoning.

10

a. Mitigation of Lead Hazard in the Hope Mine Area ( 1995- 1996)

This mitigation involved mapping the areas that were most contaminated and then

putting measures in place to reduce the movement of dust and soil from the area. This

would limit the amount of contamination to the Hope River and surrounding

communities.

b. Improvement of Community Health in the Hope River Valley through Lead

Abatement (2000-2002)

This mitigation concentrated on the health of the community and isolating the

remaining lead contamination in the area. This was done by testing the food, dust, air,

water, lead and other means of lead contamination. The community became very

involved and after being educated were more aware on measures to take to prevent

contamination

c. Childhood Screening for Lead Poisoning and Lead Mitigation in Jamaica

(2003- 2005).

This mitigation included the testing of the blood of children across

Jamaica in areas that are prone to lead poisoning. These areas included:

Kingston, Montego Bay, Mandeville, Port Antonio and Browns Town and

other rural areas. The plan was to look at the blood levels across Jamaica

and do a comparison. The highest blood levels were found in Kingston

and St. Andrew along with St. Catherine. The children that were tested

and found to have high lead blood levels were given treatment.

III. Ministry of Environment (2005)

11

The Ministry of Environment in 2005, created the National Used Lead Acid

Batteries Project where, batteries were collected from garages, gullies, new and

used car dealerships, communities, designated collection spots and along

roadways. These batteries were to be exported to Trinidad and Tobago for

recycling. This was in an effort to reduce the number of available batteries for

smelting and reduce the risk of lead poisoning.

These are some of the mitigations implemented by Jamaica. There are other mitigations that can

be of significant importance and even assistance in eradicating the incidences of lead toxicity in

Jamaica. These methods include:

A. Development of a sector in the Ministry of Public Health that deals specifically

with the education and monitoring of the health of individuals in areas prone to

lead contamination

B. Programmes where there is a collection and accountability for used batteries,

small owners can sell to larger qualified companies for agreed and reasonable

prices to prevent backyard smelting.

C. Vigorous and continuous education programmes, especially in areas where the

contamination is prevalent or impending.

D. A central agency can be put in place to monitor the activities of other areas

dealing with Lead poisoning education and eradication. This is to prevent a lapse

in the work if there is a change in heads of government or activists.

Much progress has been made in restricting the amount of lead in the Jamaican

environment: The sources of poisoning in the Kintyre and other areas have been isolated, the

12

lead recovery plant closed, backyard smelting has been greatly reduced, lead in household paint

discontinued. Leaded gasoline was banned by the Government in 2000, and toy imports are

checked for toxic levels. But the continuing warnings provided by worldwide studies on lead

toxicity should maintain a sense of urgency in protecting our children. And it should be

remembered that the greatest risk of lead poisoning in Jamaica is now the improper disposal of

lead-acid batteries

Conclusions and Recommendations

13

One of the most valuable aspects of the project was raising the awareness of the general

population about the incidence and risks of lead poisoning. ICENS also established useful

collaborations with the medical fraternity. Both outcomes helped to improve the discovery of

lead poisoned children and the care they receive.

Interventions, including the building of an awareness of the nature and risks of chronic lead

poisoning amongst health care providers and caregivers, helped to reduce the immediate and

future dangers of lead poisoning.  In the longer term the reduction of blood lead levels in

children nationally will require concerted action not only in education and regulation but also by

adopting aggressive prevention and case management including the development of a small

public health unit which has this responsibility.  The infrastructure and technical skills to do this

are available, and it is reasonable to expect that in the near future the blood lead levels of most

Jamaican children will meet international norms.

In summary, although there is an increased appreciation in Jamaica of the dangers, backyard lead

smelting is still being carried out. As such, there remain a substantial number of chronically lead

poisoned children who require suitable clinical and environmental interventions. The consequent

social and financial burdens, reduced intelligence and violent behaviour place demands on

society that are far from trivial and are quite unnecessary since lead poisoning is an entirely

preventable malady. This is becoming better understood and there are increased efforts to

manage lead pollution in the Jamaican environment.

Medical and environmental interventions produce significant reductions in blood lead levels but

such interventions, to be effective, do require longer term monitoring and support.

14

 

REFERENCES

15

1. US Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service Agency for Toxic

Substances and Disease Registry, Toxicological Profile for Lead, July 1999.

2. Lanphear BP, Dietrich KN, Berger O. Prevention of lead toxicity in US children.

AmbulPediatr 2003; 3: 27–36.

3. Nevin R. How lead exposure relates to temporal changes in IQ, violent crime and unwed

pregnancy. Environ Res 2000; A83: 1–22.

4. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Preventing lead poisoning in young

children: A Statement by the Centers for Disease Control 1991, US Department of Health and

Human Services.

5. Lowe H, Smith R, Campbell N, Morrison EY St A. Lead pollution and amelioration measures

in the community of Frazers Content, St Catherine, Jamaica. West Indian Med J 2002; � 51: 160–

3.

6. Lalor GC. A Geochemical Atlas of Jamaica. Canoe Press, University of the West Indies, 1995.

7. International Centre Environmental and Nuclear Sciences, work in progress.

8. Environmental Protection Agency, 40 CFR Part 745, Lead; Identification of Dangerous Levels

of Lead; Final Rule. 66: 2001; 66.

9. Lalor G, Rattray R, Vutchkov M, Campbell B, Lewis-Bell K. Blood lead levels in Jamaican

school children. The Sci Total Environ 2001; 269: 171–81

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10. Lalor GC, Vutchkov M. Heavy Metals in Jamaica Part 5: Reduction of blood lead levels in

children in a mine-waste contaminated area. Jamaican J Sci Tech 2000; 11: 23–35.

11. Lalor, G. “Lead poisoning linked to crime” Jamaica Gleaner Sunday, June 22, 2008. Web.

Accessed April 13, 2013 http://www.jamaica-gleaner.com/gleaner/20080622/lead/lead6.html

12. “Mitigating Lead Poisoning in Rural Communities.” International Centre for Environmental

and Nuclear Science. Web. Accessed April 13, 2013 http://www.icens.org/?q=node/94

13. “Childhood Lead Poisoning” World Health Organization Web. Accessed April 24, 2013

http://www.who.int/ceh/publications/leadguidance.pdf

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