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ISSN 2320-0286

Volume 6, Number 1, 2017

INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF INNOVATIVE HORTICULTURE

International Journal of Innovative Horticulture (IJIH) is a publication of Confederation of Horticulture

Associations of India (CHAI) publishing innovative research articles related to horticulture and allied branches.

The prime objective of IJIH is communication of mission oriented fundamental research to other researchers, professional horticulturists, practitioners, educators, students and various stakeholders and to promote and encourage the interaction and exchange of ideas among them.

CHAI, established in the year 2010, is commited to the furtherance of horticulture research, education and development, through bringing organizations and individuals to work together, to achieve its goal of technology led development for addressing the global and national concerns. Since, its inception, the Confederation has collaborated and supported in organization of national and international conferences. The Confederation has instituted various awards to recognize the services of individuals, which includes Lifetime Achievement Award for the contribution, which made difference and brought revolution and R.S. Paroda Award for Excellence. The distinguished members are also honoured with Honorary Fellowship, which is conferred for excellence in horticulture research and development. CHAI offers various categories of members including associations, corporates, NPOs and individual memberships.

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Editors : Dr. M.K. Rajesh Dr. Nazeer AhmedDr. Bir Pal Singh Dr. Neelima GargDr. Shailendra Rajan Dr. A. VergheseDr. S.K. Malhotra Dr. Sudha MysoreDr. Babita Singh Dr. A.K. SrivastavaDr. Prakash Patil Dr. S.K. ChakrabartiDr. Manoj Kumar Dr. Akela Vani

Advisory Committee : Dr. C.D. Mayee Dr. J. KarihallooDr. D.P. Ray Dr. Zora SinghDr. S.B. Dandin Dr. Victor Galán SaucoDr. P. Rethinam Dr. NicholasDr. P.N. Mathur Dr. Thomas L. DavenportDr. Emile Frison Dr. N.K. Krishna Kumar

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INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF INNOVATIVE HORTICULTUREVolume 1, Number 6, 2017

REVIEW ARTICLES

Horticultural biodiversity in Saurashtra region1 D.K. Varu, R.S. Chovatia and A.V. Barad

Status of arecanut production systems in India 7 S. Sujatha, Ravi Bhat and P. Chowdappa

Role of microbial bio-products in sustainable 25 agricultureP.N. Chaudhari

ORIGINAL ARTICLES

Yogi- a promising variety of guava 48D.K. Varu and R.S. Chovatia

Benefits of price forecast to cumin growers 52in GujaratV.D. Tarpara, M.G. Dhandhalya, Haresh Chavda and P.B. Marviya

Effect of multi-micronutrients fertilizers on 57yield and micronutrients uptake by okra(Abelmoschus esculentus L.) grown onmedium black calcareous soils ofSaurashtra region of GujaratK.B. Polara, H.P. Ponkia, H.L. Sakarvadia,L.C. Vekaria and N.B. Babariya

Enhancing productivity of summer gum 62guar (Cyamopsis tetragonoloba) throughirrigation and fertilization on sandy loamsoils of GujaratH.M. Bhuva, P.D. Kumawat, A.C. Mehtaand M.D. Khanpara

Geographical indication (GI) of Kesar 69Mango: A pride of Saurashtra regionD.K. Varu, A.V. Barad and I.U. Dhruj

A modified pollination method for hybrid 75production in coconut (Cocos nucifera L.)K. Samsudeen, P. Deepa, A. Nirmala andK.P. Chandran

Immature embryo culture in wild Areca spp. 79 K.S. Muralikrishna, M.K. Rajesh, K.K. Sajini, N.R. Nagaraja, K.S. Ananda and Anitha Karun

Growth analysis of in situ raised mango 84plants under rain fed condition inAlfisols of eastern IndiaVishal Nath, H.S. Singh, Kundan Kishore andDeepa Samant

VARIETAL RELEASE

A new short duration turmeric variety, IISR 89PRAGATI – a boon to Indian farmersD. Prasath, Santhosh J. Eapen, B. Sasikumar,H. J. Akshitha, N.K. Leela, R. Chitra,B. Mahender, C. Chandrasekhara Rao,S.L. Swargaonkar and K. Nirmal Babu

Book Review 93

New Books Received 94

International Journal of Innovative Horticulture. 6(1):1-6, 2017 Review Article

Horticultural biodiversity in Saurashtra region

D.K. Varu*, R.S. Chovatia and A.V. BaradDepartment of Horticulture, Junagadh Agril. University, Junagadh, Gujarat

ABSTRACT

Horticulture in its broad sense comprise many diversified crops like fruits, vegetables, flowers, ornamental plants, spices, medicinal, aromatic and plantation crops. It has become a key driver of economic development in many states of India. Nutritional and food security is the current and burning issue of the nation. Horticulture is the best alternate for nutritional security. The awareness and demand of horticultural produces are increasing. Saurashtra is the historical and cultural region of Gujarat state. It has diverse soils, climates, geographical regions including long coastal belts with red lateritic soils; hence the region possesses rich horticultural diversity for various crops. There is immediate need for collection, conservation, documentation and utilization of genetic resources of various horticultural crops for production and popularization. Mango is the leading fruit crop of region possesses wide genetic diversity with indigenous varieties like Kesar, Rajapuri, Jamadar, Dudhpendo, Khodi and many others. Custard apple is another important fruit crop of Saurashtra with large germplasms and varieties and the crop is gaining importance due to its hardy nature and less cost of production. Jamun is used as an effective medicine against diabetes, heart and liver ailments. Because of its high value in terms of therapeutics and nutrition, its consumption rate is gradually increasing; however, not a single variety has been released for this region. Few accessions have been identified for further study. In guava, Dholaka, Reshamdi and Bhavanagr Lal are the important commercial indigenous cultivars reflecting the genetic diversity. Karonda and lasora are also very hardy plant, grown mostly in waste lands as well as boarder planting. Lasora can be used as a shelter belts or wind breaks to overcome negative effect of climate change. The long coastal belt of region is suitable for coconut plantations having popular D x T hybrids as well as many indigenous varieties. In case of flower crops, rose, chrysanthemum, jasmine, gaillardia, marigold, goldenrod, etc., are under cultivation, but very few varieties or genotypes have been identified. However, varieties of gerbera have been endorsed for protected cultivation. Similarly huge genetic diversity in different vegetable crops have been identified and used for crop improvement programme. Some indigenous genetic stocks like Gholar and Reshm patto chili; Pili patti and Mahuva safed onion; Greengota, Junagadh Bhatta, Ghed Bhadatha brinjal etc. which are used for the commercial cultivation, have became more favourable with traders, processors and consumers.

Keywords: Horticulture, crops, biodiversity, Saurashtra.

INTRODUCTIONHorticulture, in its broad sense, encompasses many diversified crops like fruits, vegetables, flowers, ornamental plants, spices, medicinal, aromatic and plantation crops. It has become a key driver of economic development in many states of our country. About 23.24 million hectares of land area is under horticultural crops in India, however, fruits crops alone occupy about 6.70 million ha land leading to annual fruits production of 76.42 million tonnes. The area

and production of vegetables in the country is at 8.49 million ha and 146.55 million tonnes, respectively.

The productivity levels of fruits and vegetables in India is at 11.7 million tonnes ha-1, which is higher than that of China (10.70 million tonnes ha-1), which is the world’s largest producer of fruits and vegetables. Nutritional and food security is an important issue that needs to be addressed in our nation. Improved and increased horticulture production is considered as one of the best

*Corresponding author: [email protected]

2 D.K. Varu, R.S. Chovatia and A.V. Barad

ways available with us to enhance for nutritional security. Similarly, awareness and demand of horticultural produces are increasing in India. In Gujarat, the area under horticultural crops has shown a steep increase. The total estimated area under horticultural crops had increased from 2.54 to 14.04 lakh ha during the year 1987-88 to 2010-11. The productivity in each division of horticulture has also notably increased during last seven years.

Saurashtra is a geographical region of the Indian state of Gujarat. The peninsula of Saurashtra forms a rocky table land (altitude 300-600 meters) surrounded by coastal plains. The central part of Saurashtra peninsula is made up of an undulating plains broken by hills and considerably dissected by various rivers that flow in all directions. The eastern fringe of Saurashtra is a low-lying ground marking the site of the former sea connection between the Gulfs of Kutch and Khambhat. Many unfavorable factors such as problem soils, water scarcity and natural calamities harm the farmers of Saurashtra region. However, agriculture and horticulture are also developing at a very rapid rate in this region. During the last decade, popularity of the different horticultural crops has increased not only with the farmers, but also with consumers.

At present, total area under and production of horticultural crops in Saurashtra region is 5.29 lakh ha and 48.05 lakh tonnes, respectively. During the last seven years, 24.76% area under agricultural crops has been occupied by the horticultural crops. Similarly, the production also has increased from 34.64 to 48.05 lakh tonnes. The productivity has witnessed changes: during 2005, productivity was 8.16 million tonnes ha-1, which increased up to 9.50 million tonnes ha-1 during 2007, but then recorded lowest 6.91 MT/ ha in during 2008 and again it increased up to 9.08 MT/ha during the year 2011. It may be due to adverse climatic condition during the year 2008.

GENETIC DIVERSITYGenetic diversity, the level of biodiversity, refers to the total number of genetic characteristics of a species. It is distinguished from genetic variability, which describes the tendency of genetic characteristics to vary. It can be also described as plant genetic resources of cultivated species and their wild relatives Ford-Lloyd (2001). Saurashtra is rich in diversified soils and climate including long coastal belts with red lateritic soils suitable for many horticultural crops. Hence, it is in rich diversity of different horticultural crops. The region is considered as a home of many land races or accessions of various crops.

Genetic resource managementGenetic resource management is the exploration, collection, domestication, conservation and documentation of

genotypes of various crops. Plant genetic resources (PGR) are basic requirements in crop improvement programme and their importance has increased in recent years. It represents the inter- and intra-specific reservoir of potentially and usefulgenetic materials. Landraces or farmers’ varieties constitute the basic material for developing anynew improved variety or hybrids. Landraces are the varieties nurtured and cultivated by the farmers through traditional method of selectionover the decades. The Biodiversity Act (2002) describes “landrace” asprimitive cultivar that was grown by ancientfarmers and their successors. A brief account of germplasm resources of horticultural crops and their wild types available in this region is discussed here.

Fruit cropsThe area and production of fruits are increasing at a faster rate in Saurashtra. Many farmers have adopted fruit cultivation by converting their land under orchards. Presently, 0.90 lakh hector area and 11.73 lakh million tonnes productions are recorded. The productivity is also increased from 9.56 million tonnes ha-1 (2005) to 12.94 million tonnes ha-1 (2011) during the period, reflecting high potentiality for Saurashtra region. The increased area under fruit crops is due to acclimatizing as well as higher adoption of recommended production technologies. Saurashtra region has rich diversity in different fruit crops. Many land races or indigenous varieties are grown in different fruit crops like mango, custard apple, ber, pomegranate, guava, coconut, date palm, black jamun, etc.

Mango (Mangifera indica L.), the fruit of pride of India, is one of the choicest fruit crops of tropical and sub-tropicalregions of the world, especially Asia. Its place of importance can be understood from its being referred to as ‘King of fruits’ in the tropical world (Singh, 1996). Because of its nutritive value, delicious taste, excellent flavor, attractive fragrance and health promising qualities, the mango has gained global popularity in the last two decades. Mango has been under cultivationsince 4,000 years in the Indian subcontinent. Endowed with rich diversity the India is considered to be the center oforigin (Ravishankar et al., 2000). As of now, more than 1,000 mango cultivars are known to exist in the country (Karihaloo et al., 2003).

Mango is the leading fruit crop of Gujarat and Saurashtra region, occupying nearly 35,551 ha of land. It is the most important fruit crop covering about 6.71% and 39.44% area of total horticultural crops and fruit crops of Saurashtra, respectively. Major mango growing pockets are Talala (Gir), Vanthali of Junagadh, Dhari (Amreli) and Mahauva (Bhavanagar). Junagadh district is leading home of mango cultivation with an area of 20529 hectare and 1.56 lakh tones production followed by Amreli.

Horticultural biodiversity in Saurashtra region 3

Only a single species of mango (Mangifera indica) is under cultivation. There is wide genetic diversity with nearly 60 genotypes or indigenous varieties which exists in this region. The germplasm, largely confined to the districts of Junagadh, Amreli, Porbandar, Bhavnagar, etc., may be broadly grouped into table, juicy and pickle types. They are characterized on the basis of a set of agro-botanic traits. However, there are only few indigenous genetic resource/ varieties which possess commercial value. The landraces which are exist in region are Jamadar, Kesar Dudhpendo, Khodi, Dadamiyo, Fajali, Giriraj,Rajapuri, Ashadhiyo, Barada deshi, Karangio and Kavaji Patel. Among these, Kesar is the most important commercial variety which is emerging as one of the leading variety of Gujarat. It is a selection from Sale Bhaini Amadi, an indigenous variety. Kesar is the only variety which is grown under systematic orchards in Saurashtra region. Junagadh is considered as the center of origin of Kesar variety. Kesar has pleasant characteristics which include saffron colored pulp with sweet and saffron taste, fibre less pulp, small and flat stone, yellow coloured fruit, 150-200 g fruit weight, etc. Comparatively, it is also a high yielding variety. During year 2011, Gujarat state has registered for Geographical Indication of Kesar mango as “Gir Kesar”with technical support of Junagadh Agricultural University.

Twenty mango cultivars collected from Gir region of Saurashtra were examined by ISSR markers. According to the banding patterns obtained with 21 selected primers, all cultivars tested in this study except Jamadar and Kesar were distinguished from each other and showed ample genetic diversity. Based on 125 selected bands, all Gir mango landraces tested were clustered into a three big groups with Kaju and Khodi in first group; Dudh Pendo, Sopari, Jamadar, Kesar and Ashadhiya in second group; while the third cluster was composed of Agargato, Amir Pasand, Pethal, Gajariyo, Chhappaniyo, Alphonso, Neelum, Jamrukhiyo, Kavasji Patel, Giriraj, Amrutiyo, Dasheri and Deshi based on UPGMA analysis, indicating that some Gir landraces had a close relationship with each other, while some were dissimilar from other landraces (Tomar et al., 2011).

There is narrow genetic diversity observed in citrus group. Acid lime (Citrus aurantifolia) is the second largest fruit crop of Saurashtra, which occupied 10,300 ha land under cultivation during the year 2011. It is only one of the leading species commercially cultivated with Kagdi lime cultivar in region. Bhavanagar and Surendranagar are the major districts for area, production and productivity. However, few farmers have started cultivation of Citrus sinensis cultivar, known as Pavali Chhap Mosambi, in scattered orchards. Some indigenous species like Citrus medica, Citrus lemon, Citrus grandis etc. are grown as limited numbers of tree on corner of orchards.

Guava is another important fruit crop, grown mostly in Bhavanagar and Amreli districts. The crop is hardy in nature and is highly suitable for arid and semi arid zones of Saurashtra. Dholaka is the important indigenous cultivar grown in Dholaka and Bhavanagar region. The variety is high bearing, has big sized fruits with yellow coloured skin with white pulp and is sweet in taste. Reshmadi is another important indigenous variety grown in Bhavanagar district, having medium sized fruits, long neck with fine and thin skin. The pulp is light pink, flavoured and less seeded. Red color is becoming more popular in world fruit market. Red pulp colored indigenous variety of guava is also available in Saurashtra region and is known as Bhavanagar Lal and is only grown in Bhavanagar region. The pulp color is red, flavoured and sweet in taste. The variety is more popular and attractive and secures premium price in market. It is also suitable for processing of jam, jelly, etc. due to its retained red color. Other known varieties of our country like L-49 (Sardar) and Alahabad Safeda are preferred varieties of this region. Recently, Red Apple and One Kg are also becoming popular among the guava growers for their novelty.

Custard apple is a fruit crop with higher commercial value. The Annonaceous fruits are the members of the family Annonaceae and genus Annona. There are over 120 species of Annona and several of these bear edible fruits, however, only six species have commercial significance. Among them, A. squamosa, known locally as sitaphal, is commercially grown and gaining popularity in Saurashtra region. Other species like A. reticulate, A. cherimola, A. atemoya, A. muricata, A. diversifolia, A. scleroderma etc. have been marginalized as fruit-trees. Sindhan is the indigenous variety commercially cultivated in Saurashtra region with good characteristics like big size fruit, attractive green color, sweet and pleasant taste, creamy white colored pulp etc. However, because of efforts made by the scientists of Junagadh Agricultural University, 30 genotypes were coolected from Saurshtra region of Sindhan. The germplasm was conserved and evaluated at the university farm. After five year of evaluation, the Junagadh Agricultural University has released a new variety in custard apple named Gujarat Junagadh Custard Apple-1. It was developed as clonal selection from Sindhan during 2009. It has higher plant height and plant spread as compared to local variety. The medium-sized fruit is oblong and green coloured. The pulp is in higher quantity with white, agreeable flavor and sweet in taste. The pulp contains 16.55% sugar and TSS of 23.49oB. Besides, it possess less number of seeds and higher pulp-seed and pulp-skin ratio as compared to Sindhan with more number of fruits per plant. The average yield of variety is higher than the Sindhan.


Black jamun is also important minor fruit crops grown in Saurashtra region. It belongs to family Myrtaceae and constitutes an important but unexploited indigenous fruit crop of India. Syzyguim cuminii Skeels or Syzyguim jambolana or Eugenia jambolana are the synonymous species grown in region. Other important species of Syzygium viz., S. javanicum (water apple), S. jambos (rose apple), S. samarangenes, S. malaccense and S. uniflora (Surinam cherry) are not grown extensively, but limited only for boarder planting. Black jamun is known as ravana, ravno, khiliyo, senjalia, zambudio, zambudi, katio or paras in local language in Saurashtra region. There is no known or popular cultivar, but local types are grown in region. Efforts have been made by Department of Horticulture, Junagadh Agricultural University, Junagadh to evaluate 20 accessions of region. This study identified significant variations for fruit and quality parameters. Among the accessions evaluated, maximum fruit length, girth, fruit weight and pulp weight were recorded in accession VR-1. The size of fruit was reflected as genetic diversity in different accessions. Similarly, lowest seed weight was recorded in accession BS -1 (Girnar forest). For quality parameters, lowest acidity was recorded in accession JAU-2, whereas, ascorbic acid was registered highest in VB-1. Likewise, highest reducing sugar and total sugar were recorded in accession VMA-1, whereas, TSS in BS-1. Large variation in shape of fruit was also observed.

Significant genetic diversity has been recorded in ber. Some landraces have been observed with variability in many morphological traits. Varieties like Gola, Ajmeri, Umran, Mehrun, Jogia, etc. are grown commercially. The dry ber, known as Chauhara, has great importance. Uncultivated or wild type ber known as Chani bor, naturally grown in waste lands or farm borders in Saurashtra region, have also been observed with wide variation. The plant is shrub type with very small sized red colored fruit. The fruit is with thinned skin and sweet acidic taste.

Coconut is only one of the leading plantation crops grown in coastal belt of Saurashtra region. Junagadh is the leading district for area, production and productivity followed by Bhavanagar. Recently, Department of Horticulture, Junagadh Agricultural University has surveyed the coconut orchards of the state. The cultivars like West Coast Tall (WCT), Bona, Dwarf (Gudajali/Lotan), NCD (Vanfer) and hybrids like D x T & T x D are grown commercially. Among these, majority of coconut growers of the region are adopting the cultivar West Coast Tall and Dwarf (Lotan). Fruit Research Station, Junagadh Agricultural University, Mahuva has released two hybrids viz., D x T and T x D which are high yielders with good quality tender water.The yield potentialityof hybrids is better than WCT and local

varieties. The hybrid D x T is short stature, early bearing with short bearing life as compared to hybrid T x D. However, the availability of planting material is the major issue for the adoption of any of hybrids in coconut.

Vegetable cropsNearly 20 vegetables are grown commercially in Saurashtra region, among them onion, garlic, okra, tomato, brinjal, chili, cucurbits and pulses are the major ones. Many indigenous vegetables, both cultivated and uncultivated, have tremendous role in ensuring nutritional and food security as well as economy. These indigenous vegetables, which have a wide genetic diversity, is useful for crop improvement programmes. The crops that show rich diversity include cowpea (Vigna unguiculata), okra (Abelmoschus esculentus), brinjal (Solanum melongena), chilli (Capsicum anum), cucurbits, onion (Allium cepa) and garlic (Allium sativum).The Alliums, including onion and garlic, are prized vegetables due to its food and medicinal value (Ram et al., 2007). Onion and garlic are leading vegetables grown particularly in Bhavanagar and Jamanagar districts. In onion, variation is usually observed in plant type, bulb size, bulb shape, bulb color and pungency. Junagadh local, known as Pili patti, is good variety grown in Upleta and Bhayavadar areas of Rajkot district. The bulb color is yellowish orange with sweet taste. It is highly demanded for salad and culinary purpose. Talaja Red is another important variety grown in Talaja of Bhavanagar district. The variety has red or pink colored bulb with big sized and pungent in taste. Dehydration of onion is a notable processing industry around Mahuva area of Bhavnagar district which requires white onion. The Talaja Safed or Mahuva Safed is the indigenous cultivars of onion more popular with distinct characteristics. It has strong creamy white colored bulb, bulb size is medium to big and is pungent in taste. The variety is highly suitable for onion processing industry for the preparation of onion powder, cubes, flakes, etc. Other improved varieties grown in region are Agri Found Light Red, Pusa White Flate-131, Nasik-53, etc. Researchers at the Vegetable Research Station, Junagadh have collected and conserved nearly 200 germplasm of red onion and 45 of white onion. The germplasm lines are grown every year for evaluation and selection under genetic resource management. The centre has released variety Gujarat White Onion-1(GWO-1), which is big sized with white colored bulbs and has TSS of 15% making it suitable for processing industries.

Garlic is also important vegetable/spice crop of Saurashtra. Narrow genetic diversity is observed in this crop; however, some landraces have been observed with variability in different traits. A local variety with big sized bulb, known

Horticultural biodiversity in Saurashtra region 5

as Ladava, is grown in Kalawad of Jamnagar district. Malepund is another local variety cultivated in Visavadar area of Junagadh district. Scientists of Vegetable Research Station, Junagadh have collected and maintained nearly 200 germplasm and released three varieties viz., Gujarat Garlic-2 (GG-2), Gujarat Garlic-3 (GG-3) and Gujarat Garlic-4 (GG-4).

A large number of diversified cultivated landraces or traditional cultivars of brinjal or eggplant (Solanum melongena) are grown in region. There is significant variation in morphological characters of plant, flowering and fruiting, size-shape and color of fruit, etc. Some of the popular cultivated brinjal germplasm are Green Gota (Keshod), Ghed Bhadatha (Ghed), Kodinar Local (Kodinar) and Raval Deshi (Jam Raval, Jamnagar). Also, Black Long (Jam Khambhalia), Junagadhravaiya, Junagadh Bhatta etc. are cultivated in different region of Saurashtra. Vegetable Research station, Junagadh has released different varieties like Junagadh Long, Junagadh Oblong, JBGR-1, GJB-2 and GJB-3. Furthermore, 212 germplasm lines have been collected, conserved and maintained for further crop improvement programmes.

A large number of chilli cultivars (Capsicum annum) are available in Saurashtra region. Immense variations are usually seen with respect to plant type, fruit size/shape (long, short, pointed, smooth, wrinkled), bearing habit, color and pungency. Resham patto is the important indigenous cultivar from Gondal area of Rajkot district. Fruits are long and flat and harvested only when they become red. It is used for dry powder making. Gholar is also another important and popular landrace of Gondal of Rajkot district. Normally it is also used for dry powder purpose. However, the whole green fruit is used in Bhajiya, the popular snack of Saurashtra. Other indigenous landraces known as Bhugol and Jiniya are also popular in dry powder trade grown around Jam Kalyanpur taluka (coastal belts), which have long fruits and high pungency. Vadhavani and Chuda Marchu are the indigenous cultivars grown in Vadhavan and Chuda of Surendra Nagar which are less pungent.

Okra (Abelmoschus esculentus) is an important vegetable crops of this region. Broad genetic variability is also observed in okra with landraces grown in different region of Saurashtra. The introduced varieties like Parbahni Kranti and Pusa Savani as well as the varieties released by Gujarat Agricultural University like G.O.-1, G.O.-2 are grown. Okra germplasm have been collected and maintained in Junagadh Agricultural University and varieties such as G.O.H.-2, G.J.O.-3 and G.J.O.H. -3 have been released, which are high yielding and possess resistant against diseases and pests.

Tomato is yet another important solanaceous vegetable in Saurashtra region (Lycopersicum esculentum). The crop is more remunerative and popular among the farming

community. Some indigenous cultivars are grown and are popular in Kuvadava area of Rajkot district. The fruits have ridges on skin, are small, skin color is greenish yellow at the time of harvest and pulp has more ascorbic acid with sour taste. Under genetic resource management, the varieties like Junagadh Ruby, Gujrat Toamto-1 (GT-1) and Junagadh Tomato-3 have been released by Junagadh Agricultural University. The variety Gujrat Toamto-1 (GT-1) is suitable for green house cultivation as it is indeterminant type.

Spice cropsThe most commercially important horticultural crops grown in Saurashtra region are spices. The area, production and productivity of spice crops have increased to 37.5%, 109.09% & 53.17%, respectively. The acreage is increasing very fast in Surendranagar, Jamnagar and Junagadh districts. The crops like cumin, coriander, fenugreek, ajwan, isabgol etc. are grown in region. The varieties like Gujarat Coriander-1, 3 and 4 and Gujarat Cumin-1 and 2 have been recommended. Efforts have been also made to develop the genetic diversity in different spice crops. Germplasm comprising of 70-80 accessions of various spice crops including coriander, fenugreek, cumin and fennel have been collected and maintained in Junagadh Agricultural University.

Flower cropsThe area under flower crop is very less in Saurashtra region. However, area and production have increased from 459 ha to 1471 ha and 2479 tons to 10,051 tonnes, respectively during the years 2005 to 2011. Bhavanagar and Rajkot are the leading districts for the cultivation of different flower crops. The flower crops like, marigold, lily (spider), gaillardia, goldenrod, chrysanthemum, tuberose, rose, etc. are the major flower crops grown in the region. No systematic crop improvement programmes have been initiated in the region with regard to flower crops. However, Department of Horticulture, Junagadh have endorsed IIHR-6 variety of Chrysanthemum. Similarly, three varieties of gerbera viz., Dana Allen, Pink Elegance and Sawanha have been endorsed for the protected cultivation.

CONCLUSIONGenetic diversity of crops is the future of horticulture. Landraces or indigenous cultivars which are popular, nutritionally important with invaluable biochemical characters should be identified. They should be collected, conserved and evaluated under genetic resource management programmes. The management of genetic diversified traits will definitely lead to the development of high yielding, qualitative superior and biotic and abiotic resistant variety.


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Status of arecanut production systems in India

S. Sujatha1*, Ravi Bhat and P. ChowdappaICAR-Central Plantation Crops Research Institute, Kasaragod-671 124, Kerala, India1ICAR-Indian Institute of Horticultural Research, Bengaluru-560 089, Karnataka, India

ABSTRACT

Arecanut (Areca catechu L.), which belongs to family Palmae, is a commercially and socially important non-food crop in south-east Asia. Sustainability issues are increasingly noticed in recent times in perennial crops as well due to climatic change, stagnant productivity trend and ecological imbalance. The sustainability issues are likely to increase in arecanut both in traditional and non-traditional areas due to impending problems like soil-plant nutrient imbalances, proliferation of pests and diseases, farmer’s preference for monocropping, cultivation in contiguous areas and poor adaptability. Cropping/ farming systems approach is the prime requirement for development of sustainable arecanut production systems. There are reports of imbalanced and excess soil fertility status in arecanut growing regions resulting from wide spread adoption of organic farming practices, depletion of soil K, poor soil aeration and blanket recommendations. Need based input use is most important for sustaining the production and reducing the cost of production. Besides, integrated approaches are required for soil and plant health management in arecanut production system. The economic sustainability of arecanut can be ensured in future by adopting suitable adaptation strategies like cropping systems, drip-fertigation and organic matter recycling and by taking up various value addition options as microenterprises.

Keywords: Arecanut, cropping system, productivity, sustainability.

INTRODUCTIONArecanut (Areca catechu L.), which belongs to family Palmae, is a commercially and socially important non-food crop in South -east Asia. It is popularly known as betel nut. Dry kernel is the main economic product, but all parts of the palm can be utilized efficiently through recycling and value addition (Sujatha et al., 2015). The pharmacological properties of nuts due to presence of alkaloids are widely reported (Amudhan et al., 2012; Rashid et al., 2015). It is essentially a crop of small and marginal land holders and the arecanut industry forms the economic backbone of nearly 30 million people in India and for many of them it is the sole means of livelihood. The dry kernel of arecanut forms a popular masticatory in India and West Asia and is chewed either alone or more commonly with betel leaf (Piper betle) and a dab of slaked lime. The nuts are used in many social and religious functions in India. It is estimated that one tenth of the world population has the habit of betel chewing. Despite favourable market prices during the last

decade, increased cost of production has generated livelihood concerns for arecanut farmers.Arecanut grows to a height of 10-15 m and the trunk formation starts by third year. The crown of the palm consists of 8-11 leaves and the longevity of each leaf is two years. The average leaf area of the palm is estimated at25 m2 and net photosynthesis ranges between 2.4-8.2 µmol CO2 m-2 s-1 (Balasimha, 2004). Flowering initiates by 4th year and yield stabilizes by 8th year. During post monsoon period of December to March, maximum numbers of inflorescence are produced. Reproductive stage from flowering to maturity of kernel takes about 9-10 months. The root system in arecanut is shallow and fibrous with more than 70% of the roots occurring within the vicinity of 60 cm from the base of palm (Bhat and Sujatha, 2008). The root biomass production is quantified at 3.94 kg per palm in a 8-yr old palm (Bhat et al., 2007a). Majority of the fine/feeder roots of arecanut are concentrated within 30 cm depth and 60 cm distance from the trunk in drip irrigated palms.


8 S. Sujatha, Ravi Bhat and P. Chowdappa

Arecanut can be grown up to an altitude of 1000 m above sea level, but the quality of the fruits deteriorates at higher altitudes. In India, it is grown within a wide range of temperatures, ranging from a minimum of 4oC in places like Mohitnagar in West Bengal to a maximum of about 40oC in coastal Karnataka and Kerala. However, the palm flourishes well within a temperature range of 14oC to 36oC. Extremes of temperatures and wide diurnal variations are not conducive for the growth of the palms. The palms are highly susceptible to sun scorching during October-January and need to be protected from direct exposure to sun by covering the palms with arecanut/coconut leaves or by raising shade crops like banana or by planting quick growing shade trees on South-west side of the plantation. Arecanut flourishes well in tracts of very heavy rainfall where annual rainfall goes above 4500 mm as well as in the low rainfall areas where the annual rainfall is about 750 mm. Due to the huge preference for this crop by the farmers, the area of arecanut is rapidly expanding by way of conversion of paddy fallows, slopy areas and forest lands that might put pressure on both crop and natural resources. Hence, it is important that new plantations are managed in a sustainable way to reduce the impact of production constraints.

An effort is made here to review the present status of perennial arecanut production systems and future strategies in view of the impending sustainability concerns based on the results of several long term trials. Such assessment is needed to adequately address the issue of sustainable management of arecanut as there are several instances of inappropriate interventions pursued by growers.

LONG TERM AREA AND PRODUCTION TRENDS IN THE WORLD AND INDIADespite few reports of health risks due to consumption of arecanut, the global arecanut area increased from 0.3 million ha in 1960-61, 0.6 million ha in 2000-01, 0.7 million ha in 2005-06 and 0.9 m ha in 2013-14. During 1970-2014, the global cultivated area under arecanut has more than tripled. The present production of arecanut in the world is about 1.22 million tonnes from an area of 0.91 million hectares. Production trend showed sharp increase from 0.214 m t in 1960-61 to 0.71 m t in 2000-01 and 0.85 m t in 2005-06. The productivity (kg ha -1) is higher in countries like China (2885), Sri Lanka (2056) and Myanmar (1583) than in India (1268). Globally, arecanut is cultivated in East Africa, the Pacific Islands and South Asia and the major arecanut growing countries are India, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, Malaysia, Indonesia and China. The annual arecanut crop is valued at around $ 300 million worldwide and Rs. 3000 crores in India.The world’s largest producer as well as consumer of arecanut is India. In India, it is cultivated in 0.45 m ha with a production of 0.73 m tonnes in humid tropics and plains of South India, North -eastern region, and Andaman & Nicobar Islands (GOI, 2015). The cultivation of arecanut is localized in Southern and North-eastern states of India, but it is widely utilized across the country. National statistics clearly indicate that area and production of arecanut exhibited an upward trend over time explaining 98 and 95% variability during 1956-2015, but the productivity showed 75% variability with stagnant trend during the last two decades (Fig. 1). The cultivated area of arecanut is

Fig. 1: Trends in growing area, production and productivity of arecanut

Status of arecanut production systems in India 9

increasing at an alarming rate in the recent past due to lucrative price and huge regional preferences of farmers. Area expansion of arecanut is taking place in non-traditional tracts such as cleared forest lands, paddy fallows, sugarcane belt and canal irrigated areas in clay soil tract.

India became self-sufficient in its arecanut requirements in the mid 1970’s itself. Since then, the area expansion of arecanut is discouraged as per government of India policy. Nevertheless, the area increased by 70% during the last two decades and the production increase was mainly due to area expansion. In India, the South and North-eastern states like Karnataka, Kerala, Assam and West Bengal are the major producers accounting for more than 70% of the area and production (Figure 2). The largest producer within India is the state of Karnataka, which contributes to 47% of India’s annual output of arecanut. The productivity of arecanut (kg ha-1) fluctuated from 400 in 1956 to 857 in 1970, 1379 in 2002 and 1195 in 2012 and 1600 in 2015. The yields reported in national statistics of India range between 1.1 and 1.4 t ha–1 yr–1, which is considerably lower than attainable yields of 3.0 to 3.5 t ha–1 yr–1 with advanced technologies. With respect to export potential, a small quantity of arecanut is exported mainly to meet the demand of the Indian settlers abroad in its processed form or other value added products. Major destinations of arecanut export are Vietnam, Indonesia, Malaysia, UAE, Maldives, UK, Singapore etc. From 1999 onwards, import of arecanut to India registered a significant increase due to change in global scenario in the context of trade liberalization. In view of self-sufficiency in production and lack of export potential, more attention is required for stepping up the productivity per unit area rather than increasing the area.

PRODUCTION CONSTRAINTSAgricultural plantations have a number of socio-economic as well as ecological advantages and disadvantages. Generally, farmers manage arecanut plantations as per their preferences despite availability of standardized package for traditional arecanut growing areas of laterite soil belt. Arecanut is grown in contiguous areas in traditional belt and rapidly expanding in non- traditional areas and the problems are also increasing due to climate change scenario and several production constraints. Drought results in yield loss of 15-75% (Jose et al., 2004), while fruit rot inflicts a yield loss up to 90% (Jose et al., 2008). Rapid development of technology for solving problems is not possible due to the perennial nature of the palm. Thus, it becomes important to understand the production constraints in arecanut cultivation and to develop suitable strategies for sustainable productivity of soil and crop. This perennial palm continuously encounters several constraints and significant changes are noticed in the production and profitability of arecanut during last two decades due to recurring problems like erratic rainfall, pests, diseases and price fluctuations.

Climatic and soil constraintsThe parameters like heavy rainfall, high relative humidity and low temperatures are the major climatic constraints in arecanut growing regions. Heavy rainfall leads to leaching of potassium and calcium and high relative humidity is congenial for proliferation of pests and diseases. Low temperatures at high altitude areas lead to softness of kernel and low nut recovery. Untimely rains and heavy rainfall events are commonly noticed in all arecanut growing regions. The resource use efficiency reduces considerably

Trends in area Trends in production Fig. 2: Trends in major arecanut

growing states of India


due to water stagnation, run off, soil erosion and leaching of nutrients due to heavy rainfall events in laterite soil belt of humid regions especially in areas with undulating topography.Arecanut is predominantly grown in acidic laterite soils in humid tropics of India and to some extent in clay and alluvial soils. Inherent constraints in laterite soil belt are undulating topography, high rainfall, low CEC (3 -15 c mole kg-1), poor water and nutrient retention capacity, presence of kaolinite clay mineral, leaching of K+ and Ca2+, P fixation and high zinc fixing capacity. In general, laterite soils dominated by sesquioxides and kaolinite minerals contain less available and exchangeable K (Martin and Sparks, 1985). Deficiency of N and K is reported in laterite soils of arecanut growing region (Badrinath et al., 1998). Low nutrient retention capacity and moisture holding capacity of laterite soils is because of low cation exchange capacity, faster infiltration rate and high hydraulic conductivity. It is also grown in clay soils in non-traditional areas without special care and microsite improvement. Cultivation on unsuitable lands like slopy/paddy fallows/eroded lands is a major problem in arecanut. Clay soils pose a problem to monocot palm due to water stagnation, poor soil aeration and drainage. Soil compaction in root zone leads to poor soil aeration and water stagnation for long time in clay soils. Arecanut needs a soil that has good aeration without water stagnation problem. The presence of sub surface hard pan and water stagnation in paddy fields results in less soil aeration, nutrient losses and fixing of nutrients. Moreover, some nutrients like zinc will be taken by paddy in large quantity and zinc deficiency in paddy soils is reported from many regions. When arecanut is grown in paddy fields, the factors like poor soil aeration and seepage of water lead to poor root growth, nutritional disorders and reduced yields.

Crop and management constraintsNon-availability of quality planting material, shallow root system, higher trunk biomass (70% of the total biomass), low nutrient use efficiency, and susceptibility to diseases and water stress are the main crop constraints in arecanut (Bhat et al., 2007a; Bhat and Sujatha, 2008). Due to higher nutrient immobilization and low nutrient use efficiency of 10-15% for nitrogen, 25-30% for phosphorus and 20-25% for potassium, this perennial palm requires large quantity of nutrients to support its growth and yield.

Arecanut production system might become unsustainable due to large scale adoption of unscientific practices like closer planting or high density planting, under planting in old plantations, shallow planting, zero tillage in crop rhizosphere, intercropping with competitive crops, absence of soil and water conservation measures, excessive use of

inputs, and absence of shade on South-west side of the plantation that leads to sun scorching and stem breaking. Further, imbalanced and blanket nutrient application, adoption of only organic farming approach and excess soil fertility status contribute to development of nutritional disorders (Bhat and Sujatha, 2014) and yellow leaf disease (Bhat et al., 2016). Inter/mixed cropping of arecanut with competitive crops with cocoa, banana, coffee without optimum spacing and management might lead to unsustainability of perennial arecanut ecosystem. Higher and regular incidence of Phytophthora diseases like fruit rot, bud rot, crown rot and inflorescence die back is a major problem in arecanut tract in humid tropics of India. Low water use efficiency in irrigated arecanut due to conventional (basin and flood) and sprinkler irrigation methods is another drawback.

Technological and socio-economic constraintsIn the climate change scenario, the need for varietal improvement towards tolerance to various biotic and abiotic stresses, and disease and pest forecasting models is increasingly felt during the last decade. In perennial crop like arecanut, blanket recommendations are followed widely and the immediate attention is required for need based input application to improve resource use efficiency. Absence of farmer friendly sprayers and harvesters is increasing the cost of production due to tall nature of palms and scarcity of skilled workers. About 85 per cent of the land holdings are small and marginal and the average size of land holding is 1.16 ha in India (NABARD, 2014). Small size holdings generate insufficient income to sustain small and marginal farmers. Adoption rate of developed technologies is very less due to small holding size. Due to migration of youth/ labour to cities and construction works, the labour scarcity for agricultural activities is acute. Development of climbing devises and machinery for arecanut is a difficult task due to closer spacing, undulating topography, presence of inter/ mixed crops and drainage channels, and small and marginal holdings. Besides, lack of community approach in controlling pests and diseases due to large number of small holdings is leading to spread of pests and diseases as arecanut is cultivated in contiguous areas.

SUSTAINABILITY OPTIONS IN ARECANUT

Varietal wealthIn arecanut growing regions, local varieties of that particular region are predominantly cultivated and about 50-60% of the plantations have become either senile or unproductive. Rejuvenation of senile and unproductive arecanut plantations should be carried out using high yielding varieties/hybrids. For increasing the productivity, the suitable strategy would


be to increase the area under high yielding varieties (HYV’s) as only 20% of the total cultivated area is occupied by high yielding varieties in India. India has vast varietal wealth of arecanut. The cultivation practices, post-harvest processing and consumption types differ in different parts of the country. In humid tropics, arecanut is cultivated mainly for full matured dry kernel. In plains, arecanut is grown for tender nut processing. In Assam and North-east regions, ripe nuts are stored and preferred by local population. The varieties suited for tender nut processing may not be suitable for mature fruit drying and vice versa. Though quite a few varieties have been released by different agencies like ICAR institutes and State Agricultural Universities, there is lack of trait specific varieties suitable for different needs.

Arecanut is a highly cross pollinated crop. It is an allotetraploid with chromosome number 2n=32. Even though A. catechu is the only cultivated species, it has been observed that there is a wide range of variation existing for different traits especially for nut size and shape under different geographical and agro -climatic regions (Bavappa et al., 2004). Though the palm is reported to be grown in several countries of the tropics, organized research work on the breeding programme is being done only in India. The Regional Station of ICAR-Central Plantation Crops Research Institute at Vittal maintains field gene bank comprising 173 accessions mainly from South-East and South Asian countries, which can be utilized for developing trait specific varieties. Indigenous collections numbering 150 are from Assam, Goa, Gujarat, Karnataka, Kerala, Maharashtra, Meghalaya, Tamil Nadu, West Bengal, Andaman and Nicobar group of Islands. About 23 exotic accessions were introduced from other areca growing countries of the world especially South-East Asian countries such as Fiji, Mauritius, South China, Sri Lanka, Indonesia, Saigon, Singapore, British Soloman Islands and Australia which represents four species viz., Areca catechu L., Areca triandra Roxb., Areca normanbyii, Areca concinna and one related genera Actinorhytis calapparia.

Systematic evaluation of exotic and indigenous accessions since 1957 and selection for high yield resulted in release of high yielding cultivars (Ananda, 2004). From exotic collections, the released varieties are Mangala, Sumangala and Sreemangala. From indigenous collections, the Mohitnagar accession from West Bengal with high yield potential is released for cultivation for all arecanut growing regions (Ananda and Thampan, 1999). Other promising varieties such as SAS-I, Thirthahalli and Calicut-17 are released for different agro-climatic regions of the country. Thirthahalli is primarily released for production of red tender processed nuts. Tall/semi-tall varieties (cv. Mangala, Sreemangala, Sumangala, Mohitnagar, Swarnamangala and

Madhuramangala) with yield levels above 3 kg kernel per palm per year have been released for commercial cultivation for different agro-climatic zones. But, the major drawback is non-availability of planting material of high yielding varieties due to scarcity of mother palms and the rate of multiplication is not in tune with the huge demand. Mass multiplication of released/promising dwarf hybrids utilizing tissue culture techniques should be carried out in a public-private-participatory mode.

Due to shortage and high cost of labour for skilled farm operations like spraying and harvesting, the usefulness of dwarf varieties was also explored. A natural dwarf mutant is identified and named as Hirehalli dwarf that attains a height of 4.57 m height with low yields coupled with dark green leaves and medium sized and slightly elongated nuts of poor quality. An attempt was made to cross high yielding varieties with dwarf to exploit the dwarfing nature (Ananda, 2000). Two promising dwarf hybrids (VTLAH -1 and VTLAH-2) are released with yield level of around 2.5 kg kernel per palm per year.Though the dwarfing genes in arecanut have been exploited to develop dwarf hybrids with yield levels at par with other varieties, the large scale multiplication of dwarf hybrid seedlings has been a tedious task. The development of varieties tolerant/resistant to yellow leaf disease and fruit rot diseases will help in reducing the input use and cost of production. The ICAR-CPCRI has developed a protocol for somatic embryogenesis and plantlet regeneration from leaf and inflorescence explants of arecanut. Protocol for somatic embryogenesis and plantlet regeneration from leaf and inflorescence explants of arecanut was developed by ICAR-CPCRI and observed to be repeatable. It was first standardized with leaf explants excised from one-year old seedlings and later modified for immature inflorescence sampled from adult palms. The protocol is being exploited mass multiplication of dwarf hybrids and identified yellow leaf disease (YLD) field tolerant palms in endemic areas (Anitha Karun et al., 2004). Simultaneously, mass multiplication of disease free, especially YLD tolerant/ resistant dwarf hybrids/varieties is to be undertaken through tissue culture to ensure adequate supply of elite planting material for the disease affected tracts. The available tissue culture protocols need to be further refined to increase the plantlet multiplication rate and reduce plantlet production cost for enabling cost-effective mass multiplication of high yielding arecanut varieties with tolerance/resistance to biotic/abiotic stress through in-vitro culture.

Inter-specific and inter-generic hybridization in arecanut is a significant plant breeding tool for incorporation of desirable characters such as tolerance to fruit rot, yellow leaf disease


(YLD) and moisture deficit from wild into the cultivated arecanut in future crop improvement programme. In line with this, development of high yielding disease tolerant/ resistant arecanut varieties/hybrids using inter-specific and inter-generic hybrids between Areca catechu (Hirehalli Dwarf) with Areca triandra, Normanbya normanbyi and Actinorhytis calapparia is attempted. Globally, there is also a need to develop varieties with greater resource use efficiency and for different cultivation regimes. This would necessitate assessment of available germplasm for facilitating development of high yielding varieties with higher input-use efficiency as well as developing varieties suitable for low-input sustainable agriculture.

Establishment of new seed gardens of improved dwarf hybrids/varieties in public private partnership in various arecanut growing tracts is to be given priority. The in situ conservation/participatory plant breeding and seed production is to be given greater emphasis for enabling the farmers in up-scaling the varieties/hybrids with desirable features. Upscaling of planting material production through tissue culture techniques is to be given greater priority and is to be taken up in collaboration with different stakeholders, including private agencies and NGOs in order to facilitate replanting of old and unproductive plantations and enhance the seed replacement rate of improved arecanut varieties.

Considering the need for hastening the breeding programme for development of varieties for specific requirements and facilitate marker assisted molecular breeding, there is a need to identify trait-specific molecular markers associated with quantitative traits for robust screening of breeding lines in the juvenile stage. The studies on molecular markers in arecanut are scanty. Identification and utilization of molecular markers linked to economically important traits, viz., plant height, hybrid vigour, resistance/tolerance to biotic/abiotic stresses and higher yield is of paramount importance towards marker-assisted breeding for hastening the arecanut improvement programme. Development of molecular markers associated with quantitative traits will facilitate marker-assisted molecular breeding to enable trait-based breeding and faster development of varieties for specific requirements. Prospects of utilization of RNAi technology for management of biotic stress in arecanut is also to be explored.

PRODUCTION MANAGEMENT

Input use and precision agricultureThe right combination of two most important critical inputs like water and nutrients is a prerequisite for higher yields and good quality produce in tropics. Arecanut invariably

needs irrigation and is a heavy feeder of nitrogen and potassium (Bhat and Sujatha, 2004; 2012). Establishment of optimum soil nutrient norms for laterite soils (Bhat et al., 2012), leaf nutrient norms for arecanut (Bhat and Sujatha, 2013), biomass partitioning and nutrient uptake pattern (Bhat and Sujatha, 2012) and constraint analysis give scope for site specific nutrient management and precision agriculture practices in arecanut. Precision agricultural practices reap beneûts in terms of higher yields, lower costs, minimization of environmental impact and improvement in soil quality.

Nutrient imbalances are likely in perennial crops due to adoption of blanket recommendations continuously for years together. For sustainability of perennial monocot ecosystems, the implications of nutrient imbalances need to be understood thoroughly due to several emerging and recurring problems.

Recent reports indicated imbalanced and excess soil fertility status in arecanut growing regions due to wide spread adoption of organic farming practices, depletion of soil K, poor soil aeration and blanket nutrient additions (Sujatha and Bhat, 2012 and 2013b; Bhat and Sujatha, 2014; Sujatha et al., 2015). Potassium, calcium and zinc are identified as yield limiting nutrients (Bhat et al., 2012). This indicates the need for discontinuation of blanket recommendations and precision application of inputs based on biomass and yield levels. Thus, site specific nutrient management becomes most important for maintenance of soil health in arecanut.

Biomass partitioning and nutrient uptake patternBiomass and nutrient partitioning is a useful tool for suitable fertilization program and assessment of nutrient demand. Despite similar management and conditions, there are differences in biomass partitioning to trunk, leaf and kernel in arecanut palm as well as nutrient uptake and removal pattern (Bhat and Sujatha, 2012). The authors reported that low yielding palms have higher trunk biomass than high yielding palms. Direct relation between marketable yield and combined effect of higher biomass production and nutrient uptake is noticed in arecanut (Bhat and Sujatha, 2012). Higher biomass production leads to higher nutrient partitioning to kernel and high productivity in high yielding arecanut palms. The standing above ground biomass varies from 41 t ha-1 in 12-yr old (Bhat and Sujatha, 2012) to 50 t ha-1 in 15-yr old arecanut plantation (Sujatha and Bhat, 2015b). Thus, nutrients immobilized in standing biomass are very high and nutrient additions should consider both immobilized nutrients and nutrient removal. In order to maintain soil health, nutrient recommendation should consider total biomass accumulation and nutrient removal pattern.The nutrient removal by the crop makes the basis


of fertilizer application to arecanut. This indicates the importance of regular application of nutrients especially during post-monsoon season for realizing higher yields.

Nutrient demand assessmentArecanut is a heavy feeder of nutrients and application of mineral fertilizers is essential to ensure sustainable yields. Soil fertility status, leaf nutrient status and nutrient uptake pattern should be considered for nutrient demand assessment and balanced nutrition. The benefits of inorganic nutrient inputs are often minimized they contribute up to 40-60% increase in yield of several crops (Stewart et al., 2005). The manurial experiments in different agro- climatic conditions indicated that 100 g N, 18 g P and 117 g K along with 14 kg of green leaf is optimum for arecanut (Bhat and Mohapatra, 1989). Further, the results indicated that the nutrient source either in organic (green leaf, cattle manure, bone meal and wood ash) or inorganic form has no influence on growth, crop yield and soil nutrient status. Suitable green manure cum cover crops for arecanut are Pueraria javanica and Mimosa invisa from the point of view of their green manure yield and nutrient addition capacity (Mohapatra et al., 1970).

From long term trials, the nutrient dose is standardised at 100:40:140 g N: P2O5: K2O per palm per year for low yielding local cultivars of arecanut with less than 2 kg dry kernel in laterite soils of humid tropics (Bhat and Sujatha, 2004). For Assam and plains of Karnataka, the optimum dose is 50:18:59 g N: P: K per palm per year, where arecanut is regularly irrigated. The response of high yielding cultivars to double dose of nutrients is reported (Sujatha et al., 2000) and this is further substantiated by nutrient uptake and removal studies in arecanut (Bhat and Sujatha, 2012). Nutrient uptake pattern indicated that arecanut is heavy feeder of N and K and requires 350 g N and 300 g K per palm per year to produce 3 kg kernel (Bhat and Sujatha, 2012). Total uptake of macronutrients is in the order of N > K > Ca > P > Mg. In China, the importance of fertilizer application to low yielding arecanut is demonstrated for increased yields and leaf NPK, and reduction in micronutrient content of Fe and Mn (Dong et al., 2009). Arecanut farmers perceive that organic farming approaches improve the yield and soil fertility. But, nutrient demand of arecanut varies with biomass production and yield level (Bhat and Sujatha, 2012) and application of organics alone cannot meet K demand (Sujatha and Bhat, 2012; Sujatha and Bhat, 2013ab).

Soil and leaf nutrient limitsNutrient balance in soil-plant system is important for sustaining the yield and soil fertility in arecanut plantations. The need based input use is most important for sustainability of arecanut production system. The importance of optimum

nutrient limits for efficient input use and diagnosing nutrient imbalances is highlighted by several authors.Optimum leaf nutrient concentrations and ranges are established for arecanut (Bhat and Sujatha, 2013) that give scope for judicious use of fertilizer inputs. The optimum leaf concentrations are 2.70% for N, 0.23% for P, 1.12% for K, 0.61% for Ca and 0.2% for Mg for bearing arecanut. In case of micronutrients, optimum concentrations (ppm) are 146 for iron (Fe), 56.5 for manganese (Mn), 2.6 for copper (Cu), 45.8 for zinc (Zn) and 39.5 for boron (B). Optimum soil nutrient limits are vital for diagnosing nutrient constraints, judicious use of fertilizers and reducing environmental pollution. Optimum nutrient values are higher for laterite soils due to low CEC in arecanut tract than generalized guidelines for interpretation of soil analysis data (Bhat et al., 2012). At 0- 30 cm soil depth, the optimum nutrient concentrations of soil test P, K, Ca, Mg, Fe, Mn, Cu, Zn and B are estimated at 15, 192, 925, 179, 37, 88, 26, 5.5 and 1.4 mg kg”1, respectively. The laterite soils are inherently rich in Fe and Mn, but higher optimum soil test values of Cu might be due to regular use of copper based fungicides. The studies indicated that arecanut tolerates higher micronutrient concentrations in soil (Bhat et al., 2012), but not in leaf (Bhat and Sujatha, 2013). Though arecanut is tolerant to higher concentrations of Mn, Fe and Cu in soil (Bhat et al., 2012), higher micronutrient concentrations in leaf reduces the yield levels compared to optimum levels (Bhat and Sujatha, 2013). The optimum leaf nutrient concentrations estimated by Zhiguo et al (2010) for arecanut in China also support the above findings.

Water management and drip fertigationGlobally, soil moisture is the major yield limiting factor in most agricultural systems. Irrigation has positive and significant effect on productivity and profitability of arecanut. The severe water deficit during summer and water logging during rainy season are common in arecanut production systems. Arecanut cannot withstand drought for a long time and it takes two to three years to regain the normal vigour and yield once affected by water stress. The death of palms due to moisture stress is also not uncommon. Water management is a crucial aspect of arecanut cultivation on undulating/hilly terrains and inland laterite soils to maintain soil moisture at field capacity and minimize soil erosion and nutrient losses. Water management and soil conservation are not generally practiced by arecanut farmers as per recommendations. In humid tropics where arecanut is grown traditionally (28o N and S of equator), the distribution of rainfall is very poor and precipitation is confined to five months from June to October. Several parts of humid tropics experience severe shortage of water during summer months especially in April and May. This


situation arises out of the fact that almost 90% of the annual rainfall occurs during monsoon season (June- September). Insufficient water during post monsoon season (December-May) limits the yield levels in this perennial palm due to high evaporative demand of arecanut (Mahesha et al., 1990) and fast depletion of ground water (Mathew et al., 2008). Hence, the post monsoon period from December to May is highly critical for nutrient and water supply.

Arecanut requires irrigation equivalent to open pan evaporation in humid tropics and IW/CPE ratio of 1 with a 30 mm depth of water through basin irrigation is optimum (Bhat and Sujatha, 2004). Traditionally, basin and flood irrigation methods are popular among arecanut growers. Flood irrigation is still adopted by arecanut growers in non-traditional areas where canal irrigation facilities are available. Due to low irrigation efficiency of 50-60% in conventional methods of irrigation, improved methods of irrigation like sprinkler and drip are promoted since 1990’s due to declining water availability. Long post monsoon season, faster infiltration rate (8-10 cm hr-1), average basic infiltration rate of 15.25 cm hr-1 high hydraulic conductivity (0.00923 cm sec-1), less application efficiency and poor moisture retention capacity of laterite soils limit the use of flood and sprinkler irrigation. The irrigation efficiency in sprinkler irrigation method is quantified as 70% and about 40-60 l per day per palm at an irrigation interval of 3-4 days is optimum (Mahesha, 1987).

Drip irrigation is often preferred over other irrigation methods because of its high water application efficiency on account of reduced losses, surface evaporation and deep percolation. Earlier studies in arecanut demonstrated a yield increase of 45% with drip irrigation equivalent to 100% ET over basin method (Bhat and Sujatha, 2004). Micro-irrigation approach increases the yield of arecanut and cocoa with 45% water saving (Haris et al., 1999; Bhat and Sujatha, 2004). In drip irrigation, the irrigation efficiency is above 90%. In arecanut belt, soil and water conservation studies on water harvesting and storage structures like farm pond and check dam are done in laterite soils of humid tropics (Mathew et al., 2008). In arecanut, catch pit and planting of pineapple in the downstream and trench with one layer of coconut husk are the better soil and moisture conservation measures in laterite soils (Borah et al., 2006).

The drip fertigation technology is one sustainable option that can benefit both plant health and ecosystem. Drip fertigation ensures sustainability of arecanut production system due to substantial yield increase (Bhat et al., 2007a), increased mobility of soil test P and availability of soil test K (Bhat et al., 2007b), increased fine root production (Sujatha and Haris, 2000; Bhat and Sujatha, 2008), soil fertility improvement (Bhat and Sujatha, 2009) and reduced

production cost (Sujatha et al., 2000; Bhat and Sujatha, 2006). The movement of available P and K in soil was beyond 30 cm depth and distance from dripping point when applied through fertigation (Bhat et al., 2007b). Drip-fertigation saves 50% of inorganic NPK during pre-bearing stage and 25% during bearing stage (Bhat et al., 2007a; Bhat and Sujatha, 2006). The advantages of drip-fertigation are reduced labour charges on fertilizer application, weeding and irrigation and diesel charges due to less operational hours (Bhat and Sujatha, 2006). This technology can be profitably adopted for sustaining arecanut production system.

Arecanut based cropping system modelsArecanut production systems are vulnerable to extreme weather variations, price fluctuations, unexpected yield losses, pests and diseases, and soil fertility imbalances during economic life span of 25-30 years. Cropping/farming systems approach is the prime requirement for development of sustainable arecanut production system in view of the current crop scenario, climate change scenario and production constraints. Congenial microclimate and improved resource use are the additional benefits due to cropping/farming system approach in arecanut (Bhat and Sujatha, 2011ab; Sujatha et al., 2011b; Sujatha and Bhat, 2015ab). The scope and advantages of arecanut based cropping/farming system approach are discussed in earlier review (Sujatha et al., 2016).

The results on arecanut based cropping systems are either summarized or reviewed by several workers highlighting the importance, benefits and problems over sole arecanut (Balasimha, 2004, Thomas and Balasimha, 2011; Bhat and Sujatha, 2011ab, Sujatha et al., 2011b; Sujatha et al., 2016). According to these critical reviews, the success of cropping system depends on the relative shade tolerance of component crops. Higher resource use efficiency and net income are reported due to intercropping in arecanut. The intercrops in these cropping models have potential to increase the net return per rupee investment by 1.66-4.50.The benefits and ecosystem services of integrated farming systems in terms of increased output and income, nutrient recycling and reduction in adverse environmental impacts are highlighted by several workers (Bell and Moore, 2012; Ryschawy et al., 2012; Lemaire et al., 2014: Sujatha and Bhat, 2015b). A judicious mix of cropping systems with associated enterprises like dairy would bring prosperity to the arecanut farmer. Adoption rate of arecanut based farming system is less among small and marginal farmers compared to medium and large farmers. The interdependencies and ecosystem services of arecanut based mixed farming system are highlighted and arecanut based mixed farming models are developed with inclusion of livestock components like dairy


and fishery for different land holdings (Sujatha and Bhat, 2015b). Small and marginal farmers with less than 2.5 ha area can increase the net income by 40-90% with inclusion of livestock components like dairy and/ or fishery over sole arecanut. The farm gate nutrient surplus is five times higher than utilization in arecanut based mixed farming system that enables farmers to earn higher profits. The hard laterite soils can be successfully used for livestock enterprises like dairy, fishery and fodder cultivation as it results in improved resource use efficiency and profits per unit area per unit time. Dairy was economical under all scenarios due to on-farm fodder availability throughout the year. The major recommendations by the authors are to include livestock components in arecanut ecosystem to adapt to climate change scenario, to provide ecosystem services and to reduce ecological imbalances arising due to continuous cultivation of perennial crop. It is observed that arecanut-pepper-poultry might be a good option in augmenting farm income of the arecanut growers as inclusion of poultry component increases the benefit cost ratio to 2.72 compared to 2.20 in sole arecanut (Viswajith et al., 2015).

The work on arecanut based high density multispecies cropping system (HDMSCS) involving component crops like cocoa, black pepper, clove, lemon and banana is well documented (Bhat and Sujatha, 2011a). The review by Bhat

and Sujatha (2011b) emphasized the potential of organic waste recycling and the better scope for internal recycling of nutrients in arecanut based cropping system (ABCS). The component crops like clove, coffee and pineapple gave negative returns. The study clearly indicates the need for higher light requirement of both clove and pineapple due to late and low yielding behavior in the system. Several reports emphasized the economic viability of HDMSCS. At Mohitnagar, higher monetary benefit of 118% is obtained from HDMSCS involving crops like arecanut, betel vine, banana and cinnamon followed by arecanut + pepper + banana + acid lime system.The advantages are substantial in multiple cropping due to prevention of soil erosion and nutrient loss in laterite soil belt in heavy rainfall areas. Detailed studies are required to quantify whether the input requirement in terms of water and pesticides can be lowered in inter/mixed cropping systems due to congenial microclimate. Efficient cropping system models are identified based on both biological suitability and economic viability from long term trials in different regions (Table 1). In arecanut based cropping system, the additional benefits accrued due to intercrops in terms of increase in productivity and net return per rupee investment are given in Table 2. Several long term trials in

Table 1: Efficient high density multispecies cropping models for different regions

Region Cropping model Reference

Plains of Karnataka Arecanut+pepper+cocoa Bhat and Sujatha (2011a)

Coastal Karnataka and Kerala Arecanut+pepper+cocoa+banana Bhat and Sujatha, (2011a)North Bengal (Sub humid Arecanut+pepper+banana /acid lime Sit et al., (2011)

Himalayan region)High altitude areas (Wynad of Arecanut+cardamom; Arecanut+coffee Korikanthamath, (1997)Kerala and North Kannada of Karnataka)Assam and Sub Himalayan Terai region Arecanut + black pepper + banana; Arecanut

+ black pepper + banana + lemon + clove/ nutmeg Ray and Reddy, (2001) Ray et al., (2011)

Table 2: Impact of cropping system approach on productivity and net benefit

System Increase due to intercrops per ha Reference

Productivity in terms of kernel Net return per rupeeequivalent (kg) investment

Arecanut + medicinal and aromatic plants 272-1218 1.95-4.25 Sujatha et al. (2011a)Arecanut + cocoa 650-900 1.66-1.83 Sujatha et al. (2011b)Arecanut + vanilla 1208 1.79-1.98 Sujatha and Bhat (2010)Arecanut + pepper 1.56-1.84 Naik et al. (2013)Arecanut + cocoa + banana + pepper 2250 4.50 Bhat and Sujatha (2011a)Arecanut + vegetable crops - 2.00-5.05 Ray et al. (2011)Arecanut + flower crops - 1.78-2.43 Ray et al. (2011)Arecanut + gourds in summer season 1.17- 2.39 Sit et al. (2011)Arecanut + black pepper + banana + lemon + clove or nutmeg - 3.22-3.60 Ray et al. (2011)Arecanut + pepper + banana + acid lime - 3.66 Sit et al. (2011)Arecanut + betelvine + banana + turmeric - 3.85 Sit et al. (2011)Arecanut + cardamom 900-1220 - Korikanthamath, (1997)


different agro-ecological regions indicated that the medicinal and aromatic plants, vegetable crops, pepper, betelvine, banana and cocoa are highly remunerative intercrops. Intercrops increase the productivity to the tune of 272 to 2250 kg ha-1 and net return per rupee investment to the tune of 5.05.

Recycling of organic wastes and it’s impact on crop and soil fertilityThe shortage of fertilizer inputs is expected in tropical regions and there is an urgent need to explore alternate and locally available organic nutrient sources. Most of the annual crop residues are used for cattle feed purposes. The waste biomass resources are abundant in arecanut ecosystem due to rapid expansion of cultivated area in India (Sujatha et al., 2015). In India, arecanut generates about 4.5-5.4 million tonnes of recyclable biomass every year and are generally disposed by burning or dumping in the form of heaps. Due to these unscientific practices, the environmental problems are anticipated due to carbon emissions, leaching of phenols in to the soil and termite attack. The organic matter recycling potential of plantations crops and the impact of recycling these wastes as compost/vermicompost on crop and soil are discussed in the latest review by Sujatha et al. (2015) It is stated that the recyclable biomass production is 9-12 t ha-1

every year in arecanut. Recyclable biomass production per hectare per year from the arecanut based HDMSCS models is quantified at 8-16 (Bhat and Sujatha, 2011b). Direct recycling of these organic wastes, which are rich in lignin (36-44%), cellulose (26-42%) and polyphenols, is not advisable due to high C/N ratio (50-65) and slow biodegradable nature of wastes. Vermicomposting using Eudrilus eugeniae Kinberg is an efficient on-farm waste recycling technology that is easy to operate and cost effective compared to normal composting.

Recycling of organic wastes of plantation crops might reduce the load on N and P inorganic fertilizers but questions still remain about source and quantity of organics, substitution potential of organic manures for inorganic fertilizers, K nutrition, yield levels and cost effectiveness in perennial crops (Sujatha et al., 2015). If vermicompost is applied to arecanut continuously, the need for supplementation of potassium is emphasized for improving and sustaining the yields in laterite soils (Sujatha and Bhat, 2013b and 2016). Acharya et al. (2015) reported better yields of arecanut with improved soil physicochemical parameters such as pH, available N and microbial population except available P and K with vermicompost application in laterite soils of Assam. Organic matter recycling in arecanut based cropping system reduces fertilizer requirement of each component crop to 2/3rd of the recommended dose in humid tropics of Karnataka (Bhat and Sujatha, 2011b).

However, the requirement of 100% recommended fertilizer dose for palm based cropping model (arecanut + black pepper + banana + turmeric + pineapple) is emphasized by Ray et al. (2011) for Assam region.There are differential responses of different component crops of arecanut based cropping systems to vermicompost application on a laterite soil in humid tropics (Bhat and Sujatha, 2007; Sujatha et al., 2011b; Sujatha and Bhat, 2010; Sujatha et al., 2011a). The better response of intercrops to vermicompost in several trials might be due to less organic carbon in interspaces, low K requirement of intercrops and higher nutrient use efficiency except in cocoa. Potassium deficit is noticed in cocoa in arecanut +cocoa system with fertigation of vermicompost extract (Sujatha and Bhat, 2013a). For sustainable crop yields in perennial component crops like cocoa and banana, there is a need for precision application of K based on leaf and soil nutrient status in the long run (Bhat and Sujatha, 2007; Sujatha and Bhat, 2013a). This indicates that vermicompost alone can’t sustain the plantation production systems. The above findings suggest that the response to vermicompost varies with crop, soil and weather conditions. In plantation based cropping systems, integration of both inorganic nutrition and organic matter recycling is necessary to sustain the yield levels of different component crops (Bhat and Sujatha, 2007; Jacob et al., 2008; Bhat and Sujatha 2011a; Ray et al., 2011; Sit et al., 2011) . Thus, the agronomic approaches are to be standardised in tune with crop needs based on soil type, root system and climate.

Soil health managementMany tropical agroecosystems have low fertility soils on which farmers get meagre crop yields. Reversing the stagnant productivity trend in arecanut must begin with soil fertility maintenance. Maintenance of soil organic carbon (SOC) is the key to sustainable crop production in tropics due to rapid mineralization of organic matter. Though arecanut can be grown in many types of soils the dominant are laterite and clay loam soil types. Soil health problems are arising in arecanut growing regions due to excess application of inputs, production constraints.

The SOC in arecanut belt is increased from 0.9% during 1970-80 to 2.78% during 2001-2010 (Sujatha et al., 2017a). Inadequate knowledge of the crop nutrient status can frequently result in excessive nutrient applications and imbalances as well as undetected deficiencies or excesses within the crop. Several manifestations of nutrient imbalance are development of disorders like crown choking and bending (Bhat and Sujatha, 2014), yield depression, yellowing and higher incidence of pests and diseases in perennial arecanut. Soil fertility status in arecanut growing


belt is above optimum to excess (Bhat and Sujatha, 2014; Bhat et al., 2016). Several long term trials in arecanut indicated that there is enrichment in SOC status both in on-station and on-farm studies due to adoption of different agronomic practices (Table 3). Inorganic nutrition also enriches SOC status in arecanut due to higher root biomass and insitu root decay (Bhat et al. 2007a; Bhat and Sujatha, 2008 and 2009). Nutritional disorders and yellow leaf disease are increasingly noticed in farmer’s fields where soil organic carbon levels are very high ranging from 2.5 to 4.0% (Bhat and Sujatha, 2014; Bhat et al., 2016). Farmers tend to apply higher rates of organics due to strong perception that organics will improve the productivity and soil fertility.

Table 3: Variations in SOC due to different agronomic approaches

Agronomic approach SOC (%) Reference

0-30 30-60

Drip fertigation with NPK 1.83 1.17 Bhat and Sujatha,(2009)

Drip irrigation+ standard 2.45 1.84 Bhat et al., (2012)practicesSoil applicationa. Vermicompost (VC) 2.71 1.46 Sujatha and Bhat,

b. Chemical fertilizers (CF) 1.89 1.11(2016)

c. VC + CF 2.27 1.16

Processes like in situ root decay of crop and weeds, and litter fall from intercrops might have contributed to SOC increase in perennial arecanut systems. The compost prepared from mature tissue of plantation wastes might have contributed to enrichment of soil organic carbon.From the studies on yield limiting nutrients for arecanut, optimum leaf nutrient limits and optimum nutrient limits for laterite soils (Bhat et al., 2012; Bhat and Sujatha., 2013), it is clear that the relation between SOC and yield is positive as long as yield limiting nutrient is supplied in optimum. As long as yield limiting nutrients are supplied in optimum, the antagonistic nutrient interactions are absent even at excess soil fertility status. These findings would help in formulating precise fertilizer programs instead of blanket manurial/ nutrient additions that in turn reduces the manuring cost.

Common nutritional disorders in arecanut are crown choking, crown bending, oblique nodes and nut spitting. In recent years, these problems are developing fast in paddy fallows with excess soil fertility, poor soil aeration and water stagnation. The report on loss due to nutritional disorders in arecanut is scanty. The survey in 2005 indicated that the incidence of crown choking and crown bending is more in clay soils (up to 30%) than in laterite soils (up to 9%). On

the contrary, the incidence of shortened internodes and oblique nodes is more laterite soils (35%) than in clay soils (5%). Nut splitting incidence varied from 0 to 7% in both soil types. Zinc deficiency is mainly responsible for development of disorders (Bhat and Sujatha, 2014). Nutrient imbalance and excess soil test P result in development of disorders due to antagonistic nutrient interactions in soil leading to hindrance in the uptake of Zn despite optimum nutrient availability in soil. Thus, it is advisable to consider nutrient deficiency/toxicity before the development of visual symptoms with the help of plant and soil analysis for improving the health of palm. Thus, a better understanding of the impact of soil fertility on yield is critical for the accurate prediction.

Overall, soil and plant health management is a problem in paddy converted lands, and there is zinc deficit in palms in clay soil type and deficit of N and K in yellow leaf disease affected palms in laterite soil type. Severe nut drop is noticed in arecanut belt of North Kanara district of Karnataka in acidic soils with high SOC and deficit of soil test K, Zn and B (Rajakumar and Patil, 2016). In clay soils of Karnataka, nutrient rating of soils in arecanut plantations is categorized as medium with no micronutrient deficiency (Shilpashree et al., 2011).

SUSTAINABILITY THROUGH PEST AND DISEASE MANAGEMENTOne of the major yield limiting factor in arecanut production system is occurrence of pests and diseases throughout the year in humid tropics. Due to weather aberrations and ecological issues, the arecanut production system might experience serious sustainability issues due to reduced input use efficiency, proliferation of pests and diseases, non-adoption of timely control measures and lack of community approach in pest/disease management. The status of major pests and diseases and the effective control measures are described in Table 4. Arecanut palm is affected by number of diseases during different stages of its growth and development. Phytophthora diseases like fruit rot (Phytophthora meadii), bud rot and crown rot are serious problems in arecanut belt in humid tropics and cause yield loss of 10-90% (Jose et al., 2008). The control of yield losses due to Phytophthora diseases is a huge challenge in traditional arecanut belt. The prophylactic spraying of 1% Bordeaux mixture controls Phytophthora diseases, but factors like heavy rainfall, scarcity of skilled climbers for spraying, absence of machinery for effective delivery of fungicides, variability of the pathogen and occurrence of more virulent strains of the pathogen are reducing the effectiveness of existing control measures. Development of fool proof control measures for major diseases of


perennial arecanut is a huge challenge due to several inherent constraints. In humid tropics, acidic laterite soils with low buffering capacity and CEC, and heavy rainfall contribute to faster multiplication of pathogenic fungi. The humid conditions of heavily shaded arecanut may actually stimulate the outbreak of pests and diseases. Provision of optimum nutrition during maximum inflorescence production period

Table 4: Major pest and disease complex in arecanut in India

(November to February) helps in escaping the disease as nuts escape the maximum susceptibility stage to fruit rot. The nuts of 2–3 month old are highly susceptible.Bud rot is another fatal disease of arecanut palm caused by Phytophthora spp. This disease is seen during southwest mon-soon as well as in the subsequent winter months (Oct -Feb.). Early detection of the disease and prompt removal

Pests and diseases Causal agent Period of occurrence Status and yield loss Region/congenial conditions Effective control measure

DiseasesFruit rot Phytophthora meadii June-September Major disease and Humid tropics. continuous

recurring10-90% yield loss rainfall with intermittent sunshine,low temperature (20°C-23°C)and high relative humidity(RH >90%)

Bud rot and Phytophthora meadii June-February Become major in case Humid tropicscrown rot fruit rot is not controlled

properly and continuousrains after SepetemberThe yield loss is as highas 50 per cent

1% Bordeaux mixture and covering bunches with poly bags

Pasting cut end with Bordeaux paste. Drenching healthy palms with Bordeaux mixture (1%). Drenching with salt of phosphorous acid @ 0.3 per cent

Inflorescence die Colletotrichum Year round but severe Humid tropics Spraying of Indofil -M-45 @ 3g/lback gloeosporioides during summer months or Dithane-Z-78 @ 4g/l

Foot rot/ basal(February to May

Major in endemic areas and minor Sub humid and dry regions-Ganoderma lucidumstem rot in other arecanut areas Drenching root zone with

0.3% Calixin (3ml/l) @15-20 l/palm + root feedingof 1.5% Calixin (15ml/l) @125 ml/palm at quarterlyintervals. Application of 2kgneem cake per palm peryear.

Leaf spot Colletotrichum Summer and south occurs in seedlings and Humid tropics Spraying Dithane M-45 @gloeosporioides west monsoon young palms 0.3% (3g/l of water) orand Phyllosticta Carbendazim (Bavistin) @

Pestsarecae 0.05 % (0.5g/l of water).

Root grub/white grub Leucopholis. Year round Major in certain pockets. Western ghat region of Application of plant productburmeisteri, Heavy yield reduction Kerala and Karnataka like Vitex negundo leafL. coneophora and or death of palm extract 2% (or)L. Lepidophora Nimbecidine 2% in the root

zone and soil drenching of3 litre of Chlorpyriphos (@7 ml / litre of water andspraying of Imidacloprid @2.5 ml /litre of water in theinterspaces for control ofearly instar grubs.

Spindle bug Mircarvalhoia arecae Peak infestation Major pestin August-September

Phytophagous mites Raoiella indica Summer months Chronic in young Spraying of dicofol @ 2 ml/Oligonychus indicus plantations liter of water or dimethoate

1.5 ml/ liter of water on thelower surface of leaves


of the infected tissues will help in the recovery of the palms and also prevents further spread of the disease. However, non-availability of effective forecasting models for Phytophthora disease in arecanut is a hurdle in effective disease management. Identification of effective endophyte against Phytopthtora and development of management strategies for fruit rot disease with biocontrol agents and chemicals are also imperative. Elucidation of resistance mechanism of certain wild areca species to Phytophthora and identification of the genes governing resistance, and exploring the possibility of using resistance genes to develop improved arecanut varieties with resistance to fruit rot disease require greater focus.Basal stem rot of arecanut caused by Ganoderma lucidium (Curtis ex. Fr.) Karst is one of the dreaded diseases of arecanut in clay and sandy loam soils in non traditional belt due to water stagnation probelm. A three pronged strategy is to be executed for the control of foot rot; i) understanding the cross infection potential of Ganoderma isolates to other hosts like coconut, oil palm etc., ii) Identification of effective microbial biocontrol agent by comparing the microbiome of healthy and diseased palms, iii) Study the influence of various cultural practices in the non- traditional areca growing areas on foot rot and find out the practices for management of the disease.

One of the mechanisms of disease control is induced systemic resistance (ISR) in recent years. The review by Doornbos et al (2012) highlights that the understanding the complex interactions between plant roots and its highly diverse and dynamic microflora are at the start. The focus of biological control of plant diseases is ISR that is effective against a wide range of pathogens and thus offers serious potential for practical applications in crop protection. Based on preliminary studies on induced systemic resistance, about 14 fungal isolates of Trichoderma spp and 23 bacterial isolates (11 Bacillus spp. and 12 Pseudomonas spp.) are identified from rhizosphere soil and root samples in arecanut plantations of YLD endemic areas of Karnataka (CPCRI, 2011). The screening of these isolates for competitive saprophytic ability, antagonistic activity and production of antifungal volatiles indicated that one each of Trichoderma isolate and Bacillus isolate showed highest antagonistic activity against Colletotrichum gloeosporioides. Antifungal volatile activity is found to be highest in Trichoderma and Bacillus.

Arecanut is infested by several insect and non-insect pests. About 90 pests have so far been reported on arecanut palm including storage pests. But the two serious pests are root grub and spindle bug. Impact of pesticides on ecosystem

especially bio-magnification is a matter of concern. Screening and engagement of ecosystem compatible biorational molecules and biocontrol agents poses great challenge.Timely spraying of plant protection chemicals continues to be the biggest problem for arecanut farmers and huge marketing potential exists for plant protection and harvesting equipments. Skilled climbers are scarce and labour charge for climbing operation is escalating. Absence of mechanization raises sustainability concerns in the present scenario. But, complete mechanisation of arecanut cultivation is also difficult due to small fragments of land with undulating topography. Absence of machinery for timely operations and sudden weather shocks reduce profits due to yield losses and higher production cost.

ECONOMIC SUSTAINABILITYArecanut occupy the same field for many years and require high investment during establishment stage. Long-term returns of such investments can only be expected if production system is sustained. The economic sustainability depends on assured profits, adaptation to climate change, export potential and value addition opportunities. In arecanut, the economic sustainability of arecanut can be ensured by value addition (Sujatha et al., 2015), judicious input use and reduced production cost to accrue assured income due to limited export potential. Unlike in other plantation crops, area expansion is rapid in arecanut due to sharp increase in prices and economic returns during the last two decades. The price of dry kernel of arecanut increased from Rs. 70 in 2000 to Rs. 200-250 per kg in 2016. In recent years, the profitability of arecanut fluctuated widely due to several production constraints. The concept of cropping systems is the best approach for arecanut growers for increased income per unit area. The efficient and economically viable cropping models are discussed in above section. The production cost per palm can be reduced by Rs. 25/- if mixed farming approach is followed due to interdependencies (Sujatha and Bhat, 2015).

To sustain economically viable yields, the crop needs should be given importance by adopting integrated approach rather than single agronomic approach as evidenced by several long term experiments (Table 5) (Sujatha and Bhat, 2013ab and 2016) . For reducing the cost of production, automated irrigation systems to save water and energy either with solar or wind energy operated pumps should be strategically addressed and, development of integrated dryers (solar, agricultural wastes and electrical based) for drying economic produce of arecanut is needed to reduce the drying time and improve the quality of the produce.


Table 5: Yield gap between national productivity and different technologies

Suitable adaptation strategy Yield level (kg ha-1) % increase over national Referenceaverage yield (1600 kg ha-1)

Drip fertigation (2002-2006) 4017 151 Bhat et al. (2007a)Organic matter recycling (2003-2011) 2774 73 Sujatha and Bhat, (2013b); Sujatha and

Cropping system approachBhat, (2016)

Arecanut+MAPs with sprinkler irrigation (2004-2007) 3010 88 Sujatha et al. (2011a)Arecanut+vanilla with drip irrigation (2005-2008) 3114 95 Sujatha and Bhat (2010)Arecanut+cocoa with drip fertigation (2008-2011) 3117 95 Sujatha and Bhat (2013a)Mixed farming approach (2012-2014) 3418 114 Sujatha and Bhat, (2015)

CLIMATE CHANGE AND ARECANUTAgriculture is affected by climate change and weather variability as crop development depends directly on climate. Weather variability influences the yield and sustainability of perennial plantations considerably as economic yielding life accounts for several decades. Thus, accurate assessment of yield response to future climate is needed to prioritize adaptation strategies. Proliferation of pests and diseases, reduced recovery and low resource use efficiency are the imminent consequences due to climate change scenario. The emergence of two new pests palm aphid and arecanut whitefly in arecanut is a consequence of either climate change or pest resurgence in perennial ecosystem (Josephrajkumar et al., 2013). The variations in rainfall from May to November and relative humidity at afternoon hours significantly affect the arecanut yield of Western ghat region of Karnataka (Tejaswani et al., 2014). Results of survey in South Konkan region of Maharashtra revealed that arecanut yield is directly proportional to rainfall above 4300 mm with maximum humidity (Salvi et al., 2015) and arecanut prefers high relative humidity particularly during the morning period throughout its growth period.

In perennial crops, the productivity is influenced not only by rainfall and temperature but also by other weather parameters like relative humidity, evaporation and sunshine hours (Sujatha et al., 2017b). The climatic shocks like very heavy rainfall events, more number of cloudy days, reduced monsoon rainfall and increased rainfall during summer/post-monsoon are observed during the last decade. The prominent weather change is decrease in total rainfall during 2000-2012 by 531 mm (14%) over 1970-1999. Correlations between arecanut yield and year wise weather variables were positive and significant for Tmax (r=0.48), Tmin (r=0.16) and RH (r=0.32 to 0.49). Correlations were negative between arecanut yield and rainfall/sunshine hours (r = -0.20 to -0.21), while no relation was observed for evaporation and rainy days.

ADAPTATION STRATEGIESCrop management needs to fine-tuned to weather changes as an adaptation strategy. Identification of genotypes tolerant to various biotic and abiotic stresses is need of the hour. During 2000- 2015, successful technologies like nutrient and irrigation management, drip fertigation (Bhat et al., 2007a; Sujatha and Bhat, 2013a), cropping systems (Bhat and Sujatha, 2011; Sujatha et al., 2011b; Sujatha et al., 2016) and mixed farming approach (Sujatha and Bhat, 2015) in arecanut reduced the impact of weather changes. Drip fertigation is a better adaptation strategy under changing climate scenario in humid tropics as it sustains yield levels in low rainfall years also as in 2002 and 2012 (Bhat et al., 2007a; Sujatha and Bhat, 2013a). In 2002, yield loss of 13 -14.5% is reported in farmer’s plantations due less rainfall. Adoption of farming systems is necessary to reduce income fluctuations due to weather changes (Sujatha and Bhat, 2015b). We analyzed the efficient arecanut based cropping system models for adaptation to climate change that are given in Table 12. However, the scope for improving the productivity of arecanut by 200 to 300% and profitability is demonstrated through different technologies at ICAR-CPCRI.

MARKETING AND DEVELOPMENT OPPORTUNITIESArecanut is marketed in various forms as unhusked whole fruit, dehusked and dried nut, boiled and dried whole kernel or their cuts. The success of any agricultural activity depends much on the availability of an efficient market mechanism. There are various agencies/intermediaries involved in the movement of arecanut from producer to consumer. In earlier times, trade was monopolistic in nature in arecanut sector. At present, the marketing system is efficient in arecanut growing belt due to private traders, farmer’s cooperatives and organizations and this is one of the reasons for rapid expansion of area under arecanut. Co-operative marketing societies play an important role in the marketing of arecanut. The establishment of


Central Arecanut Marketing and Processing Co-operative Ltd (CAMPCO) raised the farm price and wholesale price of arecanut with minor fluctuations (Karunakaran, 2014). More than 75% of the domestic trade of arecanut is in the hands of private traders. This eventually results in frequent fluctuations in prices due to poor market intelligence, market hoarding and imperfect market formation.

The availability of several marketing opportunities and the long storage life of economic produce with minimum spoilage are added advantages in perennial arecanut. Developmental agency like Directorate of Arecanut and Spices Development (DASD) is not directly promoting cultivation of arecanut but promoting technology dissemination through frontline demonstrations on arecanut based cropping systems. All these aspects made arecanut cultivation more remunerative and improved the economic conditions of arecanut farmers.

minimum arecoline content and identification of arecanut varieties with less arecoline content.Suitable and practicable options for recycling of organic wastes of arecanut as different value added products are analysed in detail (Sujatha et al., 2015). Recycling potential of arecanut wastes as vermicompost, oyster mushroom (Pleurotus sajor-caju), fodder and other value added products are illustrated in flow diagram (Figure 3). The economic sustainability of arecanut can be ensured in future by taking up various value addition options as microenterprises. Arecanut husk is a potential source of potassium for organic farming approach. The study on the value addition and marketing efficiency of arecanut processing units indicated that the co-operative unit is dominant in both procurement as well as sale of arecanut and incurs lowest cost in value addition due to reduced cost of procurement (Kolur et al., 2012).

PROCESSING, ALTERNATE USES AND VALUE ADDITION OPPORTUNITIESArecanut is processed by two methods in different states. Dry kernel (fully ripe dehusked graded nuts) accounts for about 80% of production and tender nut (semi-ripened, dehusked, boiled, coloured and dried nuts) accounts for about 15%. The most popular type of arecanut is dried whole nuts. The processing for tender nut consists of dehusking of nuts of 6 to 7 month maturity, cutting into halves, boiling with water or dilute extract from previous boiling and drying. The chemical composition of arecanut depends on maturity of the nut. The major constituents of arecanut are carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, crude fibers, polyphenols and alkaloids (arecoline, arecaidine, guvacine and guvacoline). Among the alkaloids, arecoline is the most potent and active constituent that is suspected to cause health hazards and the World Health Organization classified arecoline as carcinogenic. Till today, the required scientific data is not available to classify arecoline as carcinogenic. Arecanut kernel contains 11-29% polyphenol and 8-15% fat. Alkaloid is present as minor and important constituent (0.11-0.24%). Among the alkaloids present in arecanut, arecoline (C7 H13O2

N) is the main and physiologically the most active one, varying from 0.1 to 0.67 per cent (Annamalai et al 2004). Of these alkaloids, arecoline and arecaidine are present in the highest concentration. The medicinal uses of alkaloids for are reported by several workers. It is desirable to separate alkaloids/polyphenols from arecanut to obtain alkaloid-free polyphenols and subsequently use it for nutraceutical/therapeutic purposes and also for suitable use of arecoline in the pharmaceutical industries. Therefore, it is essential to develop an efficient method for extraction of polyphenols from arecanut with

Fig. 3: Flow diagram showing value addition to recyclable organic wastes from arecanut plantation

CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE NEEDSArecanut is an important and fast expanding plantation crop in South east Asia and in particular in South India. Arecanut production system experiences both inherent production constraints and technological/management constraints. For long term sustainability of arecanut system, the major need is addressing of sustainability issues in production system as the problems of marketing, and demand and supply are minimal in post-production scenario. The introduction of arecanut puts pressure on natural resources because it is often planted in paddy fallows and cleared-cut land that previously supported forest crops. Local cultivars and blanket recommendations are no longer able to improve the productivity to the potential level during the past few decades. A paradigm shift with advanced technologies is


required for enhancing the system’s productivity and sustainability. Resource conserving technologies and crop diversification with value added crops has been suggested to overcome the system’s sustainability problems as these are not fully embraced by the farmers. The review suggests that the suitable strategies for sustenance of arecanut system are cropping/farming system approach, efficient and need based input use, recycling of organic wastes, soil fertility maintenance, and soil and plant health management.

Nutrient management strategies need to be planned for arecanut taking in to account the soil fertility status, biomass partitioning, nutrient uptake and leaf nutrient status to avoid nutrient imbalances in soil and palm. Other management strategies like nutrient and water management, drip fertigation, organic matter recycling, and soil and water conservation measures have great impact on yield stability and soil fertility improvement. The sustainability of arecanut is in question both in traditional and non-traditional areas due to impending problems like climatic shocks, soil-plant nutrient imbalances, nutritional disorders, increase in infestation/incidence of pests and diseases, farmer’s preference for monocropping and poor adaptability of palms. Overall, the review suggests that the important sustainability concerns are soil fertility/nutrient imbalances in non-traditional clay soil tract, and the pests and diseases in traditional laterite soil belt. The sustainability concerns in arecanut will be applicable to other palms such as coconut and oil palm also with less intensity as more or less similar conditions exist in perennial plantations.

Additional area expansion both in traditional and non-traditional areas is to be strictly prohibited and simultaneously the arecanut based cropping systems should be encouraged in the existing arecanut plantations in the country for long term sustainability of natural resources. For economic sustainability of arecanut production system, value addition and alternative uses of arecanut for medicinal and industrial purposes have to be promoted in a wide manner. In view of emerging new problems and sustainability issues in arecanut ecosystem, future line of work should cover exploiting genetic resources for resistance to biotic and abiotic stresses, developing Good Agricultural Practices (GAP), sustainable cropping system models, evaluation of native bio-control agents for disease and pest management, developing location specific Integrated Pest Management (IPM) and impact of climate on arecanut. Comprehensive studies on carbon sequestration potential, nutrient uptake pattern and soil fertility dynamics in the cropping system are important future research areas.

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Role of microbial bio-products in sustainable agriculture

P.N. Chaudhari*M/s Pralshar Bioproducts Pvt. Ltd., Kakoda, Curchorem 403706, Goa, India

ABSTRACT

This article describes the exploitation of microbial bioproducts in the agriculture field. As global warming lead to degradation natural resources and moreover, to facilitate the feed of growing population, some improvised technologies are to be adopted to enhance productivity in a sustainable manner through careful selection of microbes and their successful utilization in solving major agricultural and environmental issues. This review encompasses the research efforts aimed at improving a sustainable and healthy agricultural production through the appropriate management of biotechnology, natural sources and soil microorganisms. The review represents the significance of microbial bioproducts for improving soil fertility, crop yield and quality crop nutrition. Microbial bioproducts derived from various naturally-occurring microorganisms such as bacteria and fungi, protect crops from pests and diseases and enhance plant productivity and fertility. They enable farmers to increase yield and productivity in a sustainable way and are expected to play a significant role in agriculture. Consequently, the role of microbial bioproducts is directly proportional to the potential role of microorganisms which plays vital activity in bioproducts efficiently used as biopesticides, biostimulants and biofertilizers for sustainable agriculture. The present review highlights microbial bioproducts mediated crops functional traits such as plant growth and productivity, nutrient profile, plant defence and protection. This review also focuses on the studies on the effect of some efficient microbial bioproducts on major crops in the fields providing reliable reasons for their necessity, specificity and use for sustainable agriculture.

Keywords: microbial bioproducts,biopesticide, biostimulant, biofertilizer, crops.

INTRODUCTIONIndia is an agricultural based country. In order to nourish the ever growing population, the per unit area production has to be enhanced. According to the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) estimate, the average demand for agricultural commodities will be 60% higher in 2030 than the present time and more than 85% of this additional demand will be from developing countries (Mia and Shamsuddin, 2010). The ‘Green Revolution’ in late sixties focused on food crop productivity through use of high-yielding varieties, agrochemicals, irrigation system and extensive use of chemical fertilizers throughout India. Chemical fertilizers are industrially manipulated, substances composed of known quantities of nitrogen (N), phosphorus(P) and potassium (K) and their exploitation leads to air and ground water pollution including eutrophication of water bodies (Youssef and Eissa, 2014). In this regard, recent efforts have been channelized towards the production of ‘nutrient rich high quality food’ in sustainable manner to ensure bio-safety.

An innovative view of farm production involves use of microbial bioproducts exclusively as an alternative to agro-chemicals with the additional advantages of longer shelf life and no adverse effects to ecosystem (Sahoo et al., 2014). Globally, microbial bioproducts make up approximately two thirds of the agricultural biological industry. Representing roughly US$ 2.3 billion in annual sales, agricultural biologicals have posted double-digit sales growth continuously during the last several years. There are numerous biological products currently on the market that contain microorganisms as active ingredients, including seed treatment and foliar applied products (Thomas and Tom, 2015). Microbial technologies can help improve nutrient acquisition, promote growth and yield, control insects and protect against disease. These emerging agricultural biological technologies complement the integrated systems approach that is necessary in modern agriculture, bringing together breeding, biotechnology and agronomic practices to improve and protect crop yields.

The uniqueness of microorganisms and their biosynthetic

*Corresponding author:[email protected]

26 P.N. Chaudhari

capabilities, given a specific set of environmental and cultural conditions, have made them potential for sustainable agriculture. Natural microflora of the soil constitutes all kinds of useful bacteria and fungi including the arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) and plant growth promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR). The products derived from such microbes keep the soil environment rich in all kinds of micro- and macro-nutrients via N2 fixation, P and K solubilisation or mineralization, release of plant growth regulating substances, production of antibiotics and biodegradation of organic matter in the soil (Sinha et al., 2014). When microbial products are applied as seed or soil inoculants, they multiply and participate in nutrient cycling and benefit crop productivity (Singh et al., 2011). In general, 60% to 90% of the total applied fertilizers is lost and the remaining 10% to 40% is taken up by plants. In this regard, microbial bioproducts have paramount significance in integrated nutrient management systems to sustain agricultural productivity and healthy environment (Adesemoye and Kloepper, 2009). The PGPR or co-inoculants of PGPR and AMF can advance the nutrient use efficiency of fertilizers. A synergistic interaction of PGPR and AMF (70% fertilizer plus AMF and PGPR) was better suited for P uptake. Similar trend were also reflected in N uptake on a whole-tissue based analysis which shows that 75%, 80%, or 90% fertilizer plus inoculants were significantly comparable to 100% fertilizer (Adesemoye et al., 2009).

The principal abiotic stresses in India are drought or soil moisture stresses, high temperature, soil salinity/alkalinity, low pH and metal toxicity. Drought affects nearly two-thirds of the area that form integral component of the arid and semi arid eco systems. Nearly 11 m ha area is affected by salinity, a chemical stress and another 16 m ha by water logging, a physical stress. Extensive research has been carried out on occurrence and functional diversity of agriculturally important microbes in stressed environments as reviewed by several authors (Grahm, 1992; Zahran, 1999; Venkateswarlu et al., 2008). There is a promising need to develop microbial bioproducts that help in alleviating abiotic stress conditions in different crop systems for sustainable agriculture.

Microbial control agents, based on naturally occurring fungi, bacteria, viruses or nematodes have offered some realistic alternatives to chemical pesticides when used as part of an ecologically based integrated pest management (EBIPM) or area-wide pest management strategy (AWPM) (Koul and Cuperus, 2007). Development of resistance to conventional synthetic pesticides, decline in the rate of discovery of novel insecticides, increased public perception of the dangers associated with synthetic pesticides and host-specificity

of microbial pesticides, etc have provided impetus to the improvement in production and formulation technology of microbial control agents was reported (Koul, 2011).

Several microbial bioproducts with growth-stimulating activities of seaweed extracts are used in crop production (Sivasankari et al., 2006; Khan et al., 2009; Rathore et al., 2009). Seaweed liquid extracts have become more significant in agriculture as foliar sprays because they contain promoting hormones or trace elements (Fe, Cu, Zn, and Mn) which, when added to the soil or applied to seeds, stimulate plant growth (Sivasankari et al.,2006). Bioproducts used in agriculture and horticulture are mainly prepared from brown seaweeds of Ascophyllum nodosum, Ecklonia maxima and Macrocystis pyrifera (Gupta et al.,2011). Some of the novel approaches of microbial bioproducts include the concepts of effective microorganisms (EM) (Higa and Parr, 1994) and probiotics (Song et al.,2012) for improved crop yield and stress tolerance.

The review focuses on the exploitation of microbial bioproducts for safe and nutritious crop yield in sustainable agriculture. It describes the potential role of microorganisms and their possible benefits to sustainable agriculture and production. Further, studies on some efficient microbial bioproducts and their effect on crop yield are discussed.

MICROBIAL BIOPRODUCTS: A BOON TO AGRICULTURE INDUSTRYThe agricultural bioproducts are products of natural origin, and are therefore fully biodegradable and non -toxic either to plants and their consumers. As a result, there is no problem of toxicity or ecotoxicity, harmful residues, fate and behaviour in the environment. Microbial bioproducts are produced under controlled biotechnological processes, in order to achieve the desired growth of microorganisms or the production of metabolites (bio- extract) of interest in a concentrated compartment. It is worth noting that there are bioactive substances which may be a species of microorganism or a mixture of several species, and usually are formulated for commercial use. These formulations are safe for the operator of the dispensing agent. They are used in fertilization, plant growth stimulation or biological control, and their active ingredients can be extracts of plants, algae; microorganisms or active metabolites. Accordingly they are broadly classified as biofertilizers, biostimulants and biopesticides for their role in agriculture as crop nutrition, enhancement and protection, respectively. They differ in purpose of use and mechanism of action.

Role of microbial bio-products in sustainable agriculture 27

1. Biofertilizers‘A biofertilizer is any bacterial or fungal inoculants applied to plants with the aim to increase the availability of nutrients and their utilization by plants, regardless of the nutrient content of the inoculant itself’ (du Jardin, 2015). In brief, biofertilizers are microbial preparations containing living cells of different microorganisms, which have the ability to mobilize plant nutrients in soil from unusable to usable form through biological process. They are eco-friendly and play a significant role in crop production. Biofertilizers play significant role in improving the soil fertility by N2 fixing bacteria both in association with plant roots and without it. They help in solubilising insoluble soil phosphate and produces plant growth substances in the soil. These microorganisms are either free living in soil or symbiotic with plants and contribute directly or indirectly towards N and P nutrition of the plants. Biofertilizers add nutrients through the natural processes of N2 fixation, P solubilisation and plant growth stimulation through the synthesis of growth promoting substances. They can be grouped in different ways based on their nature and function:

• N2 fixing biofertilizersBiofertilizers fix atmospheric N in the soil and root nodules of legume crops and make it available to the plants. Efficient strains of Azotobacter, Azospirillum, Phosphobacter and Rhizobacter can provide significant amount of N to sunflower plant (Helianthus annus ) and to increase the plant height, number of leaves, stem diameter percentage of seed filling and seed dry weight (Dhanasekar and Dhandapani, 2012). Equally, in rice, addition of Azotobacter, Azospirillum and Rhizobium promotes the physiology and improves the root morphology (Choudhury and Kennedy, 2004). Azotobacter plays an important role in the N cycle in nature as it possesses a variety of metabolic functions (Sahoo et al., 2013a). Also, Azotobacter has the capacity to produce vitamins such as thiamine and riboflavin (Revillas et al., 2000), and plant hormones viz., indole acetic acid (IAA), gibberellins (GA) and cytokinins(CK) (Abd El-Fattah et al., 2013). A. chroococcum improves the plant growth by enhancing seed germination and advancing the root architecture (Gholami et al., 2009) by inhibiting pathogenic microorganisms around the root systems of crop plants (Mali and Bodhankar, 2009). This genus includes diverse species, namely, A. chroococcum, A. vinelandii, A. beijerinckii, A. nigricans, A. Armeniacus and A. paspali. They are used as biofertilizers for different crops viz., wheat, oat, barley mustard, seasum, rice, linseed, sunflower, castor, maize, sorghum, cotton, jute, sugar beets, tobacco, tea, coffee, rubber and coconuts (Wani et al., 2013).

Azospirillum is another free-living, motile, gram variable and aerobic bacterium that can thrive in flooded conditions (Sahoo et al., 2014) and promotes various aspects of plant growth and development (Bhattacharyya and Jha, 2012). Azospirillum was shown to exert beneficial effects on plant growth and crop yields both in greenhouse and in field trials (Saikia et al., 2013). Diverse species of the genus Azospirillum including A. lipoferum , A. brasilense, A. amazonense, A. halopraeferens and A. irakense have been reported to improve productivity of various crops (Sahoo et al., 2014). Interestingly, it was observed that Azospirillum inoculation can change the root morphology via producing plant growth regulating substances (Bashan et al., 2004) and siderophore production (Sahoo et al., 2014). It also increases the number of lateral roots and enhances root hairs formation to provide more root surface area to absorb sufficient nutrients (Mehdipour-Moghaddam et al., 2012). This improves the water status of plant and aids the nutrient profile in the advancement of plant growth and development (Sarig et al., 1992; Ilyas et al., 2012). Co-inoculation of Azospirillium brasilense and Rhizobium meliloti plus 2,4-D posed positive effect on grain yield and N,P,K content of Triticum aestivum (Askary et al., 2009).

Rhizobium has been used as an efficient N2 fixer for many years. It plays an important role in increasing yield by converting atmospheric N into usable forms (Sharma et al., 2011). Being resistant to different temperature ranges Rhizobium normally enters the root hairs, multiplies there and forms nodules (Nehra et al., 2007) . Rhizobium inoculants in different locations and soil types were reported to significantly increase the grain yields of Bengal gram (Patil and Medhane, 1974), lentil (Rashid et al., 2012), pea, alfalfa and sugar beet rhizosphere (Ramachandran et al., 2011), berseem (Hussain et al., 2002), ground nut (Sharma et al., 2011) and soybean (Grossman et al., 2011). Rhizobium isolates obtained from wild rice have been reported to supply N to the rice plant to promote growth and development (Peng et al., 2008). One of the species of Rhizobium, Sinorhizobium meliloti 1021 infects plants other than leguminous plants like rice to promote growth by enhancing endogenous levels of plant hormone and photosynthesis performance to confer plant tolerance to stress (Chi et al., 2010) . In groundnut, IRC-6 strain of Rhizobium has resulted in the enhancement of several useful traits such as increased number of pink coloured nodules, nitrate reductase (NRase) activity and leg haemoglobin content 50 days after inoculation (Sharma et al., 2011). Rhizobial symbiosis provides defence to plants against pathogens and herbivores, such as example, Mexican bean beetle (Thamer et al., 2011) and the green house whitefy Trialeurodes vaporariorum (Menjivar et al., 2012) (Fig. 1). N2 fixing cyanobacteria such as Aulosira, Tolypothrix,

28 P.N. Chaudhari

Scytonema, Nostoc, Anabaena and Plectonema are commonly used as biofertilizers (Abdel-Lateif et al., 2012; Roy and Srivastava, 2013).

• P solubilizing biofertilizersThese biofertilizers solubilise the insoluble forms of phosphates like tricalcium iron and aluminium phosphates into soluble or available form using P solubilising microbes. A key advantage of beneficial microorganisms is to assimilate P for their own requirement, which in turn makes nutrients available as a soluble form in sufficient quantities in soil. Pseudomonas, Bacillus, Micrococcus, Flavobacterium, Fusarium, Sclerotium, Aspergillus and Penicillium have been reported to be active in the solubilisation process (Pindi and Satyanarayana, 2012) . A phosphate-solubilizing bacterial strainNII-0909 of Micrococcus sp. has polyvalent properties including phosphate solubilisation and siderophore production (Dastager et al., 2010). Similarly, two fungi Aspergillus fumigates and A. niger were isolated from decaying cassava peels were found to convert cassava wastes by the semi-solid fermentation technique to phosphate biofertilizers (Ogbo, 2010). Burkholderia vietnamiensis, stress tolerant bacteria, produces gluconic and 2-ketogluconic acids, which involved in phosphate solubilisation (Park et al., 2010a). Enterobacter and Burkholderia that were isolated from the rhizosphere of sunflower were found to produce

siderophores and indolic compounds (ICs) which can solubilize phosphate (Ambrosini et al., 2012).

• Phosphate mobilising biofertilizersPhosphate mobilising Mycorrhiza scavenges phosphate from soil layers. Mycorrhizal mutualistic symbiosis with plant roots meets the nutrient demands of plant (Kogel et al., 2006), which besides enhancing plant growth and development, and protects plants from pathogens attack and environmental stress (Lamabam et al., 2011). It leads to the absorption of phosphate by the hyphae from outside to internal cortical mycelia, which finally transfer phosphate to the cortical root cells (Smith et al., 2011).• K solubilising microorganisms such as genus Aspergillus, Bacillus and Clostridium are found to be efficient in K solubilisation in the soil and mobilize in different crops (Mohammadi and Yousef Sohrabi, 2012).

Fig. 1: Potential use of soil microbes in sustainable cropproduction: The soil micro-organisms act as biofertilizers (Sahoo et al., 2013b) or symbiont (Nina et al., 2014) to sustain crop production by performing nutrient solubilisation, availability and thereby nutrient uptake (Dogan et al., 2011; Aziz et al., 2012). They improve the plant growth by advancing the root architecture (Gholami et al., 2009). Their activity provides numerous beneficial characters to plants primarily increased root hairs, nodules

Fig. 1: Potential use of soil microbes in sustainable crop production


and nitrate reductase activity (Sharma et al., 2011). Efficient strains of Azotobacter, Azospirillum, Phosphobacter and Rhizobacter can provide significant amount of available N through cycling (Dhanasekar and Dhandapani, 2012) . The biofertilizers produced plant hormones, which include IAA, GA and CK (Abd El-Fattah et al., 2013; Chi et al., 2010). Biofertilizers improve photosynthesis performance to confer plant tolerance to stress (Chi et al., 2010) and increase resistance to pathogens (Thamer et al., 2011) resulting in crop yield (Sahoo et al., 2013a).

• Plant growth promoting biofertilizersPGPR are a group of bacteria that actively colonize plant roots, produce hormones and anti-metabolites and enhance plant root growth and yield. Free-living PGPR have shown promise as biofertilizers. Many studies have reported that inoculation of PGPR leads to plant growth promotion, increased yield, solubilization of P or K, uptake of N and some other elements. In addition, studies have shown that inoculation with PGPR enhances root growth, leading to a root system with large surface area and increased number of root hairs. Many tools of modern science have been extensively applied for crop improvement under stress, of which PGPRs role as bioprotectants has become paramount importance (Yang et al.,2009). Rhizobium trifolii inoculated with Trifolium alexandrinum showed higher biomass and increased number of nodulation under salinity stress conditions (Hussain et al., 2002; Antoun and Prevost, 2005).

Pseudomonas aeruginosa has been shown to withstand biotic and abiotic stresses (Pandey et al., 2012). Paul and Nair (2008) found that P. fluorescens MSP -393 produces osmolytes and salt-stress induced proteins that overcome the negative effects of salt. P. putida Rs-198 enhanced germination rate and several growth parameters viz., plant height, fresh weight and dry weight of cotton under condition of alkalinity and high salt by increasing the rate of uptake of K+, Mg2+ and Ca2+ and by decreasing the absorption of Na+ (Yao et al., 2010). Few strains of Pseudomonas confers plant tolerance via production of 2,4-diacetylphloroglucinol (DAPG) (Schnider-Keel et al., 2000). Interestingly, systemic response was found to be induced against P. syringae in Arabidopsis thaliana by P. fluorescens DAPG (Weller et al., 2012) . Calcisol produced by PGPRs viz., P. alcaligenes PsA15, Bacillus polymyxa BcP26 and Mycobacterium phlei MbP18 provides tolerance to high temperatures and salinity stress (Egamberdiyeva, 2007). Pseudomonas spp. was found to cause positive effect on the seedling growth and seed germination of A. officinalis L. under water stress (Liddycoat et al., 2009).

It has been demonstrated that inoculation of plant with AMF also improves plant growth under salt stress (Ansari et al., 2013). Achromobacter piechaudii was also shown to increase the biomass of tomato and pepper plants under 172 mM NaCl and water stress (Alavi et al., 2013). Interestingly, a root endophytic fungus Piriformospora indica was found to defend host plant against salt stress (Ansari et al., 2013). It was found that inoculation of PGPR alone or along with AM like Glomus intraradices or G. mosseae resulted in the better nutrient uptake and improvement in normal physiological processes in Lactuca sativa under stress conditions. The same plant treated with P. mendocina showed improved shoot biomass under salt stress (Kohler and Caravaca, 2010).

Combination of AMF and N2-fixing bacteria helps legume plants to overcome drought stress (Aliasgharzad et al., 2006). Effect of A. brasilense along with AMF can be seen in other crops such as tomato, maize and cassava (German et al., 2000; Casanovas et al., 2002; Creus et al., 2005). A. brasilense and AMF combination improved plant tolerance to various abiotic stresses (Joe et al., 2009). The additive effect of Pseudomonas putida or Bacillus megaterium and AMF was effective in alleviating drought stress (Marulanda et al., 2009). Photosynthetic efficiency and the antioxidative response of rice plants subjected to drought stress were found to increase after inoculation of AMF (Ruiz-Sanchez et al., 2010). The beneficial effects of mycorrhizae have also been reported under both the drought and saline conditions (Aroca et al., 2013).

• Biofertilizers decompose organic matter and help in soil mineralization process. Heavy metals such as cadmium, lead, mercury from hospital and factory waste accumulate in the soil and enter plants through roots (Gill et al., 2012). Azospirillium spp., Phosphobacteria sp. and Glucanacetobacter sp. isolated from rhizosphere of rice field and mangroves were found to be more tolerant to heavy metals(Gill et al., 2012; Samuel and Muthukkaruppan, 2011).

2. BiostimulantsAgricultural biostimulants (plant biostimulants) include diverse substances and microorganisms that enhance plant growth. Jardin (2015) defined biostimulant as ‘any substance or microorganism applied to plants with the aim to enhance nutrition efficiency, abiotic stress tolerance and/ or crop quality traits, regardless of its nutrients content’. By extension, plant biostimulants also designate commercial products containing mixtures of such substances and/or microorganisms. This definition supports the nature, modes of action and types of effects of biostimulants on crop and horticultural plants (du Jardin, 2015). Biostimulants include

30 P.N. Chaudhari

humic and fulvic acids, protein hydrolysates and other N-containing compounds, seaweed extracts, inorganic compounds, beneficial fungi and beneficial bacteria.

• Humic and fulvic acidsHumic substances are extracted from naturally humified organic matter (e.g. from peat or volcanic soils), from composts and vermicomposts, or from mineral deposits (leonardite, an oxidation form of lignite). Thus, they are natural constituents of the soil organic matter, resulting from the decomposition of plant, animal and microbial residues, but also from the metabolic activity of soil microbes using these substrates. These heterogeneous compounds are categorized as humic acids and fulvic acids on the basis of their molecular weights and solubility into humins (du Jardin, 2012). Improvement in soil fertility, root nutrient uptake, plantnutrition and stress tolerance was observed due to the action of humic substances via different mechanisms as in case of hydroponically-grown maize seedlings (Olivares et al., 2015; Schiavon et al., 2010).

• Protein hydrolysates and other N-containing compoundsAmino-acids and peptides mixtures are obtained by chemical and enzymatic protein hydrolysis from agroindustrial by-products, from both plant sources (crop residues) and animal wastes (e.g. collagen, epithelial tissues) (du Jardin, 2012; Calvo et al., 2014; Halpern et al.,2015) . Betaines, polyamines and ‘non-protein amino acids’ are some diversified nitrogenous molecules in higher plants (Vranova et al., 2011). Particularly, glycine betaine is an amino acid derivative with eminent anti-stress properties (Chen and Murata, 2011).These compounds play multiple roles of biostimulants for plant growth (Calvo et al., 2014; duJardin, 2012, Halpern et al., 2015). Direct effects on plants include modulation of N uptake and assimilation by regulating enzymes and structural genes involved in N assimilation along with the signalling pathway of N acquisition in roots. Also, they regulate the enzymes of TCA cycle contributing to the cross talk between C and N metabolisms. Hormonal activities are also reported in complex protein and tissue hydrolysates (Colla et al., 2014).

Indirect effects on plant nutrition and growth are also important in the agricultural practice when protein hydrolysates are applied to plants and soils. Protein hydrolysates are known to increase microbial biomass and activity, soil respiration and, overall, soil fertility. Chelating and complexing activities of specific amino acids and peptides are deemed to contribute to nutrients availability and acquisition by roots. Several commercial products obtained from protein hydrolysates of plant and animal

origins have been placed on the market. Variable, but in many cases significant improvements in yield and quality traits have been reported in agricultural and horticultural crops (Calvo et al., 2014). The safety of hydrolyzed proteins of animal origin was recently assessed and no genotoxicity, ecotoxicity or phytotoxicty was reported on the basis of bioassays using yeasts and plants as test organisms (Corte et al., 2014).

• Seaweed extracts as biostimulants of plant growth and developmentSeaweed extracts act as biostimulants, enhancing seed germination and establishment, improving plant growth, yield, flower set and fruit production, increasing resistance to biotic and abiotic stresses, and improving postharvest shelf life (Mancuso et al., 2006; Norrie and Keathley, 2006; Hong et al., 2007; Rayorath et al., 2008; Khan et al., 2009; Craigie, 2011; Mattner et al., 2013) . Most commercial seaweed extracts are made from brown seaweeds, including Ascophyllum nodosum, Fucus, Laminaria, Sargassum, and Turbinaria sp. (Hong et al., 2007; Sharma et al., 2012). Extracts are active as biostimulants at low concentrations (diluted at 1:1,000 or more), suggesting that the effects observed are likely distinct from those associated with a direct nutritional function (Crouch and van Staden, 1993, Khan et al., 2009). Seaweed extracts are a complex mixture of components that may vary according to the seaweed source, the season of collection, and the extraction process used (Khan et al., 2009; Rioux et al., 2009; Sharma et al., 2012; Shekhar et al., 2012). They contain a wide range of organic and mineral components including unique and complex polysaccharides not present in terrestrial plants such as laminarin, fucoidan and alginates, and plant hormones (Sivasankari et al., 2006; Rioux et al., 2007; Khan et al., 2009).

The foliar application of seaweed extract leads to enhanced root development in a variety of species, including maize (Jeannin et al., 1991), tomato (Crouch and van Staden, 1992), Arabidopsis (Rayorath et al., 2008), grape (Mancuso et al., 2006; Mugnai et al., 2008), strawberry (Alam et al., 2013), winter rapeseed (Jannin et al., 2013), Norway spruce (Picea abies) (Slávik, 2005), and lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta) (MacDonald et al., 2012). Increases in lateral root formation (Vernieri et al., 2005), total root volume (Slávik, 2005; Mancuso et al., 2006), and root length (Zodape et al., 2011) have been observed and attributed to the presence of phytohormones such as auxins and cytokinins in seaweed extracts (Khan et al., 2011a, 2011b). Seaweed extract application also stimulated mineral nutrient uptake in plants such as lettuce (Crouch et al., 1990), grape (Mancuso et al., 2006), soybean (Rathore


et al., 2009), tomato (Zodape et al., 2011), and winter rapeseed (Jannin et al., 2013) with increased accumulation of both macro- (N, P, K, Ca, S) and micro-nutrients (Mg, Zn, Mn, Fe) reported (Crouch et al., 1990;Mancuso et al., 2006, Rathore et al., 2009; Zodape et al., 2011) (Fig. 2).

Indirect stimulation of root growth by seaweed extracts may also occur via enhancement of associated soil microorganisms. Root colonization and in vitro hyphal growth of AMF were improved in the presence of extracts of brown algae (Kuwada et al., 1999). Alam et al. (2013) showed that seaweed extract increased microbial diversity and activity in the rhizosphere of strawberry, while (Khan et al., 2012; 2013) reported that seaweed extract stimulated alfalfa growth and root nodulation by improving the attachment of Sinorhizobium meliloti to root hairs. Enhancement of root growth and nutrient and water uptake efficiency may also increase above ground plant growth and yield as well as resistance to abiotic and biotic stresses (Khan et al., 2009). There are numerous reports of beneficial effects of seaweed extracts on shoot growth and crop yield (reviewed by Verkleij, 1992; Stirk and van Staden, 2006; Khan et al., 2009; Craigie, 2011). Recent studies have shown enhanced growth and yield in agricultural and horticultural crops such as wheat (Kumar

and Sahoo, 2011), winter rapeseed (Jannin et al., 2013), apple (Malus domestica) (Basak, 2008), strawberry (Alam et al., 2013), tomato (Zodape et al., 2011), spinach (Fan et al., 2013), okra (Zodape et al., 2008), olive (Olea europaea) (Chouliaras et al., 2009), broccoli (Mattner et al., 2013), and geranium (Pelargonium sp) (Krajnc et al., 2012). Root and shoot growth of the model plant Arabidopsis was also enhanced by treatment with algal extracts (Rayorath et al., 2008). Leaf chlorophyll content was increased following seaweed extract application in a number of studies (Blunden et al., 1997; Mancuso et al., 2006; Sivasankari et al., 2006; Spinelli et al., 2010; Fan et al., 2013; Jannin et al., 2013). This increase appeared to be associated with a reduction in chlorophyll degradation (Blunden et al., 1997) and delay in senescence rather than a net increase in photosynthesis rate (Jannin et al., 2013).

Recently, it was found that the seed treatment with the supercritical extracts of Baltic seaweeds (Enteromorpha sp. and Cladophora sp.) and Spirulina sp. showed improved sprout and root development in wheat (Michalak et al., 2016; Dmytryk et al., 2015).

• Inorganic compoundsChemical elements that promote plant growth and are

Fig. 2: Schematic representation of physiological effects elicited by seaweed extracts and possible mechanism(s) of bioactivity (Source: Khan et al., 2009)

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essential to particular taxa but are not required by all plants are called beneficial elements (Pilon- Smits et al., 2009). The five main beneficial elements are Al, Co, Na, Se and Si, present in soils and in plants as insoluble, inorganic salts like amorphous silica (SiO2.nH2O) in graminaceous species. Many effects of beneficial elements are reported by the scientific literature, which promote plant growth, the quality of plant products and tolerance to abiotic stress. This includes cell wall rigidification, osmoregulation, reduced transpiration by crystal deposits, thermal regulation via radiation reflection, enzyme activity by co-factors, plant nutrition via interactions with other elements during uptake and mobility, antioxidant protection, interactions with symbionts, pathogen and herbivore response, protection against heavy metals toxicity, plant hormone synthesis and signalling (Pilon-Smits et al., 2009).

ROLE OF MICROORGANISMS AS BIOSTIMULANTS• Beneficial fungiFungi establish the interaction with plant roots in different ways, from mutualistic symbioses (i.e. when both organisms live in direct contact with each other and establish mutually beneficial relationships) to parasitism (Behie and Bidochka, 2014). Since the evolution, plants and fungi have co-evolved as mutualism- parasitism continuum (Bonfante and Genre, 2010; Johnson and Graham, 2013). Mycorrhizal fungi are a heterogeneous group of taxa which establish symbioses with over 90 % of all plant species. Growing demand for the use of mycorrhiza to promote sustainable agriculture is due to the benefits of the symbioses to nutrition efficiency (for both macronutrients, especially P, and micronutrients), water balance, biotic and abiotic stress protection of plants (Augé, 2001; Gianinazzi et al., 2010; Hamel and Plenchette, 2007; Harrierand Watson, 2004; Siddiqui et al., 2008; van der Heijden et al., 2004). Significantly the ecological and agricultural implications demonstrated that the fungal conduits allow for interplant signalling (Johnson and Gilbert, 2015; Simard et al., 2012). AMF form tripartite associations with plants and rhizobacteria which are relevant in practical field situations (Siddiqui et al., 2008). The mycorrhizal associations adapted to the interaction with microorganisms showed more beneficial crop management practices and plant cultivars (Gianinazzi et al. , 2010; Hamel and Plenchette, 2007; Plenchette et al., 2005; Sheng et al., 2011). Recently, the fungal endophytes, like Trichoderma sp. (Ascomycota) and Sebacinales (Basidiomycota, with Piriformospora indica as model organism) are reported to transfer nutrients to their hosts (Behie and Bidochka, 2014). Many plant responses are induced by the mechanisms of

nutrient transfer between fungal endosymbionts and their hosts including increased tolerance to abiotic stress, nutrient use efficiency, organ growth and morphogenesis (Colla et al., 2015; Shoresh et al., 2010) establishing fungal endophytes as biostimulants.

Fungal symbionts can also improve plant productivity by various mechanisms including increased plant water-use efficiency maximized photosynthetic rate or increased production of metabolites such as the sugar trehalose or growth hormones such as GA and IAA (Herre et al., 2005; Khan et al., 2014; Marquez et al., 2007; Redman et al., 2002; Morsy et al., 2010; Contreras et al., 2014). In addition fungal symbionts can regulate a diverse set of plant genes. For example Arabidopsis thaliana colonized by Piriformospora indica showed faster and greater up-regulation of nine drought stress-related genes (Sherameti et al., 2008) and in Theobroma cacao colonized with Trichoderma hamatum the endophyte altered expression of 19 drought-responsive genes and promoted greater seedling growth when plants were exposed to drought (Bae et al., 2009).

• Beneficial bacteriaBacteria interacts with plants by many probable pathways (Ahmad et al., 2008): a continuum between mutualism and parasitism; bacterial niches extend from the soil to the interior of cells, with intermediate locations called the rhizosphere and the rhizoplane; transient or permanent associations; some bacteria being even vertically transmitted via the seed; functions influencing plant life cover participation to the biogeochemical cycles, supply of nutrients, increase in nutrient use efficiency, induction of disease resistance, enhancement of abiotic stress tolerance, modulation of morphogenesis by plant growth regulators. Such mutualistic endosymbionts of the type Rhizobium and mutualistic, rhizospheric PGPRs are regarded as biostimulants for agricultural use (Jardin, 2015). PGPRs are multifunctional influencing all aspects of plant life: nutrition and growth, morphogenesis and development, response to biotic and abiotic stress, interactions with other organisms in the agroecosystems (Ahmad et al., 2008; Babalola, 2010; Berendsen et al., 2012; Berg et al., 2014; Bhattacharyya and Jha, 2012; Gaiero et al., 2013; Philippot et al., 2013; Vacheron et al., 2013). For example, bacterial symbionts also known as plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria, can enhance plant growth via a variety of mechanisms such as improved nutrient solubilization and uptake (Sharma et al., 2013), N2fixation (Setten et al., 2013; Boddey and Dobereiner, 1995), production of volatile organic compounds (Ryu et al., 2003) and modification of plant hormonal status (Talboys et al., 2014; Borriss, 2015).


Han et al. (2006) also showed that the combined treatment of Bacillus megaterium var. phosphaticum and B. mucilaginosus increased the availability of P and K in soil, and thus increasing the uptake and plant growth of pepper and cucumber. Sarma et al. (2009) reported that a combination of bioinoculants, namely, two fluorescent pseudomonas strains, increased Vigna mungo yield by 300 % in comparison to the control crop. These results indicated that a combination of beneficial microorganisms might increase the nutritional assimilation ofplant and total N in soil.

• Effective microorganisms (EM)The concept of EM was reported to consist of mixed cultures of beneficial and naturally-occurring microorganisms that can be applied to increase the microbial diversity of soils and plant (Higa, 1991; Higa and Wididana, 1991).EM consists of a wide variety or multiculture of effective, beneficial and non-pathogenic microorganisms coexisting together. Essentially it is a combination of aerobic and anaerobic species commonly found in all ecosystems. EM contains about 80 species of microorganisms which are able to purify and revive nature. The main species involved are normally the Lactobacillus plantarum, L. casei and Streptoccus lactis (lactic acid bacteria), Rhodopseudomonas palustrus and Rhodobacter spaeroides, (photosynthetic bacteria), Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Candida utilis (yeasts), Streptomyces albus and S. griseus (actinomycetes), and Aspergillus oryzae, Penicillium sp. and Mucor hiemalis (fermenting fungi) . All of those are mutually compatible with one another and can coexist in liquid culture (Renuka and Parameswari, 2012).

EM are claimed to enhance microbial turnover in soil and thus known to increase soil macronutrients resulting in crop quality and yield. Some of these microorganisms produce bioactive substances such as vitamins, hormones, enzymes, antioxidants and antibiotics that can directly or indirectly enhance plant growth and protection (Higa and Parr, 1994; Renuka and Parameswari, 2012).LAB, as a member of useful organism, beneficial for agriculture and a bacteria stimulating plant growth, is one safe -and edible microorganism ubiquitously found in natural environment. It has conferred a unique advantage to agri-product cultivation and its quality and safety. Recently many studies have examined the roles of LAB in promoting plant growth, adjusting and controlling plant diseases, and improving quality of plant products. The application of LAB in agricultural products improves crop quality and edible safety, so as to improve the people’s health level (Gao et al., 2014).For sustainable natural farming EM serves as biostimulant and main component which encourages

growth and maturity in plants.

• Probiotics in agricultureThe study of plants for managing plant health through the manipulation of some probiotic organisms was reported (Picard et al., 2008). Specific microbial groups present in plant rhizosphere may have evolved to strategically stimulate plant-specific stimulation and support particular microbial groups capable of producing antibiotics as a defence against diseases caused by soil-borne pathogens (Weller et al., 2002) . Diseases caused by soil-borne fungal pathogens result in loss of more than $150 million production annually in cereal crops in Australia (Gupta, 2012). Currently, attention to bacterial biostimulants is growing and PGPR inoculants are now regarded as some kind of plant ‘probiotics’, i.e. efficient contributors to plant nutrition and immunity (Berendsen et al., 2012).Berg (2009) has reported several advantages of using plant probiotics over chemical pesticides and fertilizers such as: more safe, reduced environmental damage, less risk to human health, much more targeted activity, effective in small quantities, multiply themselves but are controlled by the plant as well as by the indigenous microbial populations, decompose more quickly than conventional chemical pesticides, reduced resistance development due to several mechanisms, and can be also used in conventional or integrated pest management systems.

Plant growth promotion can be achieved by the direct interaction between beneficial microbes and their host plant and also indirectly due to their antagonistic activity against plant pathogens. Several model organisms for plant growth promotion and plant disease inhibition are well-studied including: the bacterial genera Azospirillum (Perrig et al., 2007; Cassán et al., 2009), Rhizobium (Long, 2001), Serratia (De Vleesschauwer and Hofte, 2007), Bacillus (Bai et al., 2002; Kloepper et al., 2004), Pseudomonas (Preston, 2004; Zhao et al., 2003), Stenotrophomonas (Ryan et al., 2009), and Streptomyces (Schrey and Tarkka, 2008) and the fungal genera Ampelomyces, Coniothyrium and Trichoderma (Hartmann et al., 2004).

Several mechanisms are involved in the probiotics-plant interaction. It is important to specify the mechanism and to colonize plant habitats for successful application. Steps of colonization include recognition, adherence, invasion, colonization and growth, and several strategies to establish interactions. Plant roots initiate crosstalk with soil microbes by producing signals that are recognized by the microbes, which in turn produce signals that initiate colonization (Compant et al., 2010; Bais et al., 2006). Colonizing bacteria can penetrate the plant roots or move to aerial plant parts causing a decreasing in bacterial density in

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comparison to rhizosphere or root colonizing populations (Compant et al., 2010). Furthermore, in the processes of plant growth, probiotic bacteria can influence the hormonal balance of the plant whereas phytohormones can be synthesized by the plant themselves and also by their associated microorganisms (Berg, 2009).

3. BiopesticidesBiopesticides or biological pesticides are microbial bioproducts based on pathogenic microorganisms specific to a target pest offering an ecofriendly alternative to chemical pesticides. They pose less threat to the environment and to human health. Furthermore, biochemicals derived from micro-organisms and other natural sources, and processes involving the genetic incorporation of DNA into agricultural commodities that confer protection against pest damage are considered (Gupta and Dikshit, 2010).These include biofungicides (Trichoderma), bioherbicides (Phytopthora) and bioinsecticides (Bacillus thuringiensis, B. sphaericus).

• Microbial pesticidesBiopesticides derived from fungi, bacteria and viruses and

Table 1: A summary of microbial insecticides

also some other compounds produced directly from these microbes such as metabolites are main microbial pest control agents (Van Lenteren, 2012). The organisms used in microbial insecticides are essentially nontoxic and non-pathogenic to wildlife, humans, and other organisms not closely related to the target pest offering great safety. As their residues present no hazards to humans or other animals, microbial insecticides can be applied even when a crop is almost ready for harvest. They also enhance the root and plant growth by way of encouraging the beneficial soil microflora.

More than 3000 kinds of microbes are reported to cause diseases in insects. Over 100 bacteria have been identified as insect pathogens, among which Bacillus thuringiensis Berliner (Bt) has got the maximum importance as microbial control agent globally. So far, more than 1000 insect species viruses have been isolated such as nuclear polyhedrosis virus (NPV) infested 525 insects worldwide. Over 800 species of entomopathogenic fungi are reported as biocontrol agents (Koul, 2011).

• Bacterial pesticidesThe bacteria used as biopesticides include crystalliferous

Pathogen Host Range Uses and Comments

BACTERIABacillus thuringiensisvar. kurstaki (Bt) caterpillars (larvaeof moths andbutterflies) Effective for foliage-feeding caterpillars (and Indian meal moth in stored

grain). Decompose rapidly in sunlight; apply in the evening or onovercast days and direct some spray to lower surfaces or leaves.Doesnot cycle extensively in the environment.

Bacillus thuringiensisvar. israelensis (Bt) larvae of Aedes andPsorophoramosquitoes, Effective against larvae only. Active only if ingested.Culex andblackflies, and fungus gnats Anopheles mosquitoes are not controlled at normal application rates.

Does not cycle extensively in the environment.Bacillus thuringiensisvar. tenebrinos larvae of Coloradopotato beetle, Effective against Colorado potato beetle larvae and the elm leaf beetle.

elmleaf beetle adults Like other Bts, it must be ingested. It is subject to breakdown inultraviolet light and does not cycle extensively in the environment.

Bacillus thuringiensisvar. Aizawai wax mothcaterpillars Used only for control of was moth infestations in honeybee hives.Bacillus popilliae andBacillus lentimorbus larvae (grubs) ofJapanese beetle The main Illinois lawn grub (the annual white grub,Cyclocephala sp.)

Is NOT susceptible to milky spore disease.Bacillus sphaericus larvae of Culex,Psorophora, and Active only if ingested, for use against Culex,Psorophora, and Culiseta

Culiseta mosquitos,larvae of some species; also effective against Aedes vexans. Remains effective

FUNGIAedes spp. instagnant or turbid water

aphids, fungusgnats, mealy bugs,mites, Effective against several pests. High moisture requirements, lack ofBeauveria bassianathrips,whiteflies storage longevity, and competition with other soil microorganisms are

problems that remain to be solved.Lagenidium giganteum larvae of most pestmosquito species Effective against larvae of most pest mosquito species; remains infective

in the environment through dry periods. A main drawback is itsinability

VIRUSESto survive high summertime temperatures

Gypsy moth nuclearplyhedrosis (NPV) Virusgypsy mothcaterpillars All of the viral insecticides used for control of forestpests are producedCodling mothgranulosis virus (GV) codling mothcaterpillars Commercially produced and marketed briefly, but no longer registered

or available. Future reregistration is possible. Subject to rapidbreakdown in ultraviolet light.


spore formers (such as Bacillus thuringiensis); obligate pathogens (such as Bacillus popilliae); potential pathogens (such as Serratia marcesens); and facultative pathogens (such as Pseudomonas aeruginosa) . Out of these four, the spore formers have been most widely adopted for commercial use because of their safety and effectiveness. The most commonly used bacteria are B. Thuringiensis (Bt) and Bacillus sphaericus.B. thuringiensis is a specific, safe and effective tool for insect control (Roh et al., 2007). It is a Gram-positive, spore-forming bacterium, with nearly 100 subspecies and varieties divided into 70 serotypes (Schnepf et al., 1998). It is primarily a pathogen of lepidopterous pests like American bollworm in cotton and stem borers in rice. When ingested by pest larvae, Bt releases toxins which damage the mid gut of the pest, eventually killing it. Main sources for the production of Bt preparations are the strains of the subspecies kurstaki, galeriae and dendrolimus (Gupta and Dikshit, 2010) which are also widely used as biopesticides (Table 1). The insecticidal property of B. thuringiensis resides in the Cry family of crystalline proteins that are produced in the parasporal crystals and are encoded by the cry genes. The Cry proteins are globular molecules (65-145 kDa, depending on the strain) with three structural domains. Cry proteins are responsible for feeding cessation and death of the target pest (Whalon and Wingerd, 2003; Rodrigo- Simon et al., 2008).These bacteria are mass-produced through either solid or liquid fermentation.

B. sphaericus is a Gram-positive strict aerobic bacterium, which produces round spores in a swollen club-like terminal or subterminal sporangium. These bacteria produce an intracellular protein toxin (5511-1) and a parasporal

crystalline toxin at the time of sporulation. The mosquito-larvicidal binary toxin produced by B. Sphaericus is composed of BinB and BinA, 51.4 and 41.9 kDa, respectively (Park et al., 2009; 2010b). Bacillus sphaericus-based products are commonly used for mosquito control.

• PGPR as biocontrol agentsPGPR produce substances that also protect plants against various diseases. PGPR may protect plants against pathogens by direct antagonistic interactions between the biocontrol agent and the pathogen, as well as by induction of host resistance. For biocontrol of soil-borne plant pathogens, siderophore-producing PGPR are used widely through seed, soil or root system. PGPR that indirectly enhance plant growth via suppression of phytopathogens do so by a variety of mechanisms. These include: siderophores producing ability that chelate iron, making it unavailable to pathogens; the capacity to synthesize anti-fungal metabolites such as antibiotics, fungal cell wall-lysing enzymes, or hydrogen cyanide, which suppress the growth of fungal pathogens (Bhattacharyya and Jha, 2012); nutrient competition with pathogen or specific niches on the root; and to induce systemic resistance (Sharma et al., 2003).

Among the various PGPRs identified, Pseudomonas fluorescens is one of the most extensively studied rhizobacteria, because of its antagonistic action against several plant pathogens. Banana bunchytop virus (BBTV) is the fatal virus severely affecting the yield of banana (Musa sp.) crop in Western Ghats,Tamil Nadu, India. It has been demonstrated that application of P. fluorescens strain significantly reduced the BBTV incidence in hill banana under greenhouse and field conditions (Raman,

Table 2: PGPR as biocontrol agents against various plant diseases.

PGPR Disease resistance

Bacillus pumilus, Kluyvera cryocrescens, Cucumber Mosaic Cucumovirus (CMV) of tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum)B. amyloliquefaciens andB. subtilusB. amyloliquefaciens, Tomato mottle virusB. subtilis andB. pumilus

Bacterial wilt disease in cucumber (Cucumis sativus), Blue mold disease of tobacco (Nicotiana)B. pumilusPseudomonas fluorescens Sheath blight disease and leaf folder insect in rice(Oryza sativa), Reduce the Banana Bunchy

Top Virus (BBTV) incidence, Saline resistance ingroundnut (Arachis hypogea)B. subtilis and B. pumilus Downymildew in pearl millet (Pennisetum glaucum)B. subtilis CMVin cucumberB. cereus Foliar diseases of tomatoBacillus spp. Blight of bell pepper(Capsicum annuum), Blightof squashBurkholderia Maize (Zea mays) rotB. subtilis Soil borne pathogen of cucumber and pepper(Piper)Bacillus sp. and Azospirillum Rice blastFluorescent Pseudomonas spp. Rice sheath rot (Sarocladium oryzae)

36 P.N. Chaudhari

2012). Different PGPR species as biocontrol agents against various plant diseases are given in Table 2.

• PGPR as Biological FungicidesPGPR and bacterial endophytes play a vital role in the management of various fungal diseases. Bacillus subtilis, Pseudomonas chlororaphis, endophytic P. fluorescens inhibit the growth of stem blight pathogen Corynespora casiicola. The seed treatment and soil application of P. fluorescens reduce root rot of black gram caused by Macrophomina phaseolina. Seed and foliar application of P. fluorescens reduces heath blight of rice. B. subtilis in peat supplemented with chitin or chitin-containing materials show better control of Aspergillus niger and Fusarium udum in groundnut and pigeon pea, respectively. Strains of Burkholderia cepacia have been shown to have biocontrol of Fusarium spp. (Podile and Kishore, 2007).

• Fungal biopesticidesAn important group of microbial pest management organisms include the pathogenic fungi (Khachatourians, 2009) that grow in both aquatic as well as terrestrial habitats and when exclusively associated with insects are known as entomopathogenic fungi. These are obligate or facultative, commensals or symbionts of insects. The pathogenic action depends on contact and they infect and kill sucking insect pests such as aphids, thrips, mealy bugs, whiteflies, scale insects, mosquitoes and all types of mites (Barbara and Clewes, 2003; Pineda et al., 2007). Entomopathogenic fungi are promising microbial biopesticides that have a multiplicity of mechanisms for pathogenesis. They belong to 12 classes within six phyla and belong to four major groups; Laboulbeniales, Pyrenomycetes, Hyphomycetes and Zygomycetes. Some of the most widely used species include Beauveria bassiana, Metarhizium anisopilae, Nomuraea rileyi, Paecilomyces farinosus and Verticillium lecanii.

These fungi attack the host via the integument or gut epithelium and establish their conidia in the joints and the integument. Some species such as B. Bassiana (Table 1) and M. anisipoliae cause muscardine insect disease and after killing the host, cadavers become mummified or covered by mycelial growth (Miranpuri and Khachatourians, 1995). About 50 such compounds have been reported as active against various insect species belonging to Lepidoptera, Homoptera, Coleoptera, Orthoptera and mites. The most active toxins are actinomycin A, cycloheximide and novobiocin (Dowd, 2002). Spinosyns are commercially available biopesticidal compounds that were originally isolated from the

actinomycete Saccharopolyspora spinosad and are active against dipterans, hymenopterans, siphonaterans and thysanopterans but are less active against coleopterans, aphids and nematodes (Sparks et al., 1999).

• Viral biopesticidesInsect-infecting viruses have been isolated, mostly from Lepidoptera followed by Hymenoptera, Coleoptera, Diptera and Orthoptera (Khachatourians, 2009).The viruses used for insect control are the DNA-containing baculoviruses(BVs), Nucleopolyhedrosis viruses (NPVs), granuloviruses(GVs), acoviruses, iridoviruses, parvoviruses, polydnaviruses, and poxviruses and the RNA-containing reoviruses, cytoplasmic polyhedrosis viruses, nodaviruses, picrona-like viruses and tetraviruses. However, the main categories used in pest management have been NPVs and GVs. These viruses are widely used for control of vegetable and field crop pests globally, and are effective against plant-chewing insects (Table 1). Their use had a substantial impact in forest habitats against gypsy moths, pine sawflies, Douglas fir tussock moths and pine caterpillars.

The mechanism of viral pathogenesis is through replication of the virus in the nuclei or in the cytoplasm of target cells. At the late phase of viral protein expression, virions assemble to synthesize the 29 kDa occlusion body protein resulting in the occlusion of numerous virions (of NPVs) to develop hundreds of polyhedra and thousands of granules percell by the infected nuclei. These can create enzootics, deplete the pest populations, and ultimately create a significant impact on the economic threshold of the pest (Khachatourians, 2009).

Many NPVs are used on over 100,000 ha annually (Yang et al., 2012). For soybean insect pest (Anticarsia gemmatalis), AgMNPV (Yang et al., 2012) and for cotton bollworm, H. Armigera, combination of HaMNPV with endosulfan has provided significant results (Siddique et al., 2010; Mir et al., 2010; Elamathi et al., 2012).In Indian agriculture, biopesticides are employed to achieve great success in bio-control resulting in increased crop yield (Kalra and Khanuja, 2007). Some of the examples include, Control of diamondback moths by Bacillus thuringiensis; Control of mango hoppers and mealy bugs and coffee pod borerby Beauveria; Control of Helicoverpa on cotton, pigeon-pea, and tomato by Bacillus thuringiensis; Control of white fly on cotton by neem products; Control of Helicoverpa on gram by NPV; Control of sugarcane borers by Trichogramma and Control of rots and wiltsin various crops by Trichoderma-based products.


STUDIES ON EFFECTS OF SOME MICROBIAL BIO-PRODUCTS ON CROPSEco-friendly agricultural system has emerged as an important priority area globally in view of the growing demand for safe and healthy food and long term soil-environmental sustainability and concerns on environmental pollution associated with indiscriminate use of agrochemicals. Microbial bioproducts have emerged as supplements to mineral fertilizers and hold a promise to develop superior quality crop yield. They offer an economical and eco-friendly option by the management of beneficial microorganisms leading to establish the commercial trends around the world. The production of microbial bioproducts and their commercialization is focused on the creation and support of sustainable agriculture. The increasing concern about the environment and socio- economic impact of chemical agriculture has led many farmers and consumers to seek alternative practices for agricultural sustainability and marketability.

There are many reports on the effect of microbial products on agricultural and horticulture crops practiced by field experimentation.• The effect of biofertilizers application on growth and

yield of tomato plants was studied (Ramakrishnan and Selvakumar, 2012). Seeds of tomato were sown in sand beds in size 5×1 m2 under shade net condition to raise the seedlings. Twenty day old seedlings were transplanted into field until the fruit ripening period. After transplanting, seedlings of tomato were treated with Azotobacter, Azospirillum and combination of both. In all the treatments, Azotobacter with Azospirillum treated plants showed significantly maximum yield over control. The overall results suggested the improvement of plant mineral concentration through nitrogen fixation enhancing the fruit production in tomato plants (Ramakrishnan and Selvakumar, 2012).

• Arunkumar et al. (2015) studied the evaluation of growth promoting effects of extracts squeezed from the fresh thallus of two seaweeds (Red-Gracilaria corticata var. corticata and brown- seaweed Sargassum wightii) on the seedling of chilly under polyhouse condition. The red seaweed extract of Gracilaria corticata var. corticata contained high content of calcium & magnesium and the brown seaweed extract of Sargassum wightii has high amount of potassium(K) and sulphate at slightly alkaline pH that significantly promoted the growth of chilly. Seedlings received full dose of both seaweed extracts and 50 % recommended dose of N, P and K (RDF)+ 50 % extracts. The latter

treatment showed more growth than plants applied with full dose of seed weed extracts. This result demonstrated that the application of seaweed extracts have the potential to reduce 50 % fertilizer application (Arunkumar et al., 2015).

• A field experiment was carried out to study the combined effect of fertigation and consortium of biofertilizers on the accumulation of secondary and micronutrients in banana cv Robusta (AAA) (Senthilkumar et al., 2014).The results indicated that the combination of fertigation and consortium of biofertilizers (Azospirillum, phosphate solubilizing bacteria and AMF mixed in equal proportions) significantly enhanced the secondary and micronutrient accumulation in the leaves, pseudostem and fruits at harvest. Among the treatments, 100% and 75% RDF through fertigation with the combination of consortium of biofertilizers, recorded significantly higher secondary and micronutrients in the plant parts analysed with higher contents of calcium, magnesium, sulphur in the order of Ca>Mg>S and micronutrient contents in the order of Mn>Fe>Zn in the leaves, pseudostem and fruits (Senthilkumar et al., 2014).

• The field study was carried out during 2010-2012 to find out the effect of integration of bio-fertilizers with organic manures and inorganic fertilizers on growth, yield and quality of strawberry (Fragaria × ananassa Duch.) cv. Festival (Hazarika et al., 2015). The growth, yield and quality of strawberry fruits were significantly influenced by integration of bio-fertilizers, organic manure and inorganic fertilizers. The maximum growth in terms of plant height, spread and number of crowns/plant were observed in the treatment consisting of 75 % RDF + vermicompost + Azospirillum + PSB + 50 ppm GA3+ 50 ppm BA. The yield attributing characters like number of runners/ plant, berry set percentage, berry weight, number of berries/plant and yield/ha were found to be influenced by combined use of organic, inorganic and biological sources of nutrients (Hazarika et al., 2015).

• The field studies were conducted to develop a protocol for application of commercially manufactured biostimulant (Brand name: Plantozyme) from bacterial extract and seaweed extract.

• PlantozymePlantozyme is an innovative microbial product derived from specific strains of naturally occurring microorganisms and special type of seaweeds. A stable formulation containing bacterial extract and seaweed extract make plantozyme a

38 P.N. Chaudhari

safe and novel product for improving plant growth and yields in a natural way. The major constraint with the bacterial culture based bioproducts is the nativity of the bacterial strain used in the manufacture. The strain isolated from a particular place may not be able to compete with the native flora of a totally different geographical area. Therefore the bacteria used in the manufacture of bioproduct may not show good results in a soil different from the native soil even though it proves to be very good in the laboratory studies. Plantozyme has been designed and developed precisely to overcome these constraints and aimed at achieving ‘Sustainable Agriculture’. Plantozyme is manufactured using specific bacteria and seaweed extractsunder controlled fermentation conditions resulting in the stable formulation of bacterial extract and seaweed extract for agricultural applications. The plantozyme is based on seaweed extract bioproduct technology developed by Govt. Of India Laboratory under Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR) viz: National Institute of Oceanography (NIO). Besides the role of seaweed extract as biostimulant, enhancing seed germination; improving soil fertility, plant growth, yield; increasing resistance to biotic and abiotic stresses (Khan et al., 2009; Craigie, 2011; Mattner et al., 2013), bacterial extract performs the additional significant role in the plantozyme biostimulant.

• Effect of plantozyme on various cropsEffect of plantozyme on a variety of crops such as banana, grapes, soybean, Bengal gram, chilli, cotton, sugarcane, wheat, paddy, sorghum etc. were studied at different agriculture research centres in India. Moreover, the effect of plantozyme on horticulture crops like papaya, mango, citrus, strawberry, apple, pineapple, vegetables, tomato, onion etc. was also studied and currently the trials are undertaken on various farms. Some of the studies of the effect of plantozyme were described.

• BananaBanana generally requires high amount of mineral nutrients for proper growth and production. Sea weed based bioregulators are widely used in the recent years to increase the nutrient use efficiency in various agricultural and horticultural crops.• The studies of growth and development of Basrai

banana during 2000-2001 were carried out by IIHR under the project of All India Coordinated Research Project and ICAR ad hoc schemes on Tropical Fruits, for two seasons in clay loamy soil were reported at Gujarat Agricultural University, Gandevi, India (Reddy et al., 2001). Plantozyme was applied as sucker dip/ foliar spray resulting into the improvement of the yield

of Basrai banana under Gandevi conditions (58.24 t/ ha as against 50.39 t/ha in control).

• Jeyakumar and Kumar (2002) studied bio-regulating efficiency of the plantozyme in banana cv. Dwarf Cavendish at Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore, India and reported that the foliar application of 0.2% plantozyme at 6th and 8th month after planting in addition to RDF had significant influence on morphological characters, especially pseudostem height and girth; important physiological and biochemical parameters viz., chlorophyll content, NRase and IAA oxidase activity. Besides improving the leaf nutrients status, higher cell wall plasticity and dry matter accumulation was observed resulting in better yield (Jeyakumar and Kumar, 2002; Balamohan et al., 2007).The higher LAI (Leaf Area Index, 3.37) due to plantozyme enabled the plant to make more effective use of solar energy during photosynthesis. The increase in leaf area could be due to the osmotic uptake of water facilitated by K. The higher N (2.07% increase over control) and K (3.92% increase over control) status in plants due to plantozyme favoured the plants to have more dry matter production by influencing net photosynthesis, transpiration and activities of enzymes such as NRase, 9.63 ìg NO2/g/h and IAA oxidase, 0.77 ìg auxin/g/h (Jeyakumar et al., 2007).

• The physiological and biochemical responses of the ratoon crop of ‘Dwarf Cavendish’ (AAA) to biological derivatives plantozyme and biozyme were assessed during the year 2002-2003. The experiments conducted involve seven treatments, including the control (RDF), soil drenched with plantozyme 0.2% at the time of setting the suckers, 10 gram of granular plantozyme per plant 2 and 4 months after setting, foliar spray of plantozyme 0.2% 6 and 8 months after setting, and exactly the similar treatments for biozyme. The physiological and biochemical changes and agronomic performance of the plants were recorded at shooting (Jeyakumar et al., 2004). Plants treated with foliar spray of plantozyme 0.2% showed higher net photosynthesis and stomatal conductance in the third youngest leaf. The increased net photosynthesis indicates more dry matter production as evidenced through improved pseudostem height and girth with low light transmission ratio. 0.2% plantozyme considerably improved the leaf N and K. Moreover, plantozyme 0.2% resulted in higher sugar content and TSS due to efficient translocation of available photosynthates to fruits and hydrolysis of complex polysaccharides into simple sugars (Jeyakumar et al., 2004).


• GrapesGrape is mainly grown for making wine and preparation of raisin and then as a table fresh fruit. Recent years, unfavourable weather in major grapes growing areas has been an important constrain for Indian table grape industry. ICAR - National Research Centre for Grapes, Pune (established in January 1997) has undertaken the mission oriented research to address the issues related to grape production and processing in India.• Several studies regarding input use efficiency-

optimization of nutrient and water requirement of grapevine in different soil regions were conducted. For improving bud break and grape quality, ICAR-NRCG recommended the plantozyme in Thompson seedless grapes in its annual report (2014-15) (Sawant et al., 2015). Studies on bio-efficacy of plantozyme were evaluated for their effect on growth in Thompson Seedless grapes. Application of plantozyme as foliar spray (2.5 ml/L) significantly influenced all the berry parameters while the application as drip (2.5 ml/L) recorded significantly higher bunch weight, berry length, berry diameter and yield in Thompson Seedless grapes (Sawant et al., 2015).

• Considering the biostimulant quality of plantozyme, multi-location trials were conducted to study bio-efficacy of plantozyme in grapes by National Research Centre for Grapes, Pune (NRC) (2010-11, 2012-13). The experiments were applied to study the effect of plantozyme on vegetative growth, photosynthetic parameters, quality and yield of Thompson Seedless grapes (Ramteke, 2013).

The field experiments were conducted on Thompson Seedless grafted on Dog Ridge rootstock planted at Nashik (Ugaon Khed, Niphad), (Pimpalgoan) and Pune (NRC) in completely randomized design set up. Among the treatments significantly highest yield was recorded as 19.01 ± 2.40 kg/vine over the control 14.29 ± 2.21 kg/vine by the treatment, ‘RDF + Plantozyme Granules (PG) at 50 g/vine immediately after pruning + Plantozyme Liquid (PL)/ planto drip @ 2.5 ml/vine at 21 days and 50 days after pruning + spraying of PL @ 2ml/L at 30 and 55 days after pruning’. Remarkably improved results were observed in number of berries/bunch (103.3 ± 7.6), bunch weight (410.5 ± 36.3 g), 50 berry weight (199.30 ± 5.98 g), berry length (29.1±0.4 mm), berry Diameter (16.4 ± 0.2 mm), skin thickness (26.7 ± 2.0 ìm), Total Soluble Solids (21.0 ± 0.6 0B), acidity (0.8 ± 0.0 g/L) etc. quality and yield parameters. Effect of plantozyme on morphological parameters like shoot length, leaf area with improved leaf size and petiole length was proved better. Also, photosynthetic parameters such as photosynthesis rate, stomatal conductance, Transpiration

rate, vapour pressure deficie and diffusive resistance were recorded perfectly suitable for grape cultivation. From the three location studies, it was concluded that the plantozyme has a potential to increase morphological parameters, rate of photosynthesis, quality and yield components of grapes (Ramteke, 2013).

• SugarcaneSugarcane (Saccharum officinarum L.) is the main sources of sugar in India and holds a prominent position as a cash crop.• Study of the effect of plantozyme on growth and

yield of sugarcane on two varieties, CoM 0265 and Co 86032 (2013-2014) was conducted at Central Sugarcane Research Station, Padegaon, Tal. Phaltan, Dist. Satara. Significant effect on germination percentage, tillering ratio and total dry matter was recorded in this study. Sugarcane yield as well as juice quality improvement was observed with considerably highest % of commercial cane sugar (CCS). The plantozyme treatment, sett dipping of plantozyme (2ml/ L) for 15 min. + spraying of plantozyme @ 3 ml/L at 45 and 65 days after planting + soil application of 50 Kg planto granules / acrewith basal RDF + drenching of 2.5 L plantozyme /acre at the time of earthing up either through irrigation system or by Knapsack sprayer without nozzle in addition to significantly increased the cane and CCS yield by 12.85% for variety CoM 0265 and 15.25% over control (Pawar et al., 2014).

• ChilliChilli (Capsicum annum L., Capsicum frutescens L.) is reported to be a native of South America and is widely distributed in all tropical and sub tropical countries including India. It was first introduced in India by Portuguese towards the end of 15th Century. Now it is grown all over the world except in colder parts.• Acharya N. G. Ranga Agricultural University

conducted the plantozyme trials on chillis at Regional agricultural research station, Lam during kharif 2004-05. The effect of plantozyme on growth and yield parameters in chillies were evaluated. Among the different treatments given (3 replications of randomised block design), the most suitable treatment was of RDF with soil application of planto granules @16kg/acre and foliar spray @ 2ml/L at 45, 75 and 90 days after transplanting. All the results of chilli treatment (plant height, 112.7 cm; no. of pods perplant, 189.8; LAI, 2.06; 100 pod weight, 74.20 g; dry chilli yield, 5592 kg/ha)were found significantly superior (Reddy and Bharathi, 2005).

40 P.N. Chaudhari

• Soybean

Soybean (Glycine max) is an irrigated summer growing oilseed crop whose grain in Australia has traditionally been used for oil extraction and the meal used in the stock feed industries. More recently soybeans have become a popular culinary grain used in the making of Asian foodstuffs such as milk and tofu.• Effect of plantozyme on soybean was studied at Jawaharlal

Nehru Krishi Vishwa Vidyalaya, Jabalpur, India. Significant results were found exploiting the PGPR activity of plantozyme in soybean (variety JS 335). Application of plantozyme (RDF + soil application @16 Kg PG + 2 foliar spray @ 2 ml/L PL) showed increase in grain yield by 23%, reduction in chemical fertilizer consumption up to 20%, increased soil fertility. Application of plantozyme showed remarkable increase in no. of nodules (88.50, 45 days/plant) and improved N uptake efficiency by 39% (Anon, 1998).

• CottonCotton (Gossypium sp.) is one of the most important commercial crops playing a key role in economics. In India cotton is cultivated in 9 million hectares in varied agro-climatic conditions across nine major States.• Evaluation of plantozyme in cotton was studied by

University of Agricultural Sciences, Dharwad at Agricultural Research Station, Dharwad (kharif, 1999-2000, 2000-2001), India. Different parameters of cotton cultivation were evaluated including days to 50% boll opening, plant height (cm), sympodia/plant, boll weight (g), fruiting points/plant, no. of bolls/plant and seed cotton yield by using treatment schedule of randomised block design (three replications). Application of plantozyme showed significantly increased seed cotton yield (13.09 q/ha; 21.69% increase over control) when sprayed 2 ml/L at 60 days after sowing. Plant height (133.1 cm), no. of sympodia/ plant (21.9), boll weight (3.92 g /boll, 19.87 % increase over control) as well as maximum no. of bolls /plant, maximum of 95.0 fruiting points /plants were reported radically better concluding the plantozyme as perfect suitable biostimulant for cotton cultivation (Patil, 2001).

• WheatWheat (Triticum spp.) occupies the prime position among the food crops in the world. In India, it is the second important food crop being next to rice and contributes to the total foodgrain production of the country to the extent of about 25%. Wheat has played a very vital role in stabilizing the foodgrain production in the country over the past few years.

• Effect of plantozyme on wheat was studied under the project entitled ‘Bio-efficacy studies of plantozyme bio product in rice and wheat’ by Kumar et al. (2015) at G. B. Pant University of Agriculture & Technology, PantnagarIndia. 10 different treatments were applied including PG, PL and varying combinations of both, PG and PL. Plant height, tillers per square meter were significantly influenced by PL and PG both at the treatment of PG (@ 75 kg/ha) + PL 3 sprays (@ 1500 ml/ha) at 60 days, 90 days and at harvest stage of wheat crop, which was significantly higher than control and alone application of granule and liquid formulations. At 90 days of crop growth the maximum SPAD (Soil and Plant analyser development) reading was found in PG (@ 75 kg/ha) + PL three sprays (@ 1500 ml/ha), which was significantly higher than the other treatments. The similar results were also noticed in case of green seeker reading, cholorophyll content in leaves, yield contributing characters like spikes/ square metre, grains/spike, 1000 grain weight as well asgrain yield and straw yield both were found maximum at PG (@ 75 kg/ha) + PL 3 sprays (@ 1500 ml/ha depicting the remarkable increase in the yield by 26% over control (Kumar et al., 2015).

• SorghumSorghum (Sorghum vulgare Pers.) is an important crop of the dryland regions in India. It is cultivated in rabi (October-March) (winter) season mainly for food purposes and in kharif (July –October) season for food, feed and fodder uses. In addition, it has immense potential as a high biomass and biofuel crop.• Crop management studies involving tillage,

INM (Integrated Nutrient Management) and efficacy of plantozyme were conducted during rabi 2013-14 at different AICSIP (All India Coordinated Sorghum Improvement Project, Hyderabad) centres (Rahuri, Dharwad).A field experiment to study the efficacy of PL and PG was conducted on productivity of rainfed rabi sorghum during rabi 2012-13. Treatments include PG @ 20 kg/ ha as soil application, PL @ 2 ml/L water foliar spraying at 35 days after sowing (DAS), PL @ 2 ml/L water sprayed at 60 DAS, PL @ 2 ml /L water sprayed at 35 and 60 DAS, PL @ 2 ml/L water as seed treatment and RDF (60:30:30 kg/ ha NPK) alone replicated four times in a randomized block design. Results revealed that application of these compounds along with RDF improved the grain yield of rabi sorghum as compared to RDF alone. Foliar spraying of plantozyme @ 2 ml/L water at 35 and 60 DAS significantly increased the grain yield (1570 kg/ ha) of


rabi sorghum compared to RDF alone (1178 kg/ha) (Rajendrakumar et al., 2014).

Moreover, the effect of plantozyme on various agriculture and horticulture crops was studied in detail at different Agricultural Research Centres and found superior results for each crop. The plantozyme thus, appeared as an efficient microbial bioproduct establishing the suatainable agriculture with quality crop yield in cost effective and eco- friendly way. Consequently the plantozyme has a potential to meet all the challenges like reduction in chemical fertilizers, environment protection, soil health maintenance, quality crop yield establishing the disease resistant plant.

CONCLUSIONMicrobial bioproducts can help solve the problem of feeding an increasing global population at a time when agriculture is facing various environmental stresses. It is important to realise the useful aspects of microbial bioproducts and their incorporation in modern agricultural practices. The lack of awareness regarding improved protocols of a range of bioproducts applied to the field is one of the few reasons why many useful microbial bioproducts are still beyond the knowledge of ecologists and agriculturists. The success of the science related to microbial bioproducts depends on the inventions of innovative strategies related to their functions and proper relevance to the agriculture. The major challenge in this area of agricultural research lies is to analyse the scientific basis or mechanism of functioning microbial bioproducts and production and commercialization of various microbial bioproducts for their efficacy towards exploitation in sustainable agriculture. . A diverse range of commercial microbial bioproducts have been found but their consistent use in fields is yet to be fully realised. New knowledge on soil microbial diversity can lead to the discovery of new generation microbial bioproducts following the exploitation of perfect combination of microbial bioproducts in the field.

The performance of the microbial bioproducts depends on the potential of the microorganisms added or mixed cultures or microbial extracts along with seaweed extracts as well as their accuracy and stability in the field application. Furthermore, novel products like plantozyme has a potential to meet all the challenges such as reduction in chemical fertilizers, environment protection, soil health maintenance and above all, to protect our farmers interests and his life, ultimately to ensure the food security to the nation in the coming centuries. Moreover, the plantozyme as well as many other efficient microbial products should be applied in the fields with the perfect agricultural technique fulfilling the role of microbial bioproducts in sustainable agriculture. In order to make this microbial bioproduct technology a

successful venture, the products must reach the hands of the farmers. Therefore more than ordinary efforts are required to fully exploit the benefits of microbial bioproducts in the farmers’ field through revamping of extension activities and increasing the frequency of field demonstrations, farmers’ fairs and training programmes.

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International Journal of Innovative Horticulture. 6(1):48-51, 2017 Original Article

Yogi- a promising variety of guava

D.K. Varu* and R.S. ChovatiaDepartment of Horticulture, Junagadh Agricultural University, Junagadh-362001, Gujarat

ABSTRACT

Experiments were conducted at the Fruit and Vegetable Farm, BAPS, Gondal (Gujarat) to evaluate the different guava varieties along with local selection, Yogi, for yield and quality traits including pulp colour. The study revealed highest plant height and plant spread (NS) in Yogi and variety L-49, respectively. Among the various physical parameters studied, highest fruit diameter (6.77 cm) and fruit weight (165.50 g) were also registered in Yogi which was at par with variety L-49. Highest fruit length (7.66 cm) was noted in variety Bhavanagar Red followed by Yogi. L-49 performed better for higher pulp weight, pulp seed ratio and lowest number of seed per fruit. Yogi displayed early bearing at 2 nd year after TP. Likewise, maximum number of fruit per plant was noted in Bhavanagar Red which was at par with Yogi as compared to other cultivars. Yogi was also found better in terms of fruit yield. The quality parameters were found significant and highest TSS, non reducing sugar, total sugar, sugar acid ratio and lowest acidity were registered in Yogi and vice-versa for reducing sugar. Maximum ascorbic acid was recorded in Bhavanagar Red followed by L-49. Likewise highest shelf life was noted in L-49 followed by Yogi, which possesses rounded fruit shape with fine skin structure. The pulp color is also important character and pinkish red pulp was observed in Yogi which is most preferred by people as compared to white in L-49 and light pink in Bhavanagar red.

Keywords: Variety, pulp colour, fruit diameter, shelf life.

INTRODUCTIONGuava (Psidium guajava L. of family Myrtaceae) is one of the most important fruit crops of the country particularly in arid and semi-arid tracts. However, it is grown throughout the tropical and sub-tropical regions of the country. It holds an important position in the Indian fruit industry. It is the fourth most widely grown fruit crop in India after mango, banana and citrus. The area under guava cultivation is about 2.05 lakh hectares with an annual production of 2.46 million tonnes in country (Anonymous, 2011). The plant is hardy in nature, easy to cultivate and is a good source of anti-oxidants as well as medicinal values. The fruit is delicious, rich in Vitamin C, pectin and minerals like calcium, phosphorous, iron and oil (Babu et al., 2007; Patel et al., 2013). The seed yields around 3–13 % oil, which is rich in essential fatty acids (omega-3 and omega-6 polyunsaturated fatty acids) and could be used as salad dressing (Mahour et al., 2012). The seed extract contains compounds with antibacterial, antifungal and analgesic properties. The pharmacological actions and the medicinal uses of aqueous extracts of different parts of guava plant viz., fruits, leaves,

roots and bark are utilized in traditional medicines for the treatment of gastroenteritis, diarrhea, hypertension, diabetes, dysentery and also to heal wounds (Joseph and Priya, 2011).

The Saurashtra region of Gujarat is quite suitable for commercial cultivation of guava. Varieties recommended for various regions of the country are grown in the region, but no attempt has been made to find out cultivar suitable for Saurashtra region. Hence, the present study was conducted to fulfill the objective of finding a suitable guava cultivar for the region with good yield and quality, including pulp color, for the region.

MATERIALS AND METHODSExperiment was conducted at Fruit and Vegetable Farm, BAPS, Gondal, Gujarat. Three different cultivars, viz., Bhavanagar Red, L-49 and one local selection, Yogi, were evaluated in randomized block design (RBD) with seven replications. The orchard was laid out in square system with 5 x 5 m spacing. Uniform planting materials were used for the present study. All plants were given uniform


Yogi- a promising variety of guava 49

cultural operations as per the recommended package of practices. The soil of experimental field was sandy loam to alluvial type. The selected trees were marked with metal tag for recording observation. The observations like plant height, plant spread, physical parameters (fruit length, fruit diameter, fruit weight, pulp weight, seed weight, number of seed per fruit and pulp to seed ratio), number of fruits per plant, fruit yield as well as biochemical parameters were recorded. Observations on growth parameters were taken at the beginning, whereas fruit characters were recorded at the time of harvesting. Plant height and plant spread were recorded with measuring tape. The fruits of different cultivars were harvested with secateurs keeping a small intact pedicel with each fruit. The number of fruits per plant was recorded at the time of harvesting from the marked plants. The total fruit yield per tree was obtained through the number of fruits retained by the trees and weighing the fruits with the help of an electronic balance. Fruit size was recorded by measuring length and diameter of fruit with the help of vernier caliper. Number of seeds per fruit was calculated by separating the seeds by using ordinary sieve (<20 mm) and then counting of seeds per fruit. The skin of freshly harvested fruits was peeled and pulp was separated and weighed using an electronic balance. Mean weight was computed and expressed in grams. The biochemical parameters like TSS, sugars, acidity, ascorbic acid, etc. were recorded following prescribed methods. Total soluble solid (TSS) was determined with the help of digital refractometer. Acidity was determined by titrating the juice against N/10 NaOH and expressed as per cent citric acid. Ascorbic acid content of fruit was determined following the method suggested in A.O.A.C. (1970) and sugars were analyzed as per method enumerated by Lane and Eynon (1943). The data was statistically analysed by method of analysis of variance using RBD as described by Panse and Sukhatme (1985).

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONFruit yield is the most important character with respect to guava cultivation. Besides, better management of orchard, the varietal characteristics is another important factor which influences fruit yield. The results of the study revealed that

Table 2: Physical parameters of guava exhibited by different genotypes

the highest number of fruit per plant (370.00) was recorded in Bhavanagar Red, but was observed at par with the local selection Yogi (340.71). Highest fruit yield (56.13 kg/plant and 15.55 ton/ha) were noted in Yogi which was on par with L-49. Significant variations might be due to different genetic sources constituting the genetic makeup of varieties. This is in conformity with the findings of Marak and Mukunda (2007), Athani et al. (2007) and Babu et al. (2007).

The bearing age of plant has a direct impact on the economic value of crop and Yogi was observed to be early bearing selection i.e. earliest bearing at 2nd year after transplanting as compared to other variety as they started bearing only at the 4th year after transplanting.Variation in growth parameters like plant height and plant spread (NS) due to different varieties were found significant (Table 1) and maximum plant height (2.63 m) and highest plant spread NS (4.20 m) were recorded in Yogi and variety L-49, respectively; however, these were on par with L-49, for plant height, and Yogi, for plant spread (NS). The plant spread (EW) was observed non-significant.Table 1: Effect of different varieties on growth parameters in guava

Selection & varieties Plant height (m) Pl. spread (m)

EW N S

Yogi 2.63 3.67 4.05Bhavnagar Red 3.15 3.83 3.97L-49 2.85 3.74 4.20S. Em.+ 0.082 0.051 0.055C. D. at 5% 0.25 N S 0.17C . V.% 7.5 3.59 3.57

Length, diameter and weight of fruits were the major components of fruit size under the present study (Table 2). The results were found significant and highest fruit length (7. 66 cm) was noted in variety Bhavanagar Red followed by Yogi. The variation in fruit length can be attributed to genetic constitution of the plants. Similar findings were reported by Sadashivaiah (1989) and Pandey et al. (2007). Highest fruit diameter (6.77 cm) and fruit weight 165.50g) were registered in Yogi but was found at par with variety L-49. This variation may be due to phenotypic and genotypic interactions among the selections. Likewise, highest pulp

Selection & varieties Fruit length (cm) Fruit diameter (cm) Fruit weight (g) Pulp weight (g) Seed weight (g) No. of seed Pulp seedper fruit ratio

Yogi 6.67 6.77 165.50 151.56 13.95 410.11 10.92Bhavnagar Red 7.66 4.95 95.45 90.04 5.40 282.43 16.68L-49 6.21 6.63 159.49 153.86 5.63 260.86 27.45S. Em. + 0.201 0.146 3.131 3.121 0.257 13.139 0.563C. D. at 5% 0.62 0.45 9.65 9.62 0.79 40.49 1.74C . V.% 7.74 6.31 5.91 6.26 8.15 10.94 8.12

50 D.K. Varu and R.S. Chovatia

weight (153.86 g) and pulp seed ratio (27.45) were noted in L-49 that was observed at par with Yogi for pulp weight. Lowest seed weight (5.40 g) and number of seed per fruit were registered in Bhavanagar Red but was found at par with L-49. Such variation among the selections in seed characters may be attributed to genetic makeup of the plants. Seed number is known to be a function of value fertility and effective fertilization. Lowest number of seeds per fruit (260.86) was recorded in L-49 which was observed at par with Bhavanagar Red. Variations in seed characters of guava fruit were also observed in Apple Colour selections by Marak and Mukunda (2007). Similar results were also recorded by Sadashivaiah (1989), Prakash (1976) and Patel et al. (2007).

Bio-chemical components are important to assess if the fruits could be used either as a dessert or utilized for processing. Total soluble solids indicates higher sugar content in the fruits and is considered as one of the important criterion for dessert quality whereas lycopene content which causes pink colouration is important determinant of processing quality. In the present study, Yogi established its supremacy in quality parameters viz., total soluble solids (12.720 Brix), total sugars (8.66%), non -reducing sugar (5.66%), sugar/acid ratio (14.47) and lowest acidity (0.52%) over the other varieties. It may be due to phenotypic and genetic constitution among the selections which might have necessitated consumption of nutrients and sinking more carbohydrates into the fruits, thus producing larger fruits with more TSS. This is in conformity

Table 4: Effect of different varieties on biochemical parameters in guava

with the findings of Ram et al. (1997), Athani et al. (2007) and Marak and Mukunda (2007). The sugars present in the fruit impart the sweetness while sugars and organic acids present in the fruit influence its taste and flavour. Moderate acid content, coupled with high total sugar content, as observed in Yogi appeared to impart favourable taste and flavour of its fruits. This is in conformity with the findings of Tandon et al. (1983), Aulakh (2005) and Babu et al. (2007). Guava fruits are consumed for the nutritive value offered by ascorbic acid content promoting their dessert quality. Highest reducing sugar (3.71%) and ascorbic acid content (203.14 mg/100 g) were observed in L-49 and Bhavanagar Red, respectively.

The variation in ascorbic acid content may be due to its varietal character. Similar trend was also reported by Gohil et al. (2006), Pandey et al. (2007) and Biradar and Mukunda (2007). Shelf life of the fruit is also an important feature which enhances the more market price for longer period due to good keeping quality. Highest shelf life (8.00 days) was noted in variety L-49 followed by Yogi.Table 3: Effect of different varieties on no. of fruit per plant and fruit yield in guava

Selection & varieties No. of fruits Fruit yield Fruit yieldper plant (Kg/pl.) (t/ha)

Yogi 340.71 56.13 15.55Bhavnagar Red 370.00 35.58 9.86L-49 319.14 51.63 14.30S. Em.+ 10.165 1.521 0.421C. D. at 5% 31.32 4.69 1.30C . V.% 7.83 8.42 8.42

Selection & vars. TSS (0B) Reducing Non Reducing Total sugar Ascorbic acid Acidity(%) Sugar/acid ratiosugar (%) sugar(%) (%) (mg/100 g)

Yogi 12.72 3.00 5.66 8.66 139.54 0.52 14.47Bhavnagar Red 10.56 2.13 4.19 6.32 203.14 0.59 10.75L-49 11.37 3.71 2.64 6.36 188.00 0.61 10.51S. Em.+ 0.279 0.060 0.113 0.102 3.562 0.010 0.464C. D. at 5% 0.86 0.18 0.35 0.31 10.98 0.03 1.43C . V.% 6.39 5.34 7.15 3.79 5.33 4.8 10.3

Table 5: Effect of different varieties on fruit shape and color in guava

Selection & vars. Fruit shape at stock end Pulp color Skin surface Seed hardness Bearing age Shelf life (Days)

Yogi Rounded Pinkish red Fine Medium hard 2nd year after TP 5.00Bhavnagar Red Pointed Light pink Fine Soft 4th year after TP 4.14L-49 Rounded White Course Hard 4th year after TP 8.00S. Em.+ - - - - - 0.103C. D. at 5% - - - - - 0.32C . V.% - - - - - 4.79

Yogi- a promising variety of guava 51

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chem-ists. 11th ed. Washington. DC.Anonymous. 2011. Indian Horticulture Database. p. 81–87. Gurgaon: NHB.Athani, S. I., P. B. Patil, G. S. K. Swamy, A. I. Sabarad and K. R. Gorabal.

2007. Studies on growth and fruit characters in guava cultivars. Acta Horticulture, 735: 271-275.

Aulakh, P.S. 2005. Performance of different guava cultivars under the arid irri-gated conditions of Punjab. Progressive Horticulture., 37: 328-330.

Babu, K. D., R. K. Patel and D. S. Yadav. 2007. Comparative Evaluation of Guava Selections under North Eastern Region of India. In: I International Guava Symposium 735, pp. 99-103.

Biradar, S. L. and G. K. Mukunda. 2007. TG Seln.5/12– A promising genotype of Taiwan guava from Bangalore. Acta Horticulture, 735: 85-89.

Gohil, S. N., B. V. Garad, H. K. Shirsath and A. L. Palande. 2006. Study of physical constituents in guava (Psidium guajava) under sub arid zone of Maharashtra. Advances in Plant Sciences, 19(2): 515.

Joseph, B. and M. Priya. 2011. Review on nutritional, medicinal and pharmaco-logical properties of guava (Psidium guajava Linn.). International Journal of Pharma and Biosciences, 2: 53–69.

Lane, J.H. and L. Eynon. 1943. Determination of reducing sugar by means of Fehlings solution with methylene blue as an internal indicator. Journal of the Chemical Society, 42: 327.

Mahour, M. K., R. Tiwari and B. S. Baghel. 2012. Evaluation of guava varieties for growth, yield and quality attributes in Malwa Plateau conditions of Madhya Pradesh. Indian Journal of Horticulture, 69(4): 474–477.

Marak, J. K. and G. K. Mukunda. 2007. Studies on the performance of open pollinated seedling progenies of guava cv. Apple Colour. Acta Horticulture. 735: 79-84.

Pandey, D., S. K. Shukla, R. C. Yadav and A. K. Nagar. 2007. Promising guava (Psidium guajava L.) cultivars for North Indian conditions. Acta Horticulture, 735: 91- 94.

Panse V. G. and P.V. Sukhatme. 1985. Statistical Methods for Agricultural Workers. 4th ed. ICAR, New Delhi.

Patel, R. K., C. S. Maiti, B. C. Deka, N. A. Deshmukh and A. Nath. 2013. Changes in sugars, pectin and antioxidants of guava (Psidium guajava) fruits during fruit growth and maturity. Indian Journal of Agricultural Sci-ences, 83(10): 1017.

Patel, R. K., D. S. Yadav, K. D. Babu, A. Singh and R. M. Yadav. 2007. Growth, yield and quality of various guava (Psidium guajava L.) Hybrids/ cultivars under mid hills of Meghalaya. Acta Horticulture, 735: 57- 59.

Prakash, N. A. 1976. Studies on growth and fruiting in Sardar guava (Psidiumguajava L.). M. Sc. (Agri.) Thesis, Univ. Agric. Sci., Bangalore, Karnataka (India).

Ram, R. A., D. Pandey and G. C. Sinha. 1997. Selection of promising clones of guava cv. Allahabad Safeda. Haryana. Journal of Horticultural Science and Biotechnology, 26(1-2): 89-91.

Sadashivaiah, K. N. 1989. Studies on physico-chemical characteristics of Navalur guava (Psidium guajava L.) cultivars in relation to fruit yield and quality. Ph. D. thesis, Univ. of Agric. Sci., Dharwad.

Tandon, D. K., S. K. Kalra, H. Singh and K. L. Chadha. 1983. Physico-chemical characteristics of some guava varieties. Progressive Horticulture, 15 (1-2): 42-44.


Benefits of price forecast to cumin growers in Gujarat

V.D. Tarpara*, M.G. Dhandhalya, Haresh Chavda and P.B. MarviyaDepartment of Agricultural Economics, Junagadh Agricultural University, Junagadh-362001, Gujarat

ABSTRACT

The present study was undertaken to analyze the impact of price forecasts of cumin released by Market Intelligence Centre of Junagadh Agricultural University, Junagadh in crop year 2015-16. Monthly time series data on wholesale prices of cumin for the period January, 1991 to January, 2016 were obtained from Unjha regulated market and used for price forecast. Various time series models were applied to analyze the data. ARIMA (0,1,1) model was found the best fitted model with lowest MAPE value and hence price was forecasted using this model. Finally a market advisory was prepared and released through different mass media like news papers, voice SMS, farmers trainings and university website. To study the impact assessment of price forecast, all the 30 targeted farmers, who attended the training conducted by Market Intelligence Centre of JAU, Junagadh, were aware with price forecast and adopted the price forecast suggestions. Further 30 non-targeted farmers selected were those who were not participants of the training programme. The price forecasted for months from February to April, 2016 was Rs. 12500 to 14000 per quintal and farmers were suggested to store cumin and sell after April 2016. On an average 3.38 ha area was operated under cumin by sample farmers. Average price received by the sample farmers during March-April 2016 was Rs. 11836.55 per quintal, where as the price of stored quantity of cumin realized by the sample farmers according to advice given by AMIC, JAU, Junagadh was Rs. 13473.25 per quintal after April 2016. Thus, an incremental income realized to the extent of Rs. 30505.27 per hectare by the farmers who sold their produce after April 2016.

Keywords: ARIMA model, cumin, price forecast.

INTRODUCTIONCumin seed is an oblong shaped, sharp flavoured and dark colored aromatic spice that is placed second to pepper in the context of importance. It is actually the dried fruit of an annual, thin -stemmed cumin plant, which belongs to parsley family. The plant has a short height of 25-30 cm and has white to red colored flowers. These flowers produce the fruits for the plant that are consumed all over the world as a flavouring agent in whole or grounded form. Cumin is also known for its curing characteristics and hence it is used in many herbal and ayurvedic medicines.

India, being the world leader in the context of spice production, is also the largest producer of cumin in the world. Cumin is generally cultivated in the hot and humid climate, which is aptly provided by the regions in North Africa, southern parts of the North American continent and Southern Asia. Regarding the consumption pattern of this spice, India again bags the first place. The most of the demand for cumin seeds comes from the food and food processing industry and the world’s total demand except India’s demand sum up to a mere 25 to 30 thousand tonnes.

In, India cumin production for the crop year 2014-15 is estimated to be around 284 thousand tonnes as against the historic high production of 402 thousand tonnes in 2013-14 (Research Report of Department of Agricultural Economics, JAU, Junagadh). Declining trend in acreage under cumin is the main factor behind the drop in production. Overall, supply is higher than the last four years average supply of 416 thousand tonnes. So, during the peak arrival season April -May prices are likely to be in a range 13000 to 14000 Rs. quintal-1. (www.commodityindia. com). The major trading centers of cumin and its derivatives in India are Unjha in Gujarat and Pratapgarh, Niwai, Nembhaheda, Kekri, Bhawanimandi, Nagaur, Jhalarapatan, Jodhpur and Rani, all in Rajasthan.

Under the NIAP project ‘Network Project on Market Intelligence’, which is in operation in the Department of Agricultural Economics, Junagadh Agricultural University, Junagadh, two price forecasts were made for production year 2015-16. It was stated that the “prices of cumin during February to April 2016 i.e. at harvest might remain in the range of Rs. 2600 to Rs. 2900 per 20 kg (Rs. 13000 - 14500 qtl-1). This might have taken note by the farmers,


Benefits of price forecast to cumin growers in Gujarat 53

who were advised to take their own decision to allocate the acreage under cumin, keeping the above price level in view”.

After a thorough review of crop situation and market trend, as well as domestic and international factors and trader’s view, the second price forecast revealed that the “prices of cumin during March to April 2016 i.e. at harvest might remain in the range of Rs. 2500 to 2800 per 20 kg (Rs. 12500 - 14000 qtl-1). Farmers were advised to take their own decision to store cumin and sell after April 2016”.

With this background, the present study was undertaken to analyze the impact of price forecasts of cumin released by Market Intelligence Centre of Junagadh Agricultural University, Junagadh in crop year 2015-16.

METHODOLOGY AND DATA SOURCESampling design

To view the benefits of price forecast to the farmers in Gujarat state, Halvadtaluka (then in Surendranagar district and now in Morbi district) and Vadhwantaluka, of Surendranagar district, were selected for study because of large area under cumin cultivation and good market availability. A total of five villages were selected of which two villages were selected for targeted farmers, i.e., those were earlier trained regarding market information and intelligence (NAIP - AMIC project). The remaining three villages were selected randomly for non - targeted farmers. A total of 60 cumin growing farmers were interviewed comprising 30 targeted and 30 non- targeted from these villages. The information required for the study was collected from the sample farmers through personal interview using a pre-tested, structured schedule of inquiry. The primary data under investigation pertain to the agricultural year 2015-16. The tabular analysis was done to arrive at the result.Statistical tools

The ARIMA models were employed for the price forecast of cumin. The statistical time series forecasting was performed by using SPSS 19 software.ARIMA Model

A new generation forecasting tool, popularly known as the Box-Jenkins (ARIMA) model, was used to measure the relationships existing among the observations within the series. Box-Jenkins time series model written as ARIMA (p, d, q) was first popularized by Box-Jenkins (1976). The acronym ARIMA stands for “Auto-Regressive Integrated Moving Average”. Lags of the differenced series appearing in the forecasting equation are called “auto-regressive”

terms, lags of the forecast errors are called “moving average” terms, and a time series which was differenced to be made stationary is said to be an “integrated” version of a stationary series. Random-walk and random-trend models, auto-regressive models and exponential smoothing models (i.e., exponential weighted moving averages) are all special cases of ARIMA models. It was first given by Box and Jenkins (1970), was frequently used for discovering the pattern and predicting the future values of time series data, while Slutzky (1973) used the moving average model. Ansari and Ahmed (2001) applied ARIMA modeling for time series analysis of world tea prices and industrialized countries export prices. Nochai and Titida (2006) used ARIMA model for forecasting oil palm prices. Punitha (2007) used ARIMA model to forecast the arrivals and prices of maize and groundnut in Hubali and Devangere markets in Karnataka. ARIMA modeling consists of four operational steps: identification, estimation, diagnostics and validation.

ARIMA models are, in theory, the most general class of models for forecasting a time series which can be stationarized by transformations such as differencing and lagging. In fact, the easiest way to think of ARIMA models is as fine -tuned versions of random- walk and random-trend models. The fine-tuning consists of adding lags of the differenced series and/or lags of the forecast errors to the prediction equation, as needed to remove any last traces of autocorrelation from the forecast errors.The important point to note is that to use the Box-Jenkins methodology, we need either a stationary time-series or a time-series that is stationary after one or more differencing.

In ARIMA terms, a time series is a linear function of past actual values and random shocks, that is,

Yt= f (Yt-k, et-k) + et,

Where, k > 0

In ARIMA model, we do not have a forecasting model a priori before model identification takes place. ARIMA helps us to choose “right model” to fit the time series. A good number of applications of ARIMA model can be found in

Bhardwaj et al. (2014), Paul et al. (2013, 2014)and Paul and Das (2010). The price forecast was done by using the above mentioned ARIMA model. The tabular analysis was done in order to know whether the forecasted price of cumin was in range of actual market price for the forecasted period and whether farmers were benefitted or not due to forecast. In short, tabular analysis was used to estimate the impact of price forecast on the farm income of cumin growing farmers.

54 V.D. Tarpara, M.G. Dhandhalya, Haresh Chavda and P.B. Marviya

RESULT AND DISCUSSIONTime series analysis includes the statistical analysis and interpretation of time series data of monthly average price of cumin crop.

Price forecastThe price forecast of cumin was done for the period of March 2016 to April 2016 by using the time series data of monthly wholesale price of cumin from Unjha APMC of Gujarat from January-1991 to January-2016. Both non-seasonal and seasonal models of ARIMA were employed to forecast the price of cumin for the mention period and the best result was obtained in non-seasonal model of ARIMA. The best fitted model was selected from the following ARIMA models viz., ARIMA (1,0,0), ARIMA (1,1,0), ARIMA (1,1,1), ARIMA (0,1,), ARIMA (0,0,1), ARIMA (1,0,1) and ARIMA (0,1,0) on the basis of Mean Absolute Percentage Error (MAPE) criteria. The best fitted model found was ARIMA (0, 1, 2) based on MAPE value criteria.

Detail of the best fitted model ARIMA (0,1,1) is presented in Table 1. It was found that observed R-square obtained was 79.40 per cent and stationary R-square was 0.200. The MAPE (Mean Absolute Percentage Error) was found to be 17.34. The goodness of fit of the model was decided based on the MAPE value i.e., smaller value of MAPE indicates better fit. The value of Normalized BIC was found to be 14.70. The forecasted prices by ARIMA (0,1,1) model were Ra. 13648.40 qtl-1 and Rs. 13715.43 qtl-1 in March and April 2016, respectively. The price forecast (pre-harvest) released by Department of Agricultural Economics of Junagadh Agricultural University in February 2016 stated that during March to April 2016 price may remain in the range of Rs. 2500 to 2800 per 20 kg (Rs. 12500 to 14000 qtl-1). In addition to this, the traders’ survey of Unjha APMC was also carried out and it was considered along with other criteria while forecasting the price of cumin for post harvest

period. The image of trend lines of observed, fit and forecasted price series is presented in Fig. 1.Table 1: The model summary of ARIMA (0, 1, 2) model

R-square MAPE Normalized Stationary Forecasted Price by ModelBIC R-square (Rs. qtl-1)

0.794 17.34 14.706 0.200 Mar. 2016 13648.40Apr. 2016 13715.43

Note: Best-fitting models according to MAPE (smaller values indicate better fit).

Residual ACF and residual PACFThe graphs of autocorrelation function and partial autocorrelation function of ARIMA (0,1,2) model are given in Fig. 2. It can be observed from the figure that price series was found stationary as it has not shown continuous declining trend.

Impact of price forecastsIn Gujarat, cumin is mainly grown in North Gujarat region. The production and price related information pertaining to the respondent farmers are presented in Table 2. The average land holding size of targeted farmers was reported to be 3.14 ha and in case of non-targeted farmers, it was 3.62 ha, with an average of 3.38 ha in case of all the 60 sample farmers. The average operated holding of targeted, non-targeted and all farmers under cumin was 1.22, 1.05 and 1.14 ha, respectively. Most of the sample farmers had irrigation facilities and most of the areas of cumin were under irrigation, even though the cumin crop is not require more water for their life span. The total cumin production was 27,720 kg, 25,450 kg and 53,170 kg for targeted, non-targeted and all sample farmers, respectively. The average price received by targeted farmers during season 2015-16 varied from Rs. 2365.26 to Rs. 2703.63 per 20 kg and in case of non-targeted farmers, varied from Rs.2369.00 to Rs. 2685.67 per 20 kg during the same

Fig. 1: Price series chart of observed, fit and forecasted value of cumin pricein Unjha APMC. (Period: January, 1991-April, 2015) Fig. 2: Residual ACF and Residual PACF of ARIMA (0,1,1) Model

Benefits of price forecast to cumin growers in Gujarat 55

Table 2: Production and price details of retention of the sample farmers

Sl. No. Particulars Targeted farmers Non-targeted farmers All farmers

1. Average size land holding (ha) 3.14 3.62 3.382. Average operated holding under cumin (ha) 1.22(36.6) 1.05 (31.5) 1.14 (68.4)3. Total production during 2015-16 (quintal) 277.2 254.60 531.70

4. Average price received during 2014-154a. Price of quantity sold during March to April- 2016 (Rs. qtl-1) 11828.35 11845.00 11836.554b. Price of stored quantity after April- 2016 (Rs. qtl-1) 13518.15 13428.35 13473.25

5 Quantity sold before April-2016 i.e. at harvest (quintal) 88.00 112.70 200.606. Quantity retained beyond April-2016 (quintal) 189.20 141.9 331.17. Total income realized at the pre forecast (Rs.) 10,40,894.80 13,34,931.50 23,74,431.998. Total income realized at the post forecast (Rs.) 25,57,633.98 19,05,482.86 44,60,993.079. Total incremental income realized (8-7) (Rs.) 15,16,739.18 5,70,551.36 20,86,561.08

10. Incremental income realized on per ha. Basis (Rs.) 41,440.96 18,112.74 30,505.2711. Incremental income realized per farmer (Rs.) 50,557.97 19,018.37 34,776.01

season. The average price received by all the sample farmers (targeted + non-targeted farmers) during 2015-16 varied from Rs.2367.33 to Rs.2694.65 per 20 kg.The price forecast (pre-harvest) of cumin by Market Intelligence Centre of Junagadh Agricultural University during 2015-16 stated that prices of cumin during March to April 2016, i.e. at harvest, might remain in the range of Rs. 2600 to 2850 per 20 kg (Rs. 13000- 4250/qtl). Hence, farmers were advised to take their own decision to store cumin and sell after April 2016.

It may be observed from Table 2 that 189.20 quintals of cumin were retained after March 2016 by 30 sample targeted farmers, followed by 141.90 quintals cumin retained by 30 non-targeted farmers and 331.10 quintals were retained by total 60 sample farmers.During the harvesting period March-April 2016, the average price received by sample was Rs. 11836.55 qtl-1, which increased later on as per forecast, and the 60 sample farmers realized Rs. 13473.25 qtl-1 of their stored quantity of 331.10 quintals. The farmers gained more profit of Rs. 1610.7 qtl-1. The incremental income realized by sample farmers was estimated by taking the difference between period of March 2016 to April 2016 and after April 2016. The total incremental income realized by targeted, non-targeted and all farmers were Rs. 15,16,739.18, Rs. 5,70,551.36 and Rs. 20,86,561.08, respectively. The incremental income on per hectare basis realized by targeted farmers was Rs. 41440.96, by non-targeted farmers Rs. 18112.74 and for total sample farmers, it was Rs. 30505.27. The total incremental income realized by targeted, non-targeted and all farmers were Rs.50,557.97, Rs. 19,018.37 and Rs. 34,776.01, respectively.

Sources of price forecast informationThe sources of accessing price forecast and other market related intelligence by the sample respondents during the

crop season 2015-16 is depicted in Table 3. It may be clearly seen that most of the farmers (75%) obtained information about price forecast from newspapers. The targeted 30 were in contact with field assistance of CCS scheme. About 33 per cent have also got information from friends and fellow farmers, followed by voice SMS and telephonic contact with scientist.Table 3: Sources of accessing price forecast by sample farmers (n=60)

Sl. No. Sources of information No. of farmers

1. Farmers’ training & CCS scheme assistance 30(50.00)2. News paper 45(75.00)3. Voice SMS 10(16.66)4. Radio 0(0.00)5. TV 3(5.00)6. Others (friends and fellow farmers, etc.) 22(36.66)7. By telephonic contact with scientist 4(6.66)

Note: Figures in the parentheses indicate percentage to total farmers

CONCLUSIONIn Gujarat, during 2014-15, area under cumin decreased to 2.66 lakh ha as against 3.70 lakh ha in 2013-14 due to lack of water for irrigation purposes. The production also remained low about 1.58 lakh tonnes as against 2.80 lakh tonnes in previous year. Market Intelligence Centre of JAU during 2015-16 advised the farmers have to take their own decision to store cumin and sell after April 2016.

To study the impact of the price forecast benefits to the farmers, a total of 60 cumin growers spread over three villages of Halvadtaluka (then in Surendranagar district and now in Morbi district) and two villages of Vadhwantaluka of Surendranagar district were personally interviewed in 2015-16 marketing season. The average operated holding under cumin was 3.38 ha per farmer. The total cumin production of 60 sample farmers was 531.70 quintals. During the harvesting period March-April 2016, the average

56 V.D. Tarpara, M.G. Dhandhalya, Haresh Chavda and P.B. Marviya

price received by sample farmers was Rs. 11836.55 qtl -1, which increased later on as per forecast and 60 sample farmers realized Rs. 13473.25 qtl-1 of their stored quantity of 331.10 quintals. The farmers gained more profit of Rs. 1610.7 qtl-1. The incremental income realized by 60 sample farmers was Rs. 30,505.27 ha-1. Each sample farmer gained additional income of Rs. 34,776.01. Most of the sample farmers obtained market information through news, training, friends and voice mail SMS. Farmers may gain more if market intelligence services are strengthened.

REFERENCESAnonymous. 2014. Research Report on Trends in Price, Arrival and

Production of Cumin in Saurashtra Region. Department of Agricultural Economics, Junagadh Agricultural University, Junagadh.

Ansari, M.I. and Ahmed, S.M. 2001. Time series analysis of Tea prices: An application of ARIMA modeling and co integration analysis. The Indian Economic Journal, 48: 49-54.

Box, G.E.P. and Jenkins, G. M. 1976. Time Series Analysis: Forecasting and control, Second Edition, Holden Day.

Bhardwaj, S.P., Paul, R.K., Singh, D.R. and Singh, K.N. 2014. An empirical investigation of ARIMA and GARCH models in agricultural price forecast-ing. Economic Affairs-Quarterely Journal of Economics, 53(3): 415-428.

Nochai, R. and Nochai, T. 2006. ARIMA model for forecasting oil palm prices. 2nd IMT-GT Regional conference on mathematics, Statistics and Applica-tions, University Sains Malaysia, Penang.

Paul, R.K. and Das, M.K. 2010. Statistical modeling of inland fish production in India. Journal of the Inland Fisheries Society of India, 42(2): 1-7.

Paul, R.K., Panwar, S., Sarkar, S.K., Kumar, A., Singh, K.N., Farooqi, S. and Chaudhary, V.K. 2013. Modelling and forecasting of meat exports from India. Agricultural Economics Research Review, 26(2): 249-256.

Paul, R.K., Alam, W. and Paul, A.K. 2014. Prospects of livestock and dairy production in India under time series framework. Indian Journal of Animal Sciences, 84(4): 130-134.

Paul, R. K., Ghosh, H. and Prajneshu. 2014. Development of out-of-sample forecast formulae for ARIMA-GARCH model and their application. Journal of the Indian Society of Agricultural Statistics, 68(1): 85-92.

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Effect of multi-micronutrients fertilizers on yield and micronutrients uptake by okra (Abelmoschus esculentus L.) grown on medium black calcareous soils of Saurashtra region of Gujarat

K.B. Polara*, H.P. Ponkia, H.L. Sakarvadia, L.C. Vekaria and N.B. BabariyaJunagadh Agricultural University, Junagadh-362001, Gujarat, India

ABSTRACT

A field experiment was conducted on Typic Haplusterts soils of Vegetable Research Farm, Junagadh Agricultural University, Junagadh, Gujarat, during 2012-2015 (three years) to study the efficacy of multi-micronutrients formulation mixture fertilizers in improving crop production of okra. The results revealed that the mean green pod (12363 kg ha -1), stalk (5056 kg ha-1) and dry pod (1114 kg ha-1) yields increased significantly due to soil application of FeSO4 @ 15 kg ha-1 and ZnSO4 @ 8 kg ha-1 as per soil test value (STV), followed by foliar multi-micronutrients supplementation through 1.0% spray of multi-micronutrients mixture having Fe-4.0%, Mn-0.1%, Zn-5.0%, Cu-0.5% and B-0.5 % grade-IV (T5-for Zn and Fe deficiency) at 45, 60 and 75 days after sowing (DAS). Significantly higher value of internode length (8.2 cm), fruit length (13.6 cm), number of fruits per plant (19.9), plant height (129 cm), fruit girth (6.1 cm) and fruit weight (15.9 g) were also recorded with soil application of FeSO4 @ 15 kg ha-1 and ZnSO4 @ 8 kg ha-1 as per soil test values (STV). Both the treatments were statistically at par with each other but significantly superior over control. The soil application of multi-micronutrients mixture as per STV or foliar spray 1.0% grade -IV were found beneficial and economical in increasing okra yield.

Keywords: Okra, micronutrients, nutrient uptake.

INTRODUCTIONOkra [Abelmoschus esculents (L.) Moench] is one of the most important vegetable crops grown in tropical and sub-tropical region and is believed to be native of South Africa and Asia. In India, it is cultivated almost in all states throughout the year and consumed by a majority of the people. Major okra growing states in India are Andhra Pradesh, West Bengal, Uttar Pradesh, Gujarat, Bihar and Odisha. The total area under okra crop in India is about 5,33,000 ha with production of 63,46,000 metric tons with a productivity 11.90 metric tons per hectare. In Gujarat, it is grown on an area about 65,990 ha with production of 7,59,000 metric tons with productivity 11.50 metric tons per hectare in year 2013- 14 (Anonymous, 2014) . Okra is considered by many as a vegetable with a lot of nutrition and medicinal benefits. It is rich in nutrients, soluble fiber, vitamin B6 and folic acid. Soluble fiber helps to reduce serum cholesterol, thus reducing the risk of heart disease. Fiber also helps in stabilizing blood sugar. (Bose et al., 1985).

Wide spread deficiencies of micronutrients are frequently reported in soils of India (Rattan and Sharma, 2004) and in Gujarat (Patel etal., 1998). Although, the requirement of micronutrients like Zn, Cu, Mn, Fe, B and Mo are relatively less, but their role in normal crop production is indispensable because of their active role in plant metabolic processes involving cell wall development, respiration, photosynthesis, chlorophyll formation, enzyme activity and nitrogen fixation. Direct spray of micronutrients to foliage of the crop is very beneficial. Zinc, Fe and B deficiencies are the most frequently encountered micronutrient deficiencies in vegetables. Reports indicated that Zn and Fe deficiency causes remarkable losses in yields of vegetables; these deficiencies warrant the need for research on Zn and Fe especially on their usage individually and in mixtures as foliar/soil application. Hence, the present investigation was undertaken to study the effect of different multi-micronutrient mixtures on yield and micronutrients content and uptake by okra.

*Corresponding author: [email protected], [email protected]

58 K.B. Polara, H.P. Ponkia, H.L. Sakarvadia, L.C. Vekaria and N.B. Babariya

MATERIALS AND METHODSA field experiment was conducted for three consecutive three years (2013-2015) at Vegetable Research Farm (latitide 210 30' N, longitude 70026' E and altitude 61 m), Junagadh Agricultural University, Junagadh, Gujarat for studying the efficacy of multi-micronutrient mixture in improving crop production of okra (cv. GJO-3). There were eight treatments viz ., T1 - Control (only NPK); water spray treatments: T2 - mixture Grade-I (General); T3 - Grade-II (For Zn deficiency); T4 - Grade-III (For Fe deficiency); T5 - Grade-IV (For Zn and Fe deficiency) and soil application treatments: T6 - mixture Grade-V (soil application @ 20 kg ha-1), T7 - mixture Grade-V (soil application @ 40 kg ha-1 ) and T 8 - soil application of micronutrients as per Soil Test Value (STV- FeSO4 @ 15 kg ha-1 and ZnSO4 @ 8 kg ha-1). The multi-micronutrient mixture grades having composition, shown in Table 1, were prepared in the laboratory.

The mixture grade I and V were prepared on the basis of average removal of micronutrients by different crops and rest of grades II to IV on the basis of wide occurrence of Zn or Fe or Zn and Fe deficiencies in soils of Gujarat. Rate of application of T 2, T3, T4 and T5 - Foliar spray @ 1 % and soil application T6 - @ 20 kg ha-1,and T7-@ 40 kg ha-1and T8-soil application of micronutrients as per soil test values ( FeSO4 @ 15 kg ha-1 and Zn SO4 @ 8 kg ha- 1). The treatments were repeated four in randomized block design. The soil of the experimental field was clayey in texture(Typic Haplusterts) and had pH2.5- 8.1, EC2.5 - 0.36 dS m-1, organic carbon - 6.56 g kg-1, available P2O5 - 41.0 kg ha-1,available K2O - 386 kg ha-1, available S-17.5 kg ha-1, Fe - 9.6 mg kg-1, Mn -16.4 mg kg-1, Zn - 0.58 mg kg-1 and Cu -2.84 mg kg-1. The recommendation dose of 150 kg N ha-1

50 kg P2O5 ha-1 and 50 kg K2O ha-1 was applied through urea, diammonium phosphate and muriate of potash, respectively, to all treatments plots at time of sowing. Half of the N and full of P2O5 and K2O were applied as basal dressing at sowing and while remaining half N was top dressed at the time of 45 day after sowing. Okra ‘GJO-3’

was sown in rows, with a spacing of 60 x 30 cm using 10 kg seeds ha-1 in fourth week of June during all the three years. Total rainfall received during crop season was 1520.3, 1271.5 and 765.4 mm in 62, 40 and 28 rainy days during 2013, 2014 and 2015, respectively.All the standard recommended cultural practices and plant protection measures were followed throughout the experimental periods.The crop was harvested at first and second week of October during all the three years and green fruit, stalk yields, growth and yields attributes were recorded. The green fruits and stalk samples were oven dry at 60oC for 48 hour in oven. The oven dried fruits and stalk samples were finely ground in a S. S. Wiley mill and were digested with di-acid mixture of HNO3 : HClO4 (3:1) as per the procedure outline by Jackson (1973). Sulphur in digest determined by turbidimetric method (Chesnin and Yien, 1951).The micronutrients in digest was determined by Atomic Absorption spectrophotometer (Lindsayand Novell, 1978). The soil samples drawn from the experimental field at harvest were analyzed for available micronutrients by extracting with 0.005 M DTPA and the contents were determined by atomic absorption spectrophotometer. The micronutrients and sulphur removal by crop was calculated by multiplying the concentration values. Data were statistically analyzed using following standard method.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

YieldThe application of micronutrients soil or foliar spray significantly influenced yield and yield attributing characters of okra. The green pod and stalk yields of okra improved due to foliar and soil application of micronutrients mixture in all three years as well as in pooled basis. The significantly higher green fruit (11678, 14554, 10856 and 12363 kg ha-1), stalk (4600, 5733, 4836 and 5056 kg ha-1) and dry pod (993, 1237, 1113 and 1114 kg ha-1) yields were recorded

Table 1: Chemical composition of local formulation grade approved by Govt. of Gujarat

Sl. No. Multi -micronutrients mixture grades Content (%)

Fe Mn Zn Cu B

For foliar spray

1. Mixture grade I (General) LF- I 2.0 0.5 4.0 0.32. Mixture Grade II (for Zn deficiency) LF-II 2.0 0.5 8.0 0.53. Mixture Grade III (for Fe deficiency) LF-III 6.0 1.0 4.0 0.34. Mixture Grade IV (for Fe & Zn deficiency) LF-IV 4.0 1.0 6.0 0.5

For soil application

5. LF Mixture Grade V (Soil application) LF-V 2.0 0.5 5.0 0.2

Effect of multi-micronutrients fertilizers on yield and micronutrients uptake by okra (Abelmoschus esculentus L.) 59

with application of micro nutrients as per soil test value (T8) in all three years as well as in pooled basis, respectively. (Table 1 and 2) and which was statistically at par with treatment T5 (foliar spray of 1.0 % of multi -micronutrient formulation Grade IV at 45, 60 and 75 days after sowing - DAS) in all three years and in pooled basis. The magnitude of increased in green fruit yield and stalk yields were 23.4 and 27.0 % and 18.5 and 21.7 % owing to soil application of FeSO4 @ 15 kg ha-1 + ZnSO4 @ 8 kg ha-1 (STV-T8) and Micronutrients mixture grade –IV (T5) spray @ 1.0 % at 45, 60 and 75 days after sowing (DAS), respectively, over control. The results clearly indicated that application of micronutrients either through soil or foliar spray wasfound beneficial for increase in the yield of okra. Increased yield of okra due to micronutrients application may be attributed to enhanced photosynthesis activity and increased in production and accumulation of carbohydrates and favorable effect on vegetative growth, and retention of flowers and fruits. Satpute et al. (2013) revealed that the increased dry matter production may be attributed to greater accumulation of photosynthates by vegetative parts and fruits in okra. Thefinding are in agreement with those reported by Singh et al. (2007) and Singh et al. (2010) in okra crop.

Table 2: Effect of multi-micronutrient formulations on dry pod yield of okra

Treatments Dry pod yield (kg ha-1)

2013 2014 2015 Pooled

T . Control 832 990 879 900T2

1. Grade I 875 1037 927 947T3. Grade II 893 1090 984 989T4. Grade III 888 1075 980 981T5. Grade IV 974 1182 1061 1072T

6

. Grade V @ 20 kg ha-1 876 1039 920 945

T . Grade V @ 40 kg ha-1 934 1112 994 10137

T8. As per STV 993 1237 1113 1114SEm ± 34 49 41 24C.D. at 5% 99 146 121 69

Growth and yields attributesThe three year mean data in Table 3 revealed that the significantly higher growth and yields attributes viz., plant height (129 cm), internode length (8.2 cm), fruit length (13.6 cm), no. of fruits per plant (19.9), fruit girth (6.1 cm) and fruit weight (15.9 g) were recorded with treatment T8 (application of micronutrients as per soil test values of FeSO4 @ 15 kg ha-1 and ZnSO4 @ 8 kg ha-1) and this treatment was at par with treatment T5 (foliar spray of micronutrients mixture Grade IV @1.0 % at 45, 60 and 75 days after sowing -DAS) and treatment T7 (soil application of multi micronutrient mixture @ 40 kg ha-1) in respect to growth and yields attributes (Table 3). The results clearly indicated that the application of micronutrients either through soil or foliar spray found beneficial for increase in growth and yields attributes of okra. The increase growth and yields attributes due to effective role of micronutrients. These micronutrients play a vital role in the physiology of plants. The increase in growth and yield attributes due to micronutrients might be due to their role in fundamental processes involved in the cellular mechanism and respiration. This effect positively for improvement in fruits size and fruit weight. Boron exhibits pronounce effect in improving the yield attribute and yield. It takes part in active photosynthesis, which ultimately helps towards increase in number and weight of fruits. These findings confirm the results reported by Singh and Maurya (1979) and Satpute et al. (2013).

Micronutrients uptakeThe perusal of three year mean data on uptake of micronutrients (Fe, Mn, Zn and Cu) by pod and stalk revealed that application of micronutrients either soil or spray was found significantly superior in respect of Fe, Mn, Zn and Cu uptake (Table 4). Significantly, the highestuptake of Fe (422 and 5145 g ha-1) and Zn (163 and 735 g ha-1) by pod and stalk were registered with treatment

Table 3: Effect of multi-micronutrient formulations mixture on okra yield

Treatments Green pod Yield (kg ha-1) Stalk yield (kg ha-1)

2013 2014 2015 Pooled 2013 2014 2015 Pooled

T . Control 9786 11642 8622 10017 3648 4415 3879 3981T2

1. Grade I 10297 12205 9163 10555 3045 3610 4260 3638T3. Grade II 10501 12827 9465 10931 3892 4754 4284 4310T4. Grade III 10451 12650 9519 10873 3825 4629 4307 4254T5. Grade IV 11460 13908 10268 11879 4467 5324 4746 4846T6. Grade V @ 20 kg ha-1 10303 12228 9014 10515 3713 4407 3963 4028T7. Grade V @ 40 kg ha-1 10991 13083 9739 11271 3949 4700 4232 4294T8. As per STV 11678 14554 10856 12363 4600 5733 4836 5056SEm ± 398 582 403 271 155 222 143 102C.D. at 5% 1170 1713 1184 765 456 652 422 288

60 K.B. Polara, H.P. Ponkia, H.L. Sakarvadia, L.C. Vekaria and N.B. Babariya

Table 4: Effect of multi-micronutrient formulations on yield attributes of okra (mean data of three years)

Treatments Plant height (cm) Internode length (cm) Fruit length (cm) No Fruits plant-1 Fruit Girth (cm) Fruit weight (gm)

T . Control 101 7.0 11.8 12.9 5.4 11.7T2

1. Grade I 107 7.9 11.8 13.6 5.2 11.9T3. Grade II 121 8.0 12.7 15.3 5.7 14.3T4. Grade III 118 8.1 12.0 14.9 5.4 13.8T5. Grade IV 123 8.1 13.2 18.6 6.0 15.0T6. Grade V @ 20 kg ha-1 110 7.8 12.3 14.6 5.6 13.3T7. Grade V @ 40 kg ha-1 118 7.9 13.1 18.1 6.0 14.6T8. As per STV 129 8.2 13.6 19.9 6.1 15.9SEm ± 3 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.1 0.3C.D. at 5% 8 0.6 0.7 1.1 0.4 0.9

T8 (micronutrients application as per STV), respectively, followedby Fe (199 and 4859 g ha-1) and Zn (146 and 636 g ha-1) with T5 treatment (foliar spray of micronutrients mixture Grade IV @1.0 % at 45, 60 and 75 days after sowing -DAS) as compared to control. While application of multi micronutrient formulation grade IV resulted in significantly the highest uptake of Cu (25.8 and 101 g ha-1) and Mn (68.4 and 953 g ha-1) by pod and stalk, respectively, followed by Mn (61.7 and 607 g ha-1 ) and Cu (21.1 and 88 g ha-1) by pod and stalk with treatment T8 (application of micronutrients as per soil test value FeSO4 @ 15kg ha-1 and ZnSO4 8 kg ha-1) as compared to control(T 1). The lowest uptake of Fe, Mn, Zn and Cu (282, 45.9, 86 and 16.1 g ha-1) by pod and (3279, 454, 321 and 70 g ha-1) by stalk were registered with control treatment (T1), respectively. The improvement in the nutrients use efficiency could be attributed to an enhancement in absorption and assimilation of the micronutrients which provided balanced nutrition to the crops for higher growth and thereby nutrients uptake which ultimately resulted into higher yield of the crops. The increase in content of micronutrients and their uptake by okra crop due to use of multi-micronutrients fertilizers have also been reported by several workers (Singh and

Maurya, 1979; Patel et al., 2008; Satpute et al., 2013; Ghritlahare et al., 2015).

Soil available nutrientsThe data given in Table 5 revealed that the soil application of micronutrients significantly enhanced the DTPA extractable Fe, Zn, Mn and Cu in soil after harvest of crop. The application of micronutrients as per soil test value (T8) significantly increased the availability of Fe and Zn (11.3 and 0.828 mg kg-1 and application of multi micronutrient formulation Grade V @ 40 kg ha-1 significantly increased the availability of Mn and Cu (19.3 and 2.46 ppm) in soil after harvest of okra crop, respectively. The foliar application of multi-micronutrients treatments did not produced significant effect of soil available micronutrients in soils after harvest of crop. In general, the average contents of DTPA-extractable micronutrients of the soil improved due to application of multi-micronutrients through soil application at the end of the experiment. However, the improvement in DTPA- micronutrients was not that alarming to adversely affect the soil health. Similar results was also reported by Patel et al. (2008).

Table 5: Effect of multi micronutrient formulations on nutrients uptake by okra pod (mean data of three years)

Treatments uptake by pod (g ha-1) Uptake by stalk (g ha-1)

Fe Mn Zn Cu Fe Mn Zn Cu

T . Control 282 45.9 86 16.1 3279 454 321 70T2

1. Grade I 314 54.3 105 19.8 3490 588 394 72T3. Grade II 323 57.9 145 22.7 3989 754 618 93T4. Grade III 356 61.6 114 21.3 4339 799 474 83T5. Grade IV 399 68.4 146 25.8 4857 953 636 101T6. Grade V @ 20 kg ha-1 324 54.1 113 19.0 3687 668 479 79T7. Grade V @ 40 kg ha-1 378 59.9 143 19.8 4131 740 580 88T8. As per STV 422 61.7 163 21.1 5145 607 735 88SEm ± 13 1.8 4 0.9 121 22 24 3C.D. at 5% 35.5 5.0 12 2.4 343 61 73 7

Effect of multi-micronutrients fertilizers on yield and micronutrients uptake by okra (Abelmoschus esculentus L.) 61

Table 6: Effect of multi-micronutrient formulations on micronutrients availability in soil after harvest of okra

Treatments Soil available micronutrients (mg ha-1)

Fe Mn Zn CuT . Control 8.9 14.8 0.584 2.00T2

1. Grade I 9.8 16.4 0.620 2.09T3. Grade II 9.7 16.4 0.627 2.10T4. Grade III 9.8 16.3 0.637 2.08T5. Grade IV 9.7 16.4 0.625 2.10T6. Grade V @ 20 kg ha-1 10.1 17.9 0.722 2.32T7. Grade V @ 40 kg ha-1 10.3 19.3 0.782 2.46T8. As per STV 11.3 15.9 0.828 2.07SEm ± 0.3 0.5 0.018 0.06C.D. at 5% 0.8 1.5 0.050 0.16

ECONOMIC ANALYSISThe mean data of three years given in Table 6 and 7 revealed that the application micronutrients as per soil test value (T8) gave highest yield (13366 kg ha-1), net income of Rs. 142595/- and cost benefit ratio of 4.33 followed by application multi-micronutrient formulation Grade IV. Application multi-micronutrient formulation Grade IV gave net income Rs. 135101/- and cost benefit ratio of 4.14.Therefore, use of foliar spray of Grade IV and soil application as per STV of micronutrients were found almost equally beneficial in obtaining higher okra yield and net realization. The increased in okra green pod yield was by 1862 and 2346 kg ha-1 due to Grade–IV and STV, respectively, over control (10017 kg ha-1). The same can

be recommended to the farmers for getting higher okra yield.

CONCLUSIONThe results of the study suggested thatthe okra yields increased due to soil application of FeSO4 @ 15 kg ha-1 and ZnSO4 @ 8 kg ha-1 as per soil test value (STV) and also foliar treatment i.e. micronutrient mixture grade-IV (for Fe and Zn deficiency).There is a scope for the use of the

mixture of multi-micronutrients toovercome the ever-increasing multi -micronutrientdeficiencies in the areas where intensive cropping is practiced. However, other micronutrients need to be supplied in an appropriate proportion in order to providebalanced nutrition to the crop.

REFERENCESAnonymous. 2014. Indian horticulture database: state wise area,

production and yield of important horticulture crops in India for the year 2013-14. National Horticulture Board, Gurgaon. p. 152-157.

Bose, T.K., M.G. Somand, J. Kabir. 1985. Vegetable crops.Naya Prakash, Calcutta. p. 711-724.

Chesnin, L. and C.H. Yien.1951.Turbidimeteric determination of available sul-phur in soil. Soil Science Society of America Journal, 15:149-151.

Ghritlahare, A., P.J. Marsonia and H.L. Sakarvadia. 2015. Effect of zinc and iron on yield and yield attributes of okra (Abelmoschus esculentus L.). An Asian Journal of Soil Science, 10(1):104-107.

Jackson, M.L. 1973. Soil chemical analysis. Prentice Hall of India Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi.

Patel, K.C., K.P. Patel and V.P. Ramani.2008.Effect of customized fertilizers on yield and micronutrients contents of okra (Abelmoschus esculentus L.) grown on Typic Ustochreptss oils of Anand. An Asian Journal of Soil Science, 3(1):99-101.

Patel, K.P., V. George and K.C. Patel.1998. Micronutrient Research in Gujarat.Journal of Gujarat Society of Agronomy and Soil Science, 1(1):27-32.

Satpute,N.R., L.B. Suryawanshi,J.M. Waghmare and P.B. Jagtap. 2013. Re-sponse of Summer Okra (cv. PHULE UTKARSHA) to Iron, Zinc and Boron in Inceptisol. The Asian Journal of Horticulture, 8(2):541-546.

Singh,D.P., M.R. Dabbas and H.G. Prakash. 2010.Effect of micro nutrientson growth, yield attributes and pod yield of okra (Abelmoschus esculentus L. Moench) in semi-arid zone ofUttar Pradesh. The Asian Journal of Horticul-ture, 4(2):488-490.

Singh, K.V., M.K. Singh and B. Singh. 2007.Response of macro and micronu-trient on growth and yield of okra (Abelmoschus esculentus L. Moench) Progressive Agriculture, 7(1-2):63-65.

Singh, S.S. and A.N. Maurya. 1979.A note on the effect of zinc application on the growth, yield and quality of okra (Abelmoschus esculentus L. Moench). Haryana Journal of Horticultural Sciences, 8(3-4):158-159.

Rattan, R.K. and P.D. Sharma. 2004. Main micronutrients available and their method of use. Proceedings IFA International Symposium on Micronutri-ents. p. 1-10.

Lindsay, W.L. and W.L. Norvell.1978. Development of DTPA soil test for zinc, iron, manganese and copper. Proceeding Soil Science Society of Ameri-can Journal, 42(3):421-428.

Table 7: Economics of different treatments on okra yield

Treatment Okra fruit yield Income from Fruit Cost of cultivation Net realization B:C ratio(kg ha-1) (Rs. ha-1) (Rs. ha-1) (Rs. ha-1)

1 T1. Control 10017 150255 42000 108255 3.582 T2. Grade I 10555 158325 42964 115361 3.693 T3. Grade II 10931 163965 43059 120906 3.814 T4. Grade III 10873 163095 43052 120043 3.795 T5. Grade IV 11879 178185 43084 135101 4.146 T6. Grade V @ 20 kg ha-1 10515 157725 42418 115307 3.727 T7. Grade V @ 40 kg ha-1 11271 169065 42836 126229 3.95

8 T8. As per STV 12363 185445 42850 142595 4.33


Enhancing productivity of summer gum guar (Cyamopsis tetragonoloba) through irrigation and fertilization on sandy loam soils of Gujarat

H.M. Bhuva1*, P.D. Kumawat2, A.C. Mehta1 and M.D. Khanpara1

1Pearl Millet Research Station, JAU, Jamnagar, Gujarat-361 006, India2Main Sugarcane Research Station, JAU, Kodinar, Gujarat-362 725, India

ABSTRACT

A field experiment was conducted during the summer seasons of 2013 and 2014 on sandy loam soils to evaluate levels of irrigation and fertilization in gum guar [Cyamopsis tetragonoloba (L.) Taub.] at Junagadh Agricultural University, Nana-Kandhasar, Surendranagar, Gujarat. The treatments comprising of four levels each of irrigation (0.4, 0.6, 0.8 and 1.0 IW: CPE ratios) and fertilization (00-00, 10-20, 20-40 and 30-60 kg N-P2O5 ha-1) were tested using split plot design with three replications. The pooled results indicated that irrigation at 0.8 IW:CPE enhanced the growth parameters viz., plant height, number of branches, number and dry weight of root nodules, dry matter plant -1 and leaf area index, yield attributes viz., number of pods plant-1, number of seeds pod-1, pod length, 1000-seed weight and shelling per cent along with seed yield, stover yield and harvest index with higher net returns of Rs. 53895 ha -1 and B:C ratio of 2.29 over 0.4 IW:CPE ratio. The maximum consumptive use of water was noticed under 1.0 IW: CPE ratio, while the maximum water use efficiency and water expense efficiency were persisted under 0.4 IW: CPE. Application of 20-40 kg N-P2O 5

ha-1 promoted growth parameters viz., plant height, number of branches, number and dry weight of root nodules, dry matter plant-1, leaf area index, yield attributes viz., number of pods plant-1, number of seeds pod-1, pod length, 1000-seed weight and shelling per cent along with seed yield, stover yield and harvest index with higher net returns of Rs. 52967 ha-1 and B:C ratio of 2.24 than control. The maximum consumptive use of water, water use efficiency and water expense efficiency were noticed under 30-60 kg N-P2O5 ha-1.Keywords: Consumptive use, fertility levels, gum guar, irrigation, water use efficiency.

INTRODUCTIONGum guar [(Cyamopsis tetragonoloba (L.) Taub.) is an important drought resistance leguminous crop of India. In the recent years, this crop has assumed great significance due to the presence of a good quality of gum in the endosperm of its seed. Due to diversified uses of clusterbean gum in textile, paper, explosive and mining industries, pharmaceuticals, stamps, cosmetic goods and food stuffs, it experiences ever increasing demand in the international market. It is principally used as a feed for livestock and poultry. India is the largest producer of gum guar seed in the world, constitute about 80 per cent of the total production. Rajasthan, Gujarat, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh and Punjab are the major gum guar growing states of India. Rajasthan is a leading producer accounting for about 70 per cent of all India’s output. In India, gum guar occupies an area of 5.15 million hectares producing 2.46 million tonnes with productivity of 478 kg ha-1 (DES, 2013).

Water/irrigation requirement of gum guar may vary with the climatic conditions and type of soil. Hence, scheduling of irrigation at an appropriate time and in right amount is one of the most important factors for realizing high yield of summer gum guar, especially under scarce and expensive irrigation water. Scientific scheduling of irrigation is a technique for determining the quantity of irrigation water, which also aims at optimizing crop yield with the maximum water use efficiency (WUE) and ensures minimum deterioration of the soil and crop. Scheduling of irrigation based on data of pan evaporation is likely to increase agricultural production at least by 15 to 20 per cent. A more practicable approach based on the ratio of fixed quantity of irrigation water (IW) to the cumulative pan evaporation (CPE) as suggested by Parihar et al. (1974), becomes useful for judicious utilization of water and to harvest potential yield of field crops. Among different nutrients, nitrogen is one of the decisive as well as expensive


Enhancing productivity of summer gum guar (Cyamopsis tetragonoloba) through irrigation and fertilization on sandy loam soils of Gujarat 63

inputs which govern the legumes production. It has the quickest and the most pronounced effect on plant growth. Phosphorus is the key element in the process of conversion of solar energy into chemical energy. Low phosphorus content in the soil is alarming because P is the backbone of balanced fertilizer use and it occupies a key place in intensive agriculture. Keeping these points in view, the present experiment was taken up, to study the response of irrigation and fertilization on growth, yield and water use of gum guar during summer season on sandy loam soils of Gujarat.

MATERIALS AND METHODSA field experiment was conducted at KrishiVigyan Kendra Farm of Junagadh Agricultural University, Nana-Kandhasar, (22º45’ N, 71º25’ E, 86.67 m above the mean sea level) Surendranagar, Gujarat during summer season of 2013 and 2014. The site is situated in the North Saurashtra agro-climatic region of Gujarat under Gujarat plains and hills zone of India. The climate of this region is semi-arid and sub-tropical with fairly dry and hot summer. The rainy season commences in the second fortnight of June and ends in September, with an average annual rainfall of 500mm. July and August are the peak months of rainfall. Summer season commences in the second fortnight of February and ends in the middle of June. April and May are the hottest months of summer with the mean maximum temperature ranging from 36 ºC to 44 ºC. During the crop season (year 2013), the minimum temperature ranged from 15.0 ºC to 27.2ºC, maximum temperature ranged from 30.9ºC to 42.5ºC and daily pan evaporation ranged from 4.8 to 11.7 mm day-1, while in the year 2014, the minimum temperature ranged from 10.9ºC to 26.7ºC, maximum temperature ranged from 27.6ºC to 43.0ºC and daily pan evaporation ranged from 5.2 to 12.2 mm day-1. The experimental soil was sandy loam (78.29% sand, 8.41% silt and 13.30% clay) in texture and slightly alkaline in reaction with pH 7.95 and EC 0.33 dS m-1. It was moderately fertile being low in organic carbon (4.0 g kg-1) and available nitrogen (195.5 kg ha-1), medium in available phosphorus (44.3 kg ha-1) and high in available potassium (287.8 kg ha-

1). The soil moisture content at field capacity and permanent wilting point in the upper 30 cm were 15.58 and 6.09%, respectively. Besides, initial bulk density of the soil was 1.41, 1.44, 1.47 and 1.49 Mg m-3 in 0-15, 15-30, 30-45 and 45-60 cm depth, respectively.

The sixteen treatment combinations consisted of four levels of irrigation (0.4, 0.6, 0.8 and 1.0 IW:CPE ratios) as a main plot treatments and four levels of fertility (00:00, 10:20, 20:40 and 30:60 kg N:P2O5 ha-1) as sub plot treatments were evaluated using split plot design with three replications. The field plots of size 5.0 m x 3.6 m were separated from each other by using 1 m buffer rows. The quantity of

fertilizer was drilled in the soils at 5 cm below the seed according to fertilizer treatments as a basal dose in form of diammonium phosphate and urea. ‘Gujarat guar-2’ variety was selected for the present investigation, as it is more popular in this region. The seeds were sown keeping 45 cm row spacing using 20 kg seeds ha-1 on 19 and 20 February during 2013 and 2014, respectively. The crop was irrigated immediately after sowing during both the years. A common irrigation of 50 mm depth was given to all the plots for assured germination and crop establishment. The excess plants were thinned out at 20 DAS keeping within row distance at 10 cm to maintain uniform plant stand. The required cultural practices and plant protection measures were followed as per recommended package. Weeds were managed by pre-emergence herbicide pendimethalin 30 EC @ 0.5 kg ha-1 on next day of the sowing followed by two weeding at 25 and 45 DAS and an intercultural operation with hand hoe at 25 DAS.

The quantity of irrigation water applied in each experimental plot was measured with a 7.5 cm throat size Parshall flume installed in the main water channel near the field head. The cumulative pan evaporation (CPE) values were calculated from daily pan evaporation measured with the help of USWB Class ‘A’ open pan evaporimeter installed at the meteorological observatory of the farm. Fixed depth of 50mm irrigation water was applied to each treatment based on IW:CPE ratios viz., 0.4, 0.6, 0.8 and 1.0. Time for applying the measured quantity of irrigation water to each plot was calculated using the standard equation.The soil moisture studies were started from sowing of crop and continued up to its maturity. The soil moisture content of all the treatments was determined on same day just before irrigation and 48 hours after irrigation at 0-15, 15-30, 30-45 and 45-60 cm soil depth. The data obtained on moisture percentage in each depth were used for calculating seasonal consumptive use of water for gum guar. The consumptive use of water (CUW) was determined by using the formula as described by Mishra and Ahmed (1987).Water use efficiency was calculated by dividing per hectare seed yield of gum guar obtained under various treatment with the total consumptive use of water of the respective treatment and Water expense efficiency (WEE) by dividing per hectare seed yield of gum guar obtained under various treatment with the total quantity of irrigation water applied to the respective treatment. The total number of irrigations were required 3, 5, 7 and 9 in 0.4, 0.6, 0.8 and 1.0 IW:CPE ratio, respectively excluding the common 2 irrigations provided each for sowing and better establishment during both the years of experiment. The evapotranspiration observed during growing seasons of 2013 and 2014 were 690.9 and 660.9 mm, respectively. The crop was harvested on 20 and 21 May during 2013 and 2014, respectively.

64 H.M. Bhuva, P.D. Kumawat, A.C. Mehta and M.D. Khanpara

The plant height and number of branches plant-1 were recorded from each plot at five selected plants at harvest. Left hand second row of each plot were used for recording observations viz., Number and dry weight of root nodules plant-1 at 45 DAS, dry matter accumulation and leaf area index (LAI) at 60 DAS. For dry matter accumulation, plant material first air dried, then chopped and oven dried at 70ºC for 72 hr to a constant weight. For leaf area index (LAI), five representative plants were selected; leaf area of all the leaves was calculated with the help of leaf area meter (Systronics 211). The yield attributes viz., number of pods plant-1, number of seeds pod-1, pod length, 1000-seed weight and shelling per cent were recorded at the time of harvesting. The crop was harvested manually with the help of sickle when seed almost matured and stover had turned yellow. The sun dried bundles were threshed and winnowed and seed so obtained were weighed and data on seed and stover yields were recorded. Harvest Index (HI) was calculated by dividing the seed yield with biological yield. The stover yield was obtained by subtracting the seed yield from the biological yield. The per cent protein content in seed of each plot was worked out by multiplying the nitrogen content in seed with conversion factor 6.25 AOAC (1960). For estimation of gum content the procedure given by (Das et al., 1977) was used. Protein yield and gum yield were calculated by multiplying the protein content and gum content, respectively with seed yield. The economics of the treatments was carried out on the basis of prevailing market prices of inputs and outputs. The statistical analysis of data was done using analysis of variance (ANOVA) technique for split plot design at 0.05 probability level.


Growth parametersSignificantly higher plant height at harvest was recorded under 1.0 IW:CPE ratio over 0.4 and 0.6 IW:CPE ratios, but it was found at par with 0.8 IW:CPE ratio (Table 1). The increase in the plant height might be due to optimum supply of soil moisture surrounding the root zone, which cause favourable improvement in the uptake and translocation of the nutrients and ultimately linked with the plant growth and development in terms of plant height. Different irrigation levels significantly influenced the number of branches per plant at harvest. These findings are in agreement with those of Soni and Gupta (1999) in greengram. Application of irrigation at IW:CPE ratio of 1.0 recorded significantly higher number of root nodules and dry weight per plant over 0.4 and 0.6 IW:CPE ratios but remained at par with 0.8 IW:CPE ratio. This might be due to early irrigations applied may have helped in early infection and establishment of effective Rhizobium host symbiosis, this leads to increase in dry weight of root nodules. Similar results were also obtained by Patel and Saraf (1999) in cowpea. Improved growth in terms of leaf area index and dry matter accumulation at 60 DAS was attained with higher IW:CPE ratios of 1.0 and 0.8. In adequate water supply, plant can absorb more nutrients from soil which encourages physiological processes such as cell division and cell expansion. Hence number of leaves plant-1 was increased and ultimately it reflected in higher LAI (Shrinivasuluet al., 2015).

Table 1: Effect of irrigation and fertility levels on growth parameters of summer gum guar (Pooled data of two years)

Treatments Plant height (cm) Number of Number of root Dry weight of Dry matter at LAI at 60 DASbranches /plant nodules /plant root nodules (mg) 60 DAS (g)

Irrigation levels (IW:CPE ratio)I1: 0.4 52.06 6.13 19.16 69.02 8.75 1.457I2: 0.6 56.08 6.33 21.09 76.08 10.24 1.558I3: 0.8 58.59 6.74 22.09 79.74 11.05 1.619I4: 1.0 61.23 7.00 22.67 82.08 11.28 1.644S.Em. ± 0.90 0.10 0.44 1.57 0.20 0.020C.D. at 5% 2.78 0.30 1.35 4.84 0.61 0.061C.V. % 7.75 7.31 10.08 10.04 9.32 6.18

Fertility levels ( N-P2O5 kg ha-1)52.50 6.27 19.59 70.84 9.03 1.474F1: 00-00

F2: 10-20 56.58 6.52 21.15 76.36 10.25 1.549F3: 20-40 58.79 6.78 21.98 79.28 10.93 1.621F4: 30-60 60.10 6.64 22.30 80.44 11.12 1.634SEm ± 0.67 0.07 0.30 1.03 0.14 0.016CD(P=0.05) 1.92 0.21 0.86 2.94 0.41 0.045CV % 5.79 5.54 6.98 6.60 6.85 4.97


Fertility levels had also significant effect on plant height, number of branches at harvest and LAI at 60 DAS. The higher plant height at harvest and leaf area index at 60 DAS were recorded under 30-60 kg N-P2O5 ha-1 and remained at par with 20-40 kg N-P2O5 ha-1, while the highest number of branches per plant was recorded under 20-40 kg N-P2O5 ha-1

and remained at par with 30-60 and 10-20 kg N-P2O5 ha-1

(Table 1). Increased availability of nitrogen on poor soil might have increased cell number and cell size leading to better growth in terms of plant height and number of branches per plant. These findings are in close conformity with those of (Medhi et al., 2014) in mungbean. The number and dry weight of root nodules per plant were significantly increased with increase the level of fertility over control. The increase in number of root nodules per plant might be due to better root development with increasing level of fertility. Phosphorus plays a key role in the symbiotic N fixation process by increasing top and root growth and decreasing the time needed for developing nodules to become active (Gangwar and Dubey, 2012) . Application of fertilizer at 30-60 kg N-P2O5 ha-1 recorded significantly higher dry matter per plant at 60 DAS and remained at par with 20-40 kg N-P2O5 ha-1. Nitrogen is a constitute of chlorophyll, it harnesses solar energy and fixes atmospheric CO2 as carbohydrates and amino acids. Thus, nitrogen application increased dry matter production. These results are in consonance with the results obtained by Meena (2013) withgreengram.

Yield attributesIncreasing frequency of irrigation from 0.4 to 0.8 IW:CPE ratio significantly increased the yield attributing characters viz., number of pods plant-1,number of seeds pod-1and pod

length, 1000-seed weight and shelling per cent (Table 2) however, remained at par with 1.0 IW:CPE ratio. The higher number of pods plant-1 observed under 0.8 and 1.0 IW:CPE ratios might be due to increase in number of irrigations applied at shorter intervals. This situation avoids moisture stress and provided a favorable condition for moisture and nutrient availability to the crop. Significantly the highest number of seeds per pod, pod length, 1000-seed weight and shelling per cent was recorded with IW:CPE ratio of 1.0 and remained at par with 0.8 IW:CPE ratio. The availability of adequate moisture with 0.8 and 1.0 IW:CPE ratios might be resulted in better translocation and partitioning of these photosynthates from source to sink and increased the number of seeds pod-1, pod length and thus 1000-seed weight. The present findings are within the close vicinity of those reported by (Chettri and Mondal, 2004) with blackgram.

Significantly higher values of yield attributes viz., number of pods per plant, 1000-seed weight and shelling per cent were registered under 30-60 kg N-P2O5 ha-1, which remained statistically at par with 20-40 kg N-P-2O5 ha-1, while number of seeds per pod and pod length were registered under 20-40 kg N-P2O5 ha-1, which remained statistically at par with 30-60 kg N-P2O 5 ha-1 and 10-20 kg N-P2O5 hav (Table 2). Better growth as well as higher uptake of nutrients N, P and K under 20-40 and 30-60 kg N-P2O5 ha-1 might have produced and converted more photosynthates into numerous metabolites needed for such yield attributes. Probable reason for the increase in 1000-seed weight due to higher fertility level is attributed to the better filling of seeds which resulted in bold sized seeds and consequently higher 1000-seed weight (Chhipa et al., 2012).

Table 2: Effect of irrigation and fertility levels on yield attributes of summer gum guar (Pooled data of two years)

Treatments Number of pods /plant Number of seeds /pods Pod length (cm) 1000-seed weight (g) Shelling (%)

Irrigation levels (IW:CPE ratio)I1: 0.4 47.73 6.27 5.36 30.25 52.93I2: 0.6 52.22 6.40 5.65 31.02 54.17I3: 0.8 56.77 6.77 5.95 31.55 56.38I4: 1.0 58.41 6.98 6.00 31.69 58.55S.Em. ± 0.84 0.10 0.10 0.20 0.90C.D. at 5% 2.60 0.30 0.30 0.61 2.78C.V. % 7.68 7.25 8.26 3.11 7.96

Fertility levels ( N-P2O5 kg ha-1)46.76 6.38 5.44 30.56 53.36F1: 00-00

F2: 10-20 54.10 6.60 5.72 31.05 54.85F3: 20-40 56.90 6.74 5.90 31.41 56.64F4: 30-60 57.37 6.69 5.89 31.49 57.18SEm ± 0.62 0.07 0.06 0.12 0.67CD(P=0.05) 1.75 0.21 0.18 0.34 1.92CV % 5.62 5.49 5.31 1.90 5.95


YieldApplication of irrigation at IW:CPE ratio of 1.0 recorded significantly the highest seed yield in individual years and pooled results but remained at par with 0.8 IW:CPE ratio in 2013 and in pooled results and with 0.8 and 0.6 IW:CPE ratios in 2014 (Table 3). The magnitude of increase in seed yield over 0.4 IW:CPE ratio was 32.8, 23.8 and 28.4% with 1.0 IW:CPE ratio and 31.7, 22.7 and 27.2% with 0.8 IW:CPE ratio in 2013, 2014 and pooled results, respectively. The higher seed yield with 0.8 and 1.0 IW:CPE ratios could be attributed to increased soil moisture coupled with accelerated nutrients uptake helped the plant to put optimum growth. Further, it also enhanced photosynthetic activity and partitioning of assimilates resulting in improved yield attributes. These results are in conformity with those reported by (Patel et al. (2014). Irrigation with 1.0 and 0.8 IW:CPE ratios, being statistically equivalent, registered significantly higher stover yield than 0.4 IW:CPE ratio in both the years and pooled results. Increase in stover yield under 0.8 IW:CPE ratio over 0.4 and 0.6 IW:CPE ratios was 20.61 and 10.53%, respectively. Increase in stover yield with increase in irrigation frequency was due to the profound increase in growth attributes such as plant height, number of branches plant-1 and leaf area index. Higher stover yield with maximum irrigations was also reported in cluster bean (Patel et al., 2005) and in gram (Shrinivasulu et al., 2015). Significantly the highest harvest index was recorded with 0.8 IW:CPE ratio over rest of all the irrigation levels. The change in value of harvest index is

due to corresponding increase or decrease in both seed and stover yields of gum guar and the increased vegetative growth under frequent irrigations in 1.0 IW:CPE ratio resulted into decrease in the harvest index. These findings are in line with those of (Patel et al., 2011).

The fertility level 30-60 kg N-P2O5 ha-1 produced significantly the highest seed yield as compared to control and 10-20 kg N-P2O5 ha-1 and remained at par with 20-40 kg N-P2O5 ha-1. The highest fertility level produced significantly the highest stover yield as compared to all the lower level of fertility (Table 3). The extent of increase in seed and stover yields under 30-60 kg N-P 2O5

ha-1 was 28.06 and 21.64% and in treatment 20-40 kg N-P2O5 ha-1 it was 27.29 and 15.13%, respectively over 00-00 kg N-P2O5 ha-1. The increased supply of phosphorus and their higher uptake by plants might have stimulated the rate of various physiological processes in plant and led to increased growth and yield attributes and resulted in increased seed and stover yields. Significantly the maximum harvest index was recorded under 20-40 kg N-P2O5 ha-1 and remained at par with 10-20 kg N-P2O5 ha-1. The change in value of harvest index is due to corresponding increase or decrease in both seed and stover yields of gum guar and the increased vegetative growth under higher fertility level 30 -60 kg N-P2 O5 ha-1

resulted into decrease in the harvest index over lower fertility level. Similar results were obtained by Paese (2010) in blackgramand Sammauriaet al. (2009) in clusterbean.

Table 3: Effect of irrigation and fertility levels on seed yield, stover yield and harvest index (HI) of summer gum guar

Treatments Seed yield (kg ha-1) Stover yield (kg ha-1) HI (%)

2013 2014 Pooled 2013 2014 Pooled

Irrigation levels (IW:CPE ratio)I1: 0.4 1059 1035 1047 2462 2254 2358 30.75I2: 0.6 1200 1159 1179 2708 2439 2573 31.42I3: 0.8 1395 1270 1332 3095 2592 2844 31.93I4: 1.0 1406 1281 1344 3210 2731 2971 31.15S.Em. ± 41 35 27 90 72 58 0.07C.D. at 5% 140 123 83 310 250 177 0.20C.V. % 11.11 10.35 10.77 10.82 9.99 10.49 1.04Fertility levels ( N-P2O5 kg ha-1)

1091 982 1037 2656 2169 2412 30.14F1: 00-00F2: 10-20 1269 1167 1218 2840 2405 2622 31.76F3: 20-40 1344 1295 1320 2917 2638 2777 32.21F4: 30-60 1356 1301 1328 3063 2804 2934 31.15SEm ± 28 28 19 61 57 42 0.23CD (P=0.05) 80 80 55 178 168 119 1.02CV % 7.54 8.04 7.78 7.34 7.93 7.62 1.26


Soil moisture studiesConsumptive use of water (CUW) increased with increase in IW:CPE ratio from 0.4 to 1.0 (Table 4). The extent of increase in CUW by 1.0 and 0.8 IW:CPE ratios over 0.4 IW:CPE was to the tune of 47.47 and 38.48%, respectively. This increase in CUW with more number of irrigations might be due to more availability of water for evapotranspiration (Dixit et al., 1993). Unlike CUWthe water use efficiency (WUE) and water expense efficiency (WEE) decreased with increasing number of irrigations from 0.4 to 1.0 IW:CPE ratio. Crop irrigated at an IW:CPE ratio of 1.0 reduced the WUE and WEE by 15.02 and 71.72% over0.4 IW:CPE, respectively. Frequent wetting of the upper surface layer exposed to the hot atmosphere in 1.0 IW:CPE ratio created a higher vapour pressure gradient between the crop canopy and atmosphere which might have caused relatively larger loss of water from the soil surface which resulted in lower WUE and WEE. The higher WUE and WEE under lower IW:CPE ratio might be due to lesser water loss in evapotranspiration under limited water supply condition. Similar results have been advocated by (Patel et al. 2011).Application of higher quantity of fertilizer increased the CUW, WUE and WEE markedly (Table 4). The maximum CUW, WUE and WEE were recorded with higher fertility level 30-60 kg N- P2O5 ha -1 over 00-00 and 10-20 kg N-P2O5 ha-1, which remained statistically at par with 20-40 kgN- P2O5 ha-1. The extent of increase in CUW by 30-60and 20-40 kg N- P 2O5 ha-1 over 00-00 kg N- P2O5 ha-1 was to the tune of 9.67 and 9.09%, respectively. The increased

CUW under higher level of fertility is mainly due to significant improvement in growth parameters, which demand more water in transpiration process. Crop fertilized at 30-60 kg N- P2O5 ha-1 increased WUE and WEE to an extent of 16.26 and 27.27% over 00-00 kg N- P2O5 ha-1, respectively. (Patel et al., 2007) reported that under adequate nutrient availability, every drop of water may be utilized properly because of better crop canopy and higher rate of photosynthesis which resulted in high seed yield.

EconomicsEconomic viability of crop management is the foremost criteria in transforming new investigations to farmers’ field. The results pertaining to the cost:benefit analysis of the crop as influenced by irrigation levels indicated that application of irrigation at 0.8 IW:CPE ratio recorded the highest net returns (Rs, 53895 ha-1) with the maximum B:C ratio of 2.29, whereas irrigating at 1.0 IW:CPE ratio recorded highest gross returns. The higher net returns ha-1 under 0.8 IW:CPE ratio could be attributed to significantly higher seed yield as compared to 0.4 IW:CPE ratio and saving of extra cost of irrigation as compared to 1.0 IW:CPE. Fertility level 20-40 kg N-P2O5 ha-1 recorded the highest net returns of Rs. 52967 ha-1 with the highest B:C ratio of 2.24, while the highest gross returns was observed with 30-60 kg N-P2O5 ha-1. The higher net gain ha-1 under 20 -40 kg N-P2O5 ha-1 could be attributed to significantly higher seed yield as compared to 00 -00 kg N-P2O5 ha-1 and saving of extra cost of fertilizer as compared to 30-60 kg N-P2O5 ha-1. The results are in concurrence with those reported by Patel et al. (2014).

Table 4: Effect of irrigation and fertility levels on water use and economics of summer gum guar (Pooled data of two years)

Treatments Consumptive use Water use efficiency Water expense efficiency Gross returns Netreturns B:C ratioof water (mm) (kg ha-1 /mm) (kg ha-1 /mm) (Rs. ha-1) (Rs. ha-1)

Irrigation levels (IW:CPE ratio)I1: 0.4 213.67 4.90 4.19 61150 39882 1.90I2: 0.6 254.67 4.64 3.37 68804 46236 2.08I3: 0.8 295.90 4.50 2.96 77763 53895 2.29I4: 1.0 315.09 4.26 2.44 78545 53378 2.15S.Em. ± 4.76 0.13 0.07 1581 1581 0.07C.D. at 5% 14.68 0.41 0.22 4871 4871 0.22C.V. % 8.65 14.33 10.56 10.82 16.02 16.61

Fertility levels ( N-P O5

kg ha-1)F1: 00-00 2 254.67 4.12 2.75 60743 39599 1.91F2: 10-20 267.56 4.61 3.24 71102 48422 2.17F3: 20-40 277.82 4.78 3.48 76876 52967 2.24F4: 30-60 279.28 4.79 3.50 77541 52404 2.10SEm ± 2.80 0.07 0.05 1134 1134 0.05CD(P=0.05) 7.98 0.21 0.14 3227 3227 0.14CV % 5.09 8.02 7.51 7.76 11.49 11.38


Based on the study it is concluded that summer gum guar sown in sandy loam soils of Gujarat region with 0.8 IW:CPE ratio recorded the higher seed yield and gained the highest net returns and benefit:cost ratio over all the irrigation treatments. Fertility level 20-40 kg N-P2O5 ha-1

seems to be optimum for getting higher seed yield and economic productive point of view.Therefore, irrigation at 0.8 IW:CPE ratio and fertilizer dose of 40-20 kg N-P2O5

ha-1 could be applied for higher yield and economical realization from gum guar along with appreciable saving of water and fertilizer in summer season.

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attributes and dry matter partitioning of mungbean (Vigna radiata L.) in arid Western Rajasthan. Environment and Ecology, 31(1): 131-134.

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Geographical indication (GI) of Kesar Mango: A pride of Saurashtra region

D.K. Varu*, A.V. Barad and I.U. DhrujJunagadh Agricultural University, Junagadh-362001, Gujarat, India

ABSTRACT

Mango is the leading fruit crop of India and it possesses wide genetic diversity with more than 1000 varieties including landraces, indigenous, released and hybrids. The important commercial landraces like Kesar, Alphonso, Dasheri, Langra, Chausa, Fazali, Pairy, Dadmiyo, Totapuri, Rajapuri, Jamadar, Dudhpendo, Khodi, etc. are prominent in India. Among all the varieties and land races, Kesar is considered as a royal variety of mango. It has engrossing history connecting rulers of two state viz., Junagadh and Mangrol during the Nawab Era in Gujarat. It’s history is closely associated with Girnar, the village Vanthali near to Junagadh and located in Gir forest; hence, it is also known as Gir Kesar. The name ‘Kesar ’, meaning saffron in Gujarati, has been attributed due to the saffron colored pulp and distinct flavor. The area under cultivation of Kesar mango is increasing day by day in Gujarat and Maharashtra due to its increasing popularity. Kesar is replacing the other varieties of mango in the country. The productivity of Kesar is also notable which is about 7.5 to 8.0 t ha -1, the fruits with chiseled and pleasant characteristics. It is tree is medium sized with vigorous and spreading habit and is regular in bearing. The fruits mature during April-May and their keeping quality is around 15-20 days. The fruits have unique and excellent characteristics like oblong shape, 250-300 g weight with small beak, deep green to yellow skin colour with pink spot on shoulder, saffron colored pulp (69%) with no fibre and flat stone (18%). The juice is semi solid, excellent sweet test with good aroma. Skin is medium thick about 13% of total fruit weight. The biochemical parameters like TSS (18-22 oB), acidity (0.25-0.27 %), Vitamin A (42.0 IU), Vitamin-C (42-48 mg 100 g-1) and total sugar (12-13 %) were recorded. The sugar/ acid blend of pulp is excellent, hence the fruit is also suitable for table purpose. Due to its distinctive and naturally occurring organoleptic values which have won the patronage and recognition of discerning consumers to all over India and many corners of the world. Recently, the Geographical Indication (GI) Registration No.185 had been granted by the Registrar of Geographical Indication, Government of India, Chennai. This was achieved due to collaborative efforts of Gujarat Agro Industrial Corporation, Government of Gujarat, Ahmedabad and Junagadh Agricultural University, Junagadh. This is the first Geographical Indication (GI) granted to a fruit crop in Gujarat.

Keywords: Geographical indication, kesar mango.

INTRODUCTIONHorticulture involves cultivation and processing of many diversified crops like fruits, vegetables, ornamental plants, spices, medicinal, aromatic and plantation crops. Horticulture has become one of the key drivers of economic development in the rural areas of the country. India contributes about 23.24 million ha land under horticultural crops. Out of them, fruits crops occupy about 6.70 million hector of land area amounting to 76.42 million tonnes of production. The area and production of vegetables in country hovers around 8.49 million ha and 146.55 million tonnes, respectively. Productivity of fruits and vegetables in India is pegged at 11.7 million tonnes ha-1 which is higher than the productivity of China another major grower (10.70 million tonnes ha-1).

In Gujarat, the area under horticultural crops is also increasing. The total estimated area under horticulture crops has been increased from 2.54 to 14.04 lakh ha during year 1987-88 to 2010- 11, which is 81.90 % increase. The area and production of fruits, vegetable, flower and spices crops have also been found to show increasing trend. The productivity in each branch of horticulture has also increased during last seven years.

Among the horticultural crops, fruits constitute an important component as they a rich source of majority of nutrients and minerals required to sustain human life. Due to increasing awareness of nutritional as well as medicinal importance of fruit crops, the consumption rate of fruits and its products are increasing. The consumption rate reflects the area of fruit crops under cultivation. Area and


70 D.K. Varu, A.V. Barad and I.U. Dhruj

production of fruit crops are increasing at a rapid rate in our country and similar trend is being observed in Gujarat as well. Farmers have adopted fruit cultivation by converting their arable land in to orchards. The productivity, along with area and production of fruit crops, is also improving due to adoption of advanced production technologies.

Mango (Mangifera indica L.) is one of the choicest fruit crops of tropical and sub-tropical regions of the world, especially Asia. It’s importance could be understood from its being referred to as ‘King of fruits’ in the tropical world (Singh, 1996). Because of its nutritive value, delicious taste, excellent flavor, attractive fragrance and health promising qualities, mango has gained global popularity in the last two decades. Mango has been under cultivation since 4,000 years in the Indian subcontinent. Endowed with rich diversity, India is considered to be the center of origin (Ravishankar et al., 2000). As of now, more than 1,000 mango cultivars are known to exist in the country (Karihaloo et al., 2003).Wide genetic diversity, with nearly 60 genotypes or indigenous varieties, have been recorded to exist in Gujarat. Mango germplasm has been largely confined to the districts of Valsad, Navsari, Junagadh, Amreli, Porbandar, Bhavnagar, etc., and could be broadly grouped into table, juicy and pickle types. They are characterized on the basis of a set of agro-botanic traits. However, there are only few indigenous genetic resource/varieties which have got commercial value. The landraces which are existing in this region are Jamadar, Kesar Dudhpendo, Khodi, Dadamiyo, Fajali, Giriraj, Rajapuri, Ashadhiyo, Baradadeshi, Karangio, Kavaji Patel etc. Among them, Kesar is the most important commercial variety of not only the state, but is emerging as one of the leading variety of country also.

History of Kesar mangoKesar variety of mango possess a very interesting history based on the hand written records by Shri A.S.K. Iyengar, the Garden Superintendent of Junagadh state of His Highness Sir Nawab Saheb Babi Mahobatkhanji of Junagadh state (1938). The Chamsee and Ravayudeshi mango orchards were located at Vegadi revenue circle of village Vanthali of Vanthali Mahal (Taluk) of Junagadh state. SalebhaiIdee, Vajir of Junagadh state, used to visit frequently to those orchards. Once Salebhai visited the orchards during harvesting of deshi kesharia mango and tasted the natural ripened mangoes and found it to be very tasty. He collected some unripened mangoes and kept for ripening at home. After ripening, he carried the ripened mangoes to his friend, His Highness the Sekh Saheb of Mangrol State. Shekh Saheb appreciated the taste and quality of mango and named that mango as Salebhaini Ambadi. He bestowed the title of ‘Sale Hind’ to

Salebhai and planted the mango stones in his Raheejbaugh orchard. Shri A.S.K. Iyengar, on hearing about the quality of the mango, went to Shekh Saheb and collected information. He visited Cahmsee and Ravayu orchards and observed the Kesaria mango trees. In the succeeding year, Shri A.S.K. Iyengar tasted the mangoes of these trees and found the fruits to be very delicious and tasty. Then he selected five mango trees from those orchards and 90 inarching grafts were arranged in tin containers by erecting the machans (A woody structure for support) out of which 75 good quality grafts were obtained. Later, the grafts were shifted to to Laldhori situated in the food hills of Mount Girnar. The forest was cleaned and grafts were planted in the Laldhori. The trees started bearing after three years. The ripened mangoes were presented to His Highness Nawab Saheb of Junagadh state, who the mangoes and named the mango variety as Kesar on 25th May 1934. Hence, Junagadh is considered as the center of origin of Kesar mango. He appreciated and rewarded Shri Iyengar.

Two types of mangoes were observed in the grafts, in which the best mango variety having the characteristics of broad at pedicel joint, narrow at base without stylus scar (beak), red ting when unripe which turned yellow after ripening, red pulp having sweet taste with saffron like aroma, medium tree, leaves pale green, and having 8 to 12 leaves per twig. The characteristics of second variety were bigger fruit with neck, light green coloured, uniform size, without ting, yellow inside, fibrous aroma-less sweet pulp, tall tree, bigger stone and 11 to 14 bigger leaves per twig with deep green colour. Similar variety could not be observed in a tour of different regions of the country and also countries like Ceylon (Sri Lanka), Burma (Myanmar) and Sumatra (Indonesia), Malaysia, Singapore, Hong Kong and some parts of China. Based on his observations, Shri Iyengar wrote “I feel satisfaction and pride that the Kesar mango variety, which originated at Junagadh and Vanthali, is the best in the world”. He also recorded, in his book ‘Mango in World’, that out of 1897 mango varieties observed in various parts of the world, the maximum of 1209 varieties were found in India. It is further mentioned that the royals used to apply honey and milk at the roots of mango trees in their orchards thinking that these trees will bear good quality mangoes that will be sweet and tasty.

Status of Kesar mangoMango is one of the leading fruit crops of the country, and also in the state of Gujarat. The total area and production of mango under cultivation is 1.36 lakh hectare and 9.65 lakh tonnes, respectively (Table 1). Among many mango varieties grown in the state, Kesar is the predominant one in the state. Kesar occupies major share of area and production under mango in Gujarat state, especially in

Geographical indication (GI) of Kesar Mango: A pride of Saurashtra region 71

Valsad, Navsari and Junagadh districts. In Saurashtra region, Source: Deputy Director of Horticulture, Laghu Krishi Bhavan, Junagadhit is cultivated nearly in 35,551 ha of land covering about

Table 3: Taluk-wise area and production of Kesar mango in Amrali district6.71% and 39.44% area of total horticultural crops andfruit crops of Saurashtra, respectively. Major mango

Sl. No. Taluk Area (hector) Production (MT)growing belts in the region are Gir and Vanthali, which

1. Dhari 3180 19080include Junagadh and parts of Amreli district. Junagadh isthe leading district for mango cultivation with an area of 2. Rajula 990 5940

20529 hectare and 1.56 lakh tones production followed by 3. Khambha 481 28864. Jafrabad 264 1584Amreli (Table 2 and 3). Kesar is the only mango variety

Total 4915 29490grown under systematic orchards in Saurashtra region. Theproductivity of the variety is good in Saurashtra. Source : Deputy Director of Horticulture, Amrali

Kesar Mango is a clonally selected variety and originatingCharacteristic features of Kesar mangofrom Mangrol of Junagadh district. Due to the unique

combination of agro-climatic conditions prevailing in the Kesar mango has a pleasant characteristic features. TheJunagadh district and Saurashtra region, Kesar mango has name of variety has been attributed to the saffron color ofattained its characteristic flavours. the fruit pulp. The tree is of medium height with vigour.Table 1: Area, production and productivity of mango and per cent share of Kesar possesses unique and excellent physico-chemical and

organoleptic characteristics such as oblong fruit, weighingKesar mango in Gujarat250-300 g with small beak and medium thick skin which is

Sl.No. District Area Production Productivity % share of about 13% of total fruit weight. The colour of the fruit is(hectare) (MT) (ton ha-1) Kesar mango deep green during fruit development stage and then turns

1. Amreli 6715 43647 6.50 100 to yellow with pink spot on its shoulder. Pulp is of saffroncolor, fibreless and relatively hard with sweet taste and2. Bharuch 2920 24849 8.51 60

3. Narmada 3475 17549 5.05 40 good aroma. Weight of the pulp constitutes 69 % of the4. Bhavnagar 6490 45430 7.00 80 fruit. The stone is flat with 18 % of total fruit weight. The5. Dang 3710 22260 6.00 30 juice is semi solid, sweet, tasty with good flavor. The fruits6. Junagadh 20529 156020 7.60 100 mature during April-May. The keeping quality of the fruit is7. Kutch 8230 59338 7.21 100

around 15-20 days. The biochemical parameters have been8. Surat 7900 63200 8.00 70characterized as follows: TSS (18-22 oB), acidity (0.25-0.279. Baroda 5813 37798 6.50 80

10. Valsad 28000 168000 6.00 60 %), Vitamin-A (42.0 IU), Vitamin-C (42-48 mg 100 g-1), total11. Navsari 22800 201600 8.84 50 sugars (12-13%) etc. Kesar mango has distinctive and12. Tapi 4500 33750 7.50 50 natural organoleptic characteristics such as taste, aroma,13. Other 15102 92509 6.20 100 pulp color and sweetness. The sugar/acid blend is also

Total 136184 965950 7.09 70.76 excellent. The fruit is suitable for table purpose also. Thekeeping quality of the fruit is also good. Its average yield is

Table 2: Taluk- wise area and production of Kesar mango in Junagadh district 150-200 kg tree-1.

Sl. No. District Area (ha) Production (MT) Geographical indication1. Junagadh 720 5560 A geographical indication is the identical relationship between2. Bhesan 213 1604

the product and its place of origin. It is an indication that3. Visavadar 1240 90204. Mendarda 1650 12300 product originates from a definite geographical territory.5. Vanthali 2170 17260 Typically, such name conveys an assurance of quality and6. Manavadar 128 966 distinctiveness which is fact of its origin in that defined7. Veraval 665 5020 geographical locality, region or country. Under Articles 18. Sutrapada 225 1650 (2) and 10 of the Paris Convention for the Protection of9. Una 3659 28172

Industrial Property, geographical indications are covered10. Talala 6370 4926011. Malia 2150 16300 as an element of intellectual property rights (IPRs). They12. Mangrol 310 1830 are also covered under Articles 22 to 24 of the Trade Related13. Keshod 262 1844 Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS) Agreement,14. Kodinar 767 5776 which was part of the Agreements concluding the Uruguay

Total 20529 156562


Round of GATT negotiations. In India, many geographically known and popular products had existed since ancient times, but have not been legally protected. Hence, there was a need to formulate and implement an Act to provide legal protection to geographical known product. India, as a member of the World Trade Organization (WTO), enacted the Geographical Indications of Goods (Registration & Protection) Act, 1999 which came into force with effect from 15th September 2003. This Act provides the registration as well as better legal protection to geographically indicated product in country. The Act is administered by the Controller General of Patents, Designs and Trade Marks. He is the Registrar of Geographical Indications. The Geographical Indications Registry is located at Chennai.

The Geographical Indications is used to identify agricultural, natural or manufactured goods. However, the manufactured goods should be produced or processed or prepared in that territory and should have a special quality or reputation or other characteristics. The examples of Indian Geographical Indications are Basmati Rice, Darjeeling Tea, Kanchipuram Silk Saree, Alphonso Mango, Nagpur Orange, Kolhapuri Chappal, Bikaneri Bhujia, Agra Peda, etc. It provides legal protection to prevent unauthorized use of a registered product by others. It also increases reputation of products which in turn boost exports. It promotes economic prosperity of producers of goods produced in a geographical territory. Any association of persons, producers, organization or authority established by or under the law can apply, but the applicant must represent the interest of the producers. An applicant or a producer of goods is the authorized user of geographical indication. However, the persons dealing with three categories of goods like agricultural, natural or manufactured produces are covered under the term Producer. The registration of a geographical indication is valid for a period of 10 years and can be renewed from time to time for further period of 10 years at a time.

Geographical indication is not a trade mark as GI is an indication used to identify goods having special characteristics originating from a definite geographical territory. The products are classified in various classes as per the GI Act, 1999. The Agricultural products including Agricultural, horticultural and forestry products and grains not included in other classes; live animals; fresh fruits and vegetables; seeds, natural plants and flowers; foodstuffs, etc. are included in class 31.In India, a total of 215 products are registered as geographical indication from 2003 to 2014. Among them, 40 products from agriculture sector have been granted GI. Within agriculture, horticulture contributes to its major share as GI registration with 32 products which include fruit,

vegetable, spices, etc.

Mango is highly a genetically diverse crop having many land races or varieties which are more popular in various regions of the country. A total of seven varieties viz., Alphonso, Laxman Bhog, Khirsapati (Himsagar), Fazli (Malda), Appemidi, Malihabadi Dusseheri and Gir Kesar have been accorded GI registration.

Geographical indications for Kesar mangoGujarat Agro Industrial Corporation, Government of Gujarat had applied for geographical indications for Kesar mango, in collaboration with Junagadh Agricultural University, Junagadh during 2009. The GI registration No. 185 as Gir Kesar mango was obtained during year 2011.

GI name as gir Kesar mangoThe geographical indication is ‘Gir Kesar’ mango since the variety originated at Mangrol of Junagadh district. It is cultivated in the area of Junagadh district, particularly Gir territory and some adjoining tehsils like Dhari and Khambha of Amreli district. This is due to the unique and excellent physico -chemical and organoleptic characteristics of Kesar mango. Consequently, the fruit of Kesar mango produced in the Junagadh region for its unique characteristics has for a long being known to the fruit traders and consumers in both India and abroad as Kesar mango and has acquired substantial domestic and international reputation. There is great demand of Kesar mango both in India and abroad, which is increasing day by day.

Description of Kesar mangoThe tree may gain a height of 50 feet. The mango graft takes 3-4 years to start bearing. It is a regular bearer and so bears the fruits every year. It has higher yield potentiality as compared to other varieties. It contains good physico-chemical properties like size, shape, rind colour as well as pulp, flavour, TSS, acidity, vitamin A, vitamin C and sugar. The saffron colour is a rarity in fruit pulp colour of Kesar mango and colour of lion known as kesari sinha of aforesaid Junagadh (Sasan Gir) region. The above said characteristics including pulp colour and flavour of Kesar Mango are rare and unique and it is the result of combination of genetic factors with soil strata and climatic parameters like temperature, humidity, sunshine and rainfall of the region. The agro techniques are also developed by the scientists to sustain growth, flowering, fruit yield and quality of fruits. Various steps are also taken against biotic and abiotic stress and burning/chronic problems of the crop. The Kesar mango yields up to 150 to 200 kg tree-1 in a year.

Geographical indication (GI) of Kesar Mango: A pride of Saurashtra region 73

Geographical area and production

Location

Geographically, the Junagadh district lies between the latitude 20.44’ N and 21.40’ N and longitude 69.40’ E and 71.50’ E. The area of Junagadh district is also known as Sorath Pradesh. The Gir tract is popular for Kesari singh (Asiatic Lion) and Kesar mango located between the parallel of latitude 20.40’ N and 21.50’ N and meridians of longitude 70.50’ E and 71.50’ E with 150.3 to 530.7 m MSL and it falls in Agro tropical realm, and ‘4-B Gujarat Rajwada’ biotic province in semi-arid zone. The ecological zone of Gir extends to Girnar forests in the north-west, Mitiala forests in the East and coastal forests in the South. The successful cultivation of Kesar mango is surrounded by Gir and Girnar forest including Gir Sanctuary and National Park.

Gir is one of the largest compact tract of dry deciduous forests, rich in biodiversity and has become a very stable ecosystem with tremendous regeneration, self supporting and self sustaining capacity. The Kesar mango in this region is due to unique ecosystem responsible for unique characteristics of the variety like taste, flavour and colour of pulp and this type of ecosystem or ecology is also developed in this area is due to surrounding of forest.

Climatic condition of GI areaThe geographical region indicated in the GI proposal is

semi arid climate. The maximum and minimum temperature is 44.4 Co and 10 Co, respectively. The average annual rainfall is 600-850 mm during 35 rainy days. Wind blows mainly from north-west to south-east during October to March and changes to south-east to north-west during summer and monsoon. Hence, the surrounding area of Gir and Girnar forest facilitate the moderate climatic condition to the mango orchard because mango is sensitive to above said abiotic stresses.

Soil strata of GI areaThe soil of the geographical indicating area is generally medium, black and alluvium with varying proportions of loam. The other types of soils found are red, yellow, white clay and sandy loam soils. The soil stratum of the area is also more suitable for Kesar mango because it contains calcareous soil which helps in good drainage. It also contains calcium carbonate and other elements which improve the soil physical and biological properties allowing healthy and uniform growth habit of Kesar mango. The forest surroundings helps to reduce the salinity problems which is most important for Kesar mango as it is highly sensitive to salt problem. It also add the organic carbon to the soil and improves properties of the soil by increasing the

availability of the nutrients to the plant.

Irrigation water quality and availability of GI areaThis geographical area possesses good quality water and availability of water is guaranteed due to natural flowing rivers of Gir ecosystem such as Hiran, Datardi, Shingoda, Machhundri, Ghodavadi, Raval and Shentrunji. These rivers originate from Gir and Girnar forest and supply water to the orchards of this area. The Kesar of the geographical area depends on stagnant water in rivers as well as availability of water in bores and wells.

Marketing facilityGenerally, mango growers in the region sell mangoes at farm gate itself and even the harvesting operation are also offered on contract basis. Thus, there is a group of people benefiting from the harvesting and marketing of mango. The cultivation and increased area of Kesar mango in this region is also due to good marketing facilities available at Talala and Vanthali mango market yard. The traders and consumers of entire state purchase the mango from this region. The income generated from Kesar mango from this area is about Rs. 70-72 millions. Hence, this geographical area covered by Gir and Girnar forest provides unique ecosystem to the surrounding of orchard which is not available to other area of mango in Gujarat and India.

Impact of Gir on Kesar mangoThe average area and productivity of Kesar mango has increased in this geographical region due to the better irrigation facility, favorable environment condition and soil properties. The area and production of Kesar mango in varying taluks could be attributed mainly to Gir and Girnar forests. It is observed that the Talala taluka occupied lion’s share both in area and production (38%), followed by Vanthali (>15%), Una ( about 13%), Maliya (>11%) etc. The taluks of Amrreli district adjoining Gir forest viz., Dhari and Khambha also occupy more area (61 % ).

Geographical and ecological attribute/contributing justification in quality product of Kesar mango

1. The suggested geographical indication is located around Gir forest which is situated in typical semi arid region. Hence, the climate during mango season is absolutely dry and moderate cool (as the GI area situated near coastal belt).

2. The Gir sanctuary has 400 sq. km area with several small rivers like Hiran, Datardi, Shingoda, Machhundri, Ghodavadi, Raval and Shentrunji and originate from Gir forest which provide sweet and quality water to the mango orchard.


3. The agricultural land around forest has well drained calcareous soil which is the unique feature available to mango cultivation in the suggested GI area.

4. Ecological agricultural conditions provides unique environment to Kesar mango orchard resulting in unique flavor and taste, which is not available elsewhere.

5. The suggested GI area has many commercial Kesar orchards.

6. The consumers or users are well aware about the taste and flavour of Gir Kesar in the state. They are also willing to pay a premier price to the Gir Kesar as compared to mango from any other part of the country.

REFERENCESAyngar, A.S.K. 1938. “History of Kesar mango”. An original hand written

note submitted to Junagadh State during 1938.Karihaloo, J.L., Dwivedi, Y.K., Archak, S. and Galkwab, A.B. 2003. Analysis of

genetic diversity of Indian Mango cultivars using RAPD markers. The Journal of Horticultural Science and Biotechnology, 78:285–289.

Ravishankar, K.V., Lalitha, A., Dinesh, M.R. and Anand, L. 2000. Assessment of genetic relatedness among mango cultivars of India using RAPD markers. The Journal of Horticultural Science and Biotechnology, 75(2):198–201.

Singh, R.N. 1996. Mango. ICAR, New Delhi.


A modified pollination method for hybrid production in coconut (Cocos nucifera L.)

K. Samsudeen*, P. Deepa, A. Nirmala and K.P. ChandranICAR-Central Plantation Crops Research Institute, Kasaragod 671124, Kerala

ABSTRACT

The coconut palm (Cocos nucifera Linn.) is one of the most useful palms in the world. It is essentially a tropical plant growing mostly between 20oN 20oS latitudes. Enhancing productivity through cultivation of improved varieties including hybrids is one of the major strategies suggested to make coconut farming more remunerative. Pollination work in coconut for hybrid production requires skilled climbers and is a laborious process that involves climbing the palm many times. Any alternative method that reduces the number of climbing will reduce the labour and make the whole process more cost effective by way of economizing labour component. A study was conducted to find the suitability of detached whole spike with intact male flowers in pollination. A detached whole spike was observed in laboratory condition for seven days. Pollen shed from the spike was quantified and tested for germination. It was observed that pollen release increased gradually and then decreased. Pollen germination was up to 80% on the first day which reduced to 20% after six days. For field validation of the positive results from laboratory, a field experiment was conducted to find out setting of fruit when whole spike was used for pollination. West Coast Tall (WCT) and Chowghat Orange Dwarf (COD) cultivars were used in the study. Fruit set up to 30% could be observed which was on par with the traditional method. Whole spike method developed here will reduce the number of climbing required for pollen application to one instead of five required in traditional pollination. Moreover, pollen processing required in the present method can be completely avoided.

Keywords: Coconut, hybrid, pollination, spike.

INTRODUCTIONThe coconut palm (Cocos nucifera Linn.) is one of the most useful palms in the world. Every part of the tree is useful to human life for some purpose or the other. Hence, the coconut palm is endearingly called ‘kalpavriksha’ meaning the tree of heaven. The most extensively used part being the endosperm and its derivatives. The coconut palm is found to grow under varying climatic and soil conditions. It is essentially a tropical plant growing mostly between 20oN 20oS latitudes. However, a rainfall of about 2000 mm per annum, well distributed throughout the year, is ideal for proper growth and maximum production. Coconut is propagated through seedlings raised from selected seed nuts.Enhancing productivity through cultivation of improved varieties including hybrids is one of the major strategies suggested to make coconut farming more remunerative. Reports on manifestation of hybrid vigour in coconut palms, first came from India in 1937 (Patel, 1937). Dwarfs,

because of their precocity and slow upward growth, are mostly utilized as one of the parents. Genetically distant, tall populations possessing stable yield, tolerance to adverse conditions and resistance to pest and diseases are usually used as the other parent. Hybrid between dwarf and tall coconut exhibit heterosis for yield and are semi-tall in stature (Arunachalam and Rajesh, 2008). Production of seed nut of hybrids requires controlled pollination and this technique has been standardized (Niral et al., 2009; Manthriratna et al., 1960). Pollination work in coconut requires skilled climbers proficient in breeding behaviour to climb the palm and pollinate the flowers. Inflorescence with 25-30 female flowers takes five to ten days to complete female phase depending on the variety. During the female phase a climber has to climb the palm 3 -5 times to pollinate the flowers. Male flowers collected are processed to extract pollen, which is dusted on the female flowers. Extracted pollen stored at room temperature should be used for pollination within 3-4 days before losing viability. The whole process of processing and extraction of pollen takes two days.


76 K. Samsudeen, P. Deepa, A. Nirmala and K.P. Chandran

Hybrid seed production in coconut is a laborious process that involves climbing the palm many times. Any alternative that reduces the number of climbing will make the whole process more cost effective. Among the various steps of crossing, pollen extraction and application can be modified to make the whole process more economic. The present work was conducted to find the suitability of detached whole spike with intact male flowers in pollination thereby avoiding pollen extraction and reducing 3-4 climbing needed for pollination.

MATERIALS AND METHODSPollen viability in detached male spike (Fig. 1a) was tested in an experiment set up in laboratory. Detached male spike, the cut end moistened by covering with wet cotton, was placed inside a pollination bag under room temperature (Fig. 1b). The pollen released inside the bag was collected in butter paper placed below the male spike (Fig. 1c). Spikelets with different maturity were collected on alternate days from opened bunch. Two spikelets, one with single opened flower and other with 5-10 opened flowers are collected on the first day and one spikelet with 5-10 opened flowers is collected on the third day. The male spike was observed on daily basis for number of opened male flowers, number of shed male flowers, quantity of shed pollen and germination of pollen. Spikelet from the same bunch was used to pollinate in the field by tying it to an emasculated bunch of the female parent at the time of bagging. Pollen released from the detached male spike tied on to the female parent bunch pollinated the female flower. Effectiveness of pollination was measured by observing setting of fruit after three months following fertilization. The rest of the male spikes from the bunch were processed by normal pollen processing method involving separating unopened male flowers, pressing and drying, and sieving to collect pollen. The pollen collected by normal process was also tested for germination.

Fig. 1a: Male spike Fig. 1b: Spike covered Fig. 1c: Pollen collectedwith bag on butter paper

Study was done in two cultivars WCT and COD, since they are parents in many of the released hybrids. The work was done for two consecutive years at ICAR-CPCRI Kasaragod during 2015-17. Data analysis was done using statistical software, SPSS.

RESULT AND DISCUSSIONFemale flowers in an inflorescence of coconut takes 3-5 days in the case of tall varieties and 7-10 days in the case of dwarf varieties to complete receptivity (female phase of inflorescence), so pollination also continues that many days in an inflorescence (Menon and Pandalai 1958). In coconut crossing programmes, artificial pollination is carried out 3-7 days and that many climbing depending on the variety. Reducing the number of climbing without affecting pollination will appreciably bring down the cost of hybrid production. Normally pollen collected and stored (Whitehead, 1962; Manthrirathna, 1965) is used for pollination. Processing male flower for pollen collection is also laborious. It involves collection of male spikes, separation of male flowers, drying of male flowers, sieving dried flowers in a three tier sieve, collecting and storing pollen (Samsudeen et al., 2016). Any method that will circumvent these steps in hybrid production will also reduce the cost of production. Reduction of number of climbing as well as avoidance of pollen extraction was the aim of this experiment.

Release and viability of pollen from male flower in a detached male spike was tested in an experiment set up in the laboratory. Quantity of pollen released and germination for ten days following collection of male spike from inflorescence were observed in two varieties. Male flowers in the detached spike continued opening up to ten days. The sepal of the male flower is attached more firmly to the spikelet axil in COD compared to the WCT. A slight disturbance may cause even the unopened WCT flowers to fall off. At the same time very less flowers shed from even a completely dried spikelet of COD. About 75% of male flowered opened by sixth day after collection of spike. Quantity of pollen released increased gradually up to seven days then started declining in both the varieties. Germination of pollen released was above 20% till seventh day of spike collection in COD while in WCT it was till eighth day of spike collection. Pollen extracted through normal method showed germination above 20% till fourth day of extraction (Table 1). Male flower opening, release of pollen and germination continued till 14 to 15 days after collection of spike albeit in a reduced scale.

A modified pollination method for hybrid production in coconut (Cocos nucifera L.) 77

Table 1: Quantity and germination of pollen

Day Weight of released Released pollen Extracted pollenpollen (g) germination (%) germination (%)

COD (mean) 0.0069 26.75 21.231 0.0038 40.94 46.522 0.0037 42.91 37.403 0.0083 35.81 39.114 0.0061 27.09 26.335 0.0046 28.11 14.886 0.0085 24.84 10.257 0.0101 22.26 11.278 0.0112 14.92 10.389 0.0071 14.44 3.2510 0.0060 11.45 0.80WCT (mean) 0.0111 33.59 15.561 0.0051 48.06 28.872 0.0054 45.37 30.993 0.0093 50.00 23.224 0.0132 51.43 31.775 0.0144 41.69 18.976 0.0156 35.12 9.387 0.0119 26.66 9.588 0.0178 22.43 7.829 0.0105 16.68 2.8010 0.0085 12.88 2.40

The detached spike continued to release viable pollen up to ten days though there was reduction in percentage of germination. There was slight difference between COD and WCT varieties. The WCT pollen was viable for more number of days compared to COD. In coconut hybrid production WCT and COD are both used as male and female parents. Female phase, duration of female flowers in an inflorescence are receptive, of COD is more than that of WCT. In the experiment, it was seen that male flowers of WCT release viable pollen for number days. This factor will help to cover the longer female phase in COD when WCT male spike is used for pollination. Male flower

behaviour in the detached spike of male parent was complementary to the female phase of female parent. All these indicated that detached male spikes could be used in pollination for crossing WCT and COD.Laboratory experiment that gave positive results were followed up with field experiment where detached male spike was tied to emasculated inflorescence and observed for fruit development. One or two male spikes was tied to the inflorescence and bagged (Fig.2). The bag was removed after ten days in WCT and after 12 days in COD. Fertilization and fruit set was confirmed after three months by counting fist sized fruit developed. Seasonal influence on fruit set was more pronounced in COD compared to WCT. In general fruit set was low in during monsoon season. During monsoon season the quantity of pollen obtained as well as pollen germination was low compared other seasons in both COD and WCT. The seasonal influence on production of pollen in individual male flowers as well as total production of pollen in the inflorescences was reported earlier (Gangolly et al., 1961).

In 23 COD palms this method was tested, the average female flowers per palm were 34 and average fruits set per palm were 4.5 per palm. In 28 COD palms this method was tested, the average female flowers per palm were 22.4

Frui

t set

%

Palm number

Fig. 3a: COD fruit setting %

Frui

t set

%

WCT palms

Fig. 2: Emasculated inflorescence with tied male spike Fig. 3b: WCT palm number setting %

78 K. Samsudeen, P. Deepa, A. Nirmala and K.P. Chandran

and average fruits set per palm were 5.3 per palm (Table 2). The percentage of fruit set among palms of both varieties varied. In COD it varied from zero to 92 percentage. In WCT it varied from zero to 70 percentage (Fig. 3a & Fig. 3b). In normal pollination programmes, the percentage of fruit set is between 25 and 30. In this modified pollination method, the fruit set was less than the normal method. Though the method was successful in getting fruit set, refinement in the method is suggested to improve the efficiency.Table 2: Fruit set obtained in COD and WCT palms pollination using male spike

Variety F. flowers/ palm Fruit set (no)/ palm Fruit set %COD (23 palms) 34.2 4.5 18.8WCT (28 palms) 22.4 5.3 23.0

REFERENCESArunachalam, V. and Rajesh, M. K. 2008. Breeding of coconut palm. CAB

Reviews: Perspectives in Agriculture, Veterinary Science, Nutrition and Natural Resources, CABI Press, 3(053): 1–12.

Gangolly, S. R., Kamalakaran A.K., Balakrishnan T.K. and Pandalai K.M. 1961.Studies on the pollen in the coconut (Cocos nucifera L.) I. Its impor-tance, output in different varieties and composition in the still air. Indian Coconut Journal, 14 (2): 49-66.

Manthrirathna, M.A.P.P. 1965. Coconut pollen. Ceylon Coconut Quarterly. Co-conut Research Institute, Sri Lanka.

Manthriratna. M.A.P.P. and Liyanage D. V. 1960 Method of artificial pollination of coconut palm. Ceylon Coconut Planters’ Review, 1: 3-10.

Menon, K.P.V. and Pandalai, K.M. 1958 The coconut palm, -A monograph, Indian Central Coconut Committee, Ernakulam.

Niral, V., Jerard, B. A., Samsudeen, K. and Nair, R. V. 2009. Hybridization technique in coconut. CPCRI Technical bulletin No. 057.

Patel, J.S. 1937. Coconut breeding. Proc. Assoc. Biol., 5: 1-16.Samsudeen, K., Niral, V. and Jerard, B.A. 2016. Hybrid seed production in

planting material production in coconut. 71-83; Editors : P. Chowdappa , K. Samsudeen, C. Thamban and M. K. Rajesh, Today & Tomorrow’s Print-ers and Publishers, New Delhi, India

Whitehead, R. A. 1962. Room temperature storage of coconut pollen. Nature, 196: 190.


Immature embryo culture in wild Areca spp.

K.S. Muralikrishna1, M.K. Rajesh1, K.K. Sajini1, N.R. Nagaraja2, K.S. Ananda2 and Anitha Karun1*

1ICAR-Central Plantation Crops Research Institute, Kasaragod-671124, Kerala, India2ICAR-Central Plantation Crops Research Institute (RS), Vittal-574243, Karnataka, India

ABSTRACT

Areca triandra and Areca concinna, wild relatives of cultivated arecanut, Areca catechu L., are possible candidates to develop disease resistant inter-specific hybrids of arecanut, particularly against Phytophthora meadii, which causes fruit rot of arecanut. Inter-specific hybrids often results in premature embryo abortion and fruit fall. A protocol to extract and culture of immature embryos, thus, is of immense significance. Maturation stage of the zygotic embryo and composition of culture media can influence the efficiency of protocol for raising plantlets in vitro. In this study, immature embryos (four months old) were extracted from nuts of A. triandra and A. concinna under sterile conditions were cultured onto four different basal media viz., Y3, MS, B5 and White. All basal media were supplemented with 0.1% charcoal. Germination of the zygotic embryos was found to be initiated after three weeks of culturing. Germination percentage was more in A. triandra as compared to A. concinna. Y3 medium was found to be the best basal medium as indicated by higher germination both in A. triandra and A. concinna.Keywords: Areca catechu, Areca concinna, Areca triandra, challenge inoculation, embryo culture.

INTRODUCTIONArecanut (Areca catechu L.; 2n = 32), commonly referred as betel nut, is an extremely popular masticatory in India and other Asian countries. It is the only cultivated species of the genus Areca which comprises of 76 species (Murthy and Bavappa, 1960). India ranks first in the world for production of arecanut; cultivation is mainly confined to the states of Assam, Karnataka, Kerala, Maharashtra, Tamilnadu, Goa, West Bengal and Tripura (FAO, 2014). No fossil remains of the genus Areca is known to exist and there are no definitive records of the origin of arecanut palm (Prabhakaran Nair, 2010). The maximum diversity of species, in addition to various additional indicators, implies that the original habitat is in the contiguous regions of Malaya Celebes and Borneo (Bavappa, 1963; Raghavan, 1957). Areca triandra Roxb. and Areca concinna Thwaites are considered as wild relatives of cultivated arecanut (Areca catechu L.) (Fig. 1). Both A. triandra and A. concinna are also used as masticatory similar to Areca catechu (Murthy and Pillai, 1982), though to a limited extent. India and Sri Lanka are the main regions of geographical distribution of Areca triandra and Areca concinna, respectively (Prabhakaran Nair, 2010). In contrast to A. catechu, both

these species have suckering properties. Bavappa (1974) had carried out extensive research work on Areca triandra and recorded four different ecotypes.The damage caused by Phytophthora meadii on Areca catechu remains an important concern. The pathogen causes crown rot and fruit rot (Mahali) in arecanut and results in significant yield losses. Farmers take up prophylactic measures to control the disease through spraying Bordeaux mixture. However the disease could become severe during South West monsoon, if timely spraying is not undertaken, leading to heavy yield losses. Developing an arecanut variety having resistance to P. meadii would be, therefore, of great significance. Unfortunately none of the cultivars of A. catechu has shown resistance to P. meadii. Challenge inoculation on harvested immature nuts of A. concinna and A. triandra showed their resistance to P. meadii (Prathibha et al., 2015).

Embryo rescue is a form of in vitro culture techniques by which non-viable embryos could be turned to viable (Sage et al., 2010). Interspecific hybrids of wild Areca spp. with cultivated A. catechu could lead to a genotype with possible resistance to P. meadii. One of the main problems faced in interspecific crosses is the higher abortion rate of embryos.


80 K.S. Muralikrishna, M.K. Rajesh, K.K. Sajini, N.R. Nagaraja, K.S. Ananda and Anitha Karun

Fig. 1: View of mature bearing palms of (a) Areca catechu, (b) Areca concinna and (c) Areca triandra

In such situations, the embryos usually have to be rescued following a proper in vitro procedure for its rescue. The most widely used embryo rescue procedure involves excising plant embryos and placing them onto artificial culture media (Miyajuma, 2006). Embryo rescue has been successfully applied in plant breeding for raising hybrids in many plant species (Iyer and Subramanyam, 1971; Sharma et al., 1996) including makapuno coconut (Assy Bah et al., 1987; Rhillo and Paloma, 1992) and interspecific hybrids of palms (Tzec-Simá et al., 2006; Alves et al., 2011; Angelo et al., 2011). With this background, the aim of the present study was to establish a protocol for isolation, sterilization of zygotic embryo from immature nuts of A. concinna and A. triandra and in vitro plant recovery.

METHODOLOGY

Sample collection, sterilization and inoculationImmature nuts (four months) of A. concinna and A. triandra were harvested from the research field of ICAR-CPCRI RS, Vittal, Karnataka. Nuts were washed with Tween 20 under running tap water for 1 hour. Calyx was removed from the nuts and sterilized in HgCl2 (0.01%) for 3 minutes and followed with a washing in distilled water for three times. Husk was removed in laminar air flow and the kernels were sterilized in 20% sodium hypochlorite for 10 minutes followed by rinsing in sterile water three times. Embryos were excised from the kernel aseptically and inoculated on to four different basal media viz., Y3 (Eeuwens, 1976), MS (Murashige and Skoog, 1962), B5 (Gamborg et al., 1968) and White (White, 1963). All basal media were supplemented with 3 % sucrose and 0.1 % charcoal. The sequence of sub-culturing, duration and concentration of growth regulators and other additives is represented in Fig. 2.

Establishment of plantletsPlantlets with well developed root system were hardened

Fig. 2: The protocol followed to culture immature embryos of Areca triandra and Areca concinna in vitro. BM- basal media, S- sucrose, BAP- Benzyl Amino Purine and AC- activated charcoal.

in potting mixture consisting of sterilized sand, soil and coir dust in 3:1:1 ratio.

Statistical analysisData on embryo germination and growth of the plantlets in terms of shoot and root lengths were compared among different treatments and tested for their significance through DMRT.


Raising plantlet from immature embryo in vitroSurface sterilized immature embryo of A. concinna and A. triandra were inoculated on to four basal medium. Germination of the embryo was initiated after three weeks of incubation in dark. Mortality and contamination of the embryos were

Immature embryo culture in wild Areca spp. 81

negligible or nil indicating the efficiency of the sterilization and isolation of the embryos from immature nuts. Embryo was considered as germinated once the plumular portion emerged (Fig. 4a). Cultures were kept in dark till the shoot emerges from the immature embryo. Improved germination was reported when embryo was incubated in darkness for a month which mimics the dark natural status of the embryo in the seed nut (Batugal and Engelmann, 1998; Karun et al., 1999; Muhammed et al., 2013).

Percentage of germination varied significantly among the different media tested. Percentage of germination was more in case of A. triandra as compared to A. concinna irrespective of the media tested. Highest germination percentage in both the species were obtained when embryos were cultured in Y3 media as compared to rest of the basal media. However difference in germination was not significant between Y3 and MS (Fig. 3; Fig 4b). The percentage of embryo germination was significantly lower in Whites medium (Fig. 3). Y3 medium has been reported to be suitable in many of the palm species for culturing zygotic embryos (Karun et al., 1999; Padua et al., 2014) as well as for the somatic embryos (Muniran et al., 2008).

After one month, germinated embryos were transferred to medium containing 2 mg l-1 BAP as growth hormone and subsequently transferred to liquid medium. Shoot and root length measured after three months of culturing indicate significant differences among the media tested. Supplementation of the media with glutamine improved the growth in plantlets. In general A. concinna plantlets were lengthier as compared to A . triandra. Similarly root length was more in A. concinna. Among the media, plantlets in Y3 performed better as indicated by longer shoot and roots (Fig. 3 and 4). Y3 medium has been earlier reported to be a potential basal medium for the growth and development of in vitro plantlets (Karun et al., 1999; Padua et al., 2014). Media containing BAP reported to initiate healthy shoot from in vitro cultures (Chaturvedi et al., 2004; Karun et al., 2004) and the potential of BAP was attributed to its ability to induce endogenous production of natural hormones like zeatin (Zaerr and Mapes, 1982). Culture medium consists

Fig. 3: Effect of different basal media on culturing of immature embryos of A. concinna and A. triandra, wild relatives of arecanut. Percentage of germination

observed in these species in different media combinations (top); shoot and root length of the in vitro raised plantlets raised from culturing of immature embryos

for three months (bottom). Values represented with similar alphabets for a parameter did not differ significantly according to DMRT.

Fig. 4: Plantlets derived from immature embryos of A. concinna and A. triandra. Embryos in early stage of germination (a) and formation of shoot and

roots (b) during a period of three months of culturing in Y3, MS and B5

medium. Plantlets with well developed roots were pot established (c) in a

mixture comprising of sterilized sand, soil and coir dust in 3:1:1 ratio.

82 K.S. Muralikrishna, M.K. Rajesh, K.K. Sajini, N.R. Nagaraja, K.S. Ananda and Anitha Karun

of amino acids proved to stimulate the growth of the embryo (Bhojwani and Razdan, 1983). Glutamine was found most effective amino acid for cultured embryo growth (Monnier, 1978). Throughout the culturing period, media was supplemented with 1 g l-1 of activated charcoal. Activated charcoal has been a integral part of the in vitro culture techniques since it effectively negate the phenolic compounds which may lead to browning of the explants (Karunaratne et al., 1985; Abdelwahd et al., 2008). Plantlets with well developed root system comprising of secondary roots were hardened in pots with a potting mixture of sterilized sand, soil and coir dust. Notwithstanding the slow growth, plantlets were established in pots without contamination or death (Fig. 4c).

In vitro raised plantlets have been utilized successfully for the selection for drought tolerance and other stresses (Karunaratne et al., 1991). Since challenge inoculation on harvested immature nuts of Areca concinna and Areca triandra have shown resistance to P. meadii (Prathibha et al., 2015); the plantlets developed from the embryo culture can be tested from their resistance to P. meadii and its molecular mechanism can be delineated through gene expression studies.

CONCLUSIONSThe study resulted in standardization of sterilization and embryo excision from immature nuts of A. concinna and A. triandra . Eeuwens Y3 media with BAP as growth regulator is effective in culturing immature embryos. The present protocol needs to be refined to culture embryos of different stages of maturation. The protocol should also be validated in areca inter-specific hybrids.

REFERENCESAbdelwahd, R., N. Hakam, M. Labhilili and S.M. Udupa. 2008. Use of an

absorbent and antioxidants to reduce the effect of leached phenolics in in vitro plantlet regeneration of faba bean. African Journal of Biotechnology, 7(8): 997-1002.

Alves, S.A.O., O.F. de Lemos, B.G. dos Santos Filho and A.L.L. da SilvaIn. 2011. In vitro embryo rescue of interspecific hybrids of oil palm (Elaeis oleifera x Elaeis guineensis). Journal of Biotechnology and Biodiversity, 2(2): 1-6.

Angelo, P.C., L.A. Moraes, R. Lopes, N.R. Sousa, R.N. da Cunha and R.C. Quisen. 2011. In vitro rescue of interspecific embryos from Elaeis guineensis x E. oleifera (Arecaceae). Revisita De Biologia, 59(3):1081-1088.

Assy Bah, B., T. Durand-Gasselin and C. Panetier. 1987. Use of zygotic embryo culture to collect germplasm of coconut (Cocos nucifera L.). Plant Genetic Resource Newsletter, 77: 410.

Batugal, P.A. and F. Engelmann. 1998. Coconut Embryo In Vitro Culture. Proceedings of the First Workshop on Embryo Culture 27 –31 October 1997 Banao, Guinobatan, Albay, Philippines.

Bavappa, K.V.A. 1963. Morphological and cytological studies in Areca catechu L.and Areca triandra Roxb. M.Sc. (Ag) Thesis, University of Madras. pp 63.

Bavappa, K.V.A.1974. Studies in the genus Areca L. (Cytogenetics and genetic

diversity of A.catechu L. and A.triandra Roxb.). Ph.D. Thesis, University of Mysore, India. pp.170.

Bhojwani, S.S. and M.K. Razdan. 1983. Plant tissue culture: Theory and prac-tice. Elsevier, Amsterdam.

Chaturvedi, R., M.K. Razdan and S.S. Bhojwani. 2004. In vitro morphogenesis in zygotic embryo cultures of neem (Azadirachta indica A. Juss.). Plant Cell Reports, 22: 801-809.

Eeuwens, C.J. 1976. Mineral requirements for growth and callus initiation of tissue explants excised from mature coconut palms (Cocos nucifera) and cultured in vitro. Physiologia Plantarum, 36:23-28.

FAO, 2014. http://www.fao.org/statistics/en/.Gamborg, O.L., R.A. Miller and K. Ojima. 1968. Nutrient requirements of

sus-pension cultures of soybean root cells. Experimental Cell Research, 50: 151-158.

Iyer, C.P.A. and M.D. Subramanyam. 1971. Possible role of embryo culture on mango breeding. Indian Journal of Horticulture, 29:135–136.

Karun, A, K.K. Sajini and S. Shivashankar. 1999. Embryo culture of coconut:The CPCRI protocol. Indian journal of horticulture, 56(4): 348-353.

Karun, A., E.A. Siril, E. Radha and V.A. Parthasarathy. 2004. Somatic embryo-genesis and plantlet regeneration from leaf and inflorescence explants of arecanut (Areca catechu L.). Current Science, 86(12): 1623-1628.

Karunaratne, S. C. Kurukulaarachchi and C. Gamage . 1985. A report on the culture of embryos of dwarf coconut, Cocos nucifera L. var. nana, in vitro. COCOS, 3:1-8.

Karunaratne, S., S. Santha, and A. Kovoor. 1991. An in vitro assay for drought-tolerant coconut germplasm. Euphytica, 53:25-30.

Miyajuma, D. 2006. Ovules that failed to form seeds in zinnia (Zinnia violacec Cav)”. Scientia Horticulturae, 107(2): 176-182.

Monnier, M. 1978. Culture of zygotic embryos, p. 277–286. In: T.A. Thorpe (Ed.).Frontiers of plant tissue culture. Univ. of Calgary Press, Canada.

Muhammed, N., R. Nyamota, S. Hashim and J.N. Malinga. 2013. Zygotic embryo in vitro culture of Cocos nucifera L. (sv. East African Tall variety) in the coastal lowlands of Kenya. African Journal of Biotechnology. 12(22): 3435-3440.

Muniran, F., S.J. Bhore and F.H. Shah. 2008. Micropropagation of Elaeis guineensis Jacq. ‘Dura’: Comparison of three basal media for efficient regeneration. Indian Journal of Experimental Biology, 46: 79-82.

Murashige, T. and F. Skoog. 1962. A revised medium for rapid growth and bioassays with tobacco cultures. Plant Physiology, 15:473- 497.

Murthy, K.N. and K.V.A. Bavappa. 1960. Breeding in arecanut. Arecanut Jour-nal, 11: 60-61.

Murthy, K.N. and R.N.S. Pillai. 1982. Botany. In: Bavappa K.V.A., Nair, M.K., Prem Kumar, T. (Eds), The Arecanut palm, Central Plantation Crops research Institute, Kasaragod, pp-11-49.

Padua, M.S.S., L.V. Paiva, L.G. Texeira da Silva, L. Coutinho Silva and V.C. Stein. 2014. In vitro development and acclimatization of dendezeiro (Elaeis guineensis). Revista Árvore, 38(6): 1095-1102.

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regeneration following interspecific crosses in the genus Hylocereus

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Growth analysis of in situ raised mango plants under rain fed condition in Alfisols of eastern India

Vishal Nath1*, H.S. Singh2, Kundan Kishore2 and Deepa Samant2

1ICAR-National Research Centre on Litchi, Muzaffarpur-842002, Bihar, India2Central Horticultural Experiment Station (CHES), Bhubaneswar, India

ABSTRACT

Mango is one of the most important perennial fruit crops of hot humid region of eastern India. It is cultivated on a large area in Andhra Pradesh, Odisha, West Bengal, Jharkhand, Chhatishgarh and Bihar and contributes significantly in total mango production of the country. Uplands in these regions mainly includes the plateau land with Gondwana rocks/ murrum formation in sub soil and the hillocks up to 40-50 m height with fragmented stones and a bit friable sub soil are barren. Such areas constitute roughly 35-40 % of the total area in this region which awaits interventions to make them green and yellow with plantation of fruit species. Mango does well in these areas but needs irrigation and intensive care for the establishment of nursery raised saplings. In situ method has been found successful for establishment of orchards in disadvantageous areas and this method could be utilized for mango too. Owing to variations in rootstocks and influence of external factors, in situ raised mango plant exhibits variation in growth during initial years. In this study, an attempt has been made to analyse the growth behaviour of in situ raised as well as nursery raised plants at Central Horticultural Experiment Station, Bhubneswar with Amrapali and Arka Neelachal Kesri varieties of mango. The results reveal that the in situ raised plant gave 90.85% successes in Arka Neelachal Kesri where as nursery raised plant gave 99.63% success rate after three years. Amrapali gave 96.25% success under in situ conditions. In Arka Neelachal Kesri 51.95 % plants produced less than 10 cm 2 trunk cross sectional area (TCA) under in situ conditions where as more than 70 % plants produced 30-60 cm2 TCA in nursery raised plants. Also, 47.25 % plants produced 10-20 cm2 TCA above graft union in Amrapali under in situ condition. With respect to canopy area (m2), 43.75 % in situ raised Amrapali plants produced canopy area of 1-2 m2 where as in Arka Neelachal Kesri 40.04 % plants produced less than 1 m2 canopy area and 32.92% plants produced 1-2 m 2 canopy area. Other growth characters like canopy volume (m3), number of primary, secondary and tertiary branches were also recorded and compared with in situ raised mango plants of Arka Neelachal Kesri and Amrapali with nursery raised plants. The detailed data on various growth parameters have been presented.Keywords: Mango, in situ, Trunk Cross sectional Area, rain fed, volume.

INTRODUCTIONMango (Mangifera indica L.) is the most important fruit crop of India, in general, and eastern parts of the country, in particular. As per NHB data book (2008-09), the country has nearly 20 lakh ha area with an estimated annual production of 120.05 lakh tones of mango fruits. In Odisha alone about 2.0 lakh ha area is under mango cultivation and efforts are being made under National Horticultural Mission and other programmes to enhance the area under this crop. The major constraints identified in area expansion under mango in eastern part are limited area with quality land. Approximately, 35-40 % area in eastern part of the country is upland and is dominated by red lateritic soil texture with

poor water holding capacity and sloppy land topography. Sarkar et al. (1998) described the soils of Odisha region as moderately shallow, gravelly loam, sloppy upland, hard sub soil with fragmented murrum / stone blocks and prone to soil erosion.Mango plants are commonly raised in nursery and planted in field which sometimes leads to poor establishment particularly under adverse soil condition and in fragile environment. However, in situ establishment of orchards under resource poor conditions have been suggested (Amin, 1978; Saroj et al., 1994; Samra, 2010; Vishal Nath et al., 2000), though the success rate and growth of plant varied due to stage of rootstock, quality of scion wood, existing


Growth analysis of in situ raised mango plants under rain fed condition in Alfisols of eastern India 85

agro climatic conditions and level of management. Raising of in situ mango orchards under uplands of eastern India appears to be most feasible and economical method of orchard establishment due to undistributed tap root system in the plants and ease of grafting but the growth analysis of such plants and its comparison with nursery raised plants under rain fed condition will provide an idea to suggest the technique with high degree of precision of plant performance in future. It will also provide baseline information to growers to buildup their confidence level for adopting low cost and resource conservation technique (i.e. in situ orchard establishment technique) for mango orchard establishment in upland plateau region of eastern India. Keeping in view, the following experiments were initiated to first establish the in situ mango orchard and then analyse their growth behaviour under rain fed upland conditions of Odisha.

MATERIALS AND METHODSThe experiment was conducted at Central Horticultural Experiment Station, (ICAR-IIHR), Bhubaneswar located at 20ÚC 15' N latitude, 85ÚC 50' E longitude and 25.5 m above MSL. The climate of the experimental farm is hot humid tropic which receives on an average 1300 mm annual rainfall between June to September. The climate between October to June remains dry with high evapotranspiration and occasional winter rain. The weather data of the experimental site has been given in Table 1.Table 1: Average Temperature, relative humidity and rainfall pattern during the study period (2010-2014)

Month Average values of weather parameters (2010-2014)

of cultivar Arka Neelachal Kesri at 5 x 5 m spacing in one set and sowing of 816 heels at 5 x 5 m spacing with primed stones (seeds) of mango on 1st July, 2010 in well prepared and filled pits made by JCB (Hitachi). After germination of stones and attaining grafting thickness by October – Novemebr 2010, two best stocks were grafted with scion stick of Arka Neelachal Kesri and Amrapali (408 heels of each variety) at 20 cm height by cleft grafting techniques as described by Amin (1978). After proper graft take and 2-3 extension shoot growth of graft, the polythene strips near matrix were removed and plants were allowed to grow. After, one year, attempts were made to keep only one grafted plants in case of in situ raised varieties also to make comparison of growth. The plants were not irrigated throughout their establishment, however, catchment slope were provided towards root zone to accumulate rain water and mulching was also applied uniformly to conserve the moisture. To record the observations, 25 plants as unit for one replication in nursery raised plants and 100 plants (heels) as one replication in in situ established plants were delineated. To analyse the growth characters range of desired plant characters were developed on the basis of variation in recorded data and presented to depict the comparative growth.

To record the growth characters, standard methods were followed and primary characters like root length, number of roots, trunk circumference, canopy spread (N-S and E-W), plant height, number of branches, etc. were recorded in standard units. To record root characters, 8 plants (2 from each replication) were excavated from each treatment during June, 2010 after a heavy rain. Further, the growth parameters were derived using the standard formula given by (Mac Rae et al, 2007). TCA was calculated by using formula

Temperature (ÚC) Relative Humidity (%) Rainfall (mm) (i) TCA (cm2) = (Trunk circumference (cm) X 0.16)2 XMax. Min. Max. Min. 3.143

July 35.2 25.7 93.4 80.6 255.8 Canopy area was calculated by the formulaAugust 34.8 26.6 94.2 83.9 492.7 (ii) Canopy area (m2)September 32.6 22.7 92.0 70.3 259.0

Plant spread (N − S + E − W) 2October 30.7 24.3 90.6 70.4 70.5November 30.9 19.6 89.8 67.1 29.3 = X 0.785

2December 28.5 13.9 89.5 59.5 -January 30.1 14.1 90.1 48.2 - Plant volume (m3) was calculated by the formula (WestFebruary 35.2 17.1 89.2 37.5 - Wood, et al, 1963)March 35.9 21.4 86.3 35.9 5.0

2April 36.0 25.0 90.1 45.7 32.0(iii) Plant volume (m3) = Plant height (m) x (canopyMay 37.5 26.0 91.0 63.0 105.5

June 38.7 27.5 90.0 77.0 215.0spread)2

3 X

The soil of the experimental site is red lateritic with poorThe data were subjected to frequency distribution on setorganic matter content and very low water holding capacity

(Kumar et al., 2008). The physico-chemical properties of class intervals and then % values for each class intervalwas calculated. Wherever, possible, data were also subjectedexperimental soil are sand (81.8%), silt (9.72%), clay

(8.48%), organic carbon (0.20%), pH (5.2) and available N, to statistical analysis using completely randomized blockdesign. The values were then tabulated for interpretationP and K (190.8, 23.96 and 116.94 kg ha-1, respectively). The

experiment was conducted by planting nursery raised plants of results and drawing conclusions.

86 Vishal Nath, H.S. Singh, Kundan Kishore and Deepa Samant

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Growth of stemThe data on plant survival, Trunk Cross Sectional Area above Growth of stem in mango plants depends of TCA aboveand below the graft union, canopy area of plants, canopy and below the graft union and development of primary,volume of plants, number of primary, secondary and tertiary secondary and tertiary branches which forms the mainbranches have been arranged in sub heads and presented frame of the plant. To analyse the growth of stem, plantswith the help of table and diagrams for better understanding. have been grouped based on their TCA (cm2). Data

presented in Table 3 and depicted with the help of Fig. 1Survival of plants reveal that 82 % in situ raised plants of Amrapali had 10-40Plant survival under field conditions was highly satisfactory cm2 TCA below the graft union and 69.25 % plants had

10-40 cm2 TCA above the graft union. In situ raised plantsupto three years. One year old nursery raised plants plantedof Arka Neelachal Kesri showed poor growth in comparisonin well prepared pits showed the maximum (99.6 %) fieldof Amrapali and only 69.34 % plants recorded 10-40 cm2survival. The in situ raised plants of Arka Neelachal KesriTCA below the graft union and 47.66 % plants recordedrecorded 90.9 and 96.3 % field survival, respectively after

10-40 cm2 TCA above the graft union. It was also noticedthree years. In fact, under in situ condition the germinationof seedling plants were ensured to maintain at least twoseedling/grafted plants per heel (data not given) but due tobiotic and abiotic stress to developing grafts in field,mortality was noticed after two years. Vishal Nath et al.(2000) reported effect of abiotic stress like heat,evapotranspiration on survival of in situ raised ber plantsunder hot arid conditions. Besides the stress imposed underfield condition, the survival of plants depends on the rootcharacteristics of plants. Data presented in Table 2 revealedthat although the number of primary and secondary rootsare more in nursery raised plants but the root length wasmore in in situ raised plants. In the initial years, the survivalof nursery plants was high probably because the secondaryand tertiary roots spread over the surface were able tosupply the desired water and nutrients to plants. The higherlength of tap root in in situ raised plants is possibly due tonon disturbance of roots and availability of porus pit mediumin the initial years (Table 2). Fig 1: Growth of main stem in in situ/nursery raised mango plants after three

Table 2: Root characteristics and survival of mango plants under rain fed conditionyears under rain fed condition.

Treatment Survival(%) No. of primary roots No. of secondary roots Longest root length (m)

Amrapali (In situ) 96.3 8.7 35.3 1.87Arka Neelchal Kesri (In situ) 90.9 8.0 29.9 1.75Arka Neelchal Kesri (Nursery) 99.6 9.2 36.8 1.11CD (P=0.05) N S 0.69 6.35 0.56

Table 3: Growth of main stem (% plants) in in situ/nursery raised plants of mango

Treatment Trunk cross-sectional area (cm2)

0-10 10-20 20-30 30-40 40-50 50-60 60-70 70-80 80-90

(A) TCA below the graft union (% plant)Amrapali (I) 6.00 22.00 30.20 22.00 6.75 5.25 0.00 0.00 0.00Arka Neelachal Kesri (I) 17.58 17.58 31.45 20.31 7.62 4.30 0.98 0.00 0.00Arka Neelachal Kesri (N) 1.56 4.69 9.38 6.25 10.94 15.63 25.00 12.50 15.63(B) TCA above the graft union (% plant)Amrapali (I) 30.75 47.25 19.75 2.25 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00Arka Neelachal Kesri (I) 51.95 34.57 11.53 1.56 0.39 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00Arka Neelachal Kesri (N) 3.13 6.25 17.19 21.88 21.88 26.56 3.13 1.56 0.00

Growth analysis of in situ raised mango plants under rain fed condition in Alfisols of eastern India 87

Table 4: Branching pattern of in situ/nursery raised plants of mango under rain fed conditions.

Type of branches No. of branches % plants

Amrapali (I) Arka Neelachal Kesri (I) Arka Neelachal Kesri (N)

A) Primary branches 0-15 81.00 68.75 59.385-10 19.00 30.28 40.19

10-15 0.00 0.98 0.43B) Secondary branches 0-5 10.25 28.13 1.56

5-10 40.00 18.95 6.2510-15 38.75 29.69 26.5615-20 9.50 17.97 26.5620-25 1.50 9.18 35.9425-30 0.00 0.00 4.69

C) Tertiary branches 0-10 38.50 66.60 4.6910-20 34.25 16.60 4.6920-30 19.50 10.16 3.1330-40 7.75 5.08 21.8840-50 0.00 1.56 31.2550-60 0.00 0.00 23.4460-70 0.00 0.00 12.50

that 51.95 % in situ raised plants of Arka Nelachal Kesri recorded less than 10 cm2 TCA above the graft union which showed slow growth of the scion. Contrary to this, 79.70% nursery raised plants of Arka Neelachal Kesri recorded40-90 cm2 TCA below the graft union and 53.13 % plants of the same recorded 40-90 cm2 TCA above graft union. The above results clearly indicates that nursery raised plants were more vigorous than in situ raised plants in initial stage and within two years more than 50 % plants were able to attain a sizable TCA which is a basis for their further growth (Westwood et al., 1963; Mac Rae et al., 2007).

Primary and secondary branches makes the major frame in mango plants where as tertiary branches help in canopy enlargement leading to fruiting terminals in due course (Singh et al., 2008). In present study, plant varied with respect to number of branches at different level in different treatments (Table 4). More than 81 % plants in in situ raised Amrapali variety produced less than five primary branches whereas Arka Neelachal Kesri (in situ) only 68.75 % plant had less than five primary branches and above 30 % plant had 5-10 primary branches which indicates a compact canopy with multiple primaries in Arka Neelachal Kesri. Similar results were also found in nursery raised plants of Arka Neelachal Kesri where about 60 % plant had less than5 and 40 % plant had 5-10 primary branches (Table 4). After two years, 78.75 % plant in Amrapali (in situ) produced 5-15 secondary branches where as number of secondary branches in Arka Neelachal Kesri were less than5 in 28.13 % plants. In nursery raised plants of Arka Neelachal Kesri, 35.94 % plant recorded 20-25 secondary branches. In situ raised plants produced less than 20 tertiary branches in 72.75 % and 83.2 % plants in mango varieties Amrapali and Arka Neelachal Kesri, respectively which

showed that the canopy formation in in situ raised plant was at low pace. In nursery raised plants of Arka Neelachal Kesri, 76.57 % plants produced 30-60 tertiary branches up to the third year.

Growth of canopyCanopy area (m2) for different treatments have been presented in Table 5 and Table 6, respectively. % plant with different treatments canopy spread intervals reveal that in in situ raised plants of Amrapali, 68.00 % plant had 1-3 m2 canopy area whereas 30.00 % plants had less than 1 m2 canopy area after three year. In Arka Neelachal Kesri, however 40.04 % plants had less than 1 m2 canopy area and 51.48 % plants had 1-3 m2 canopy after three years. After three years, nursery raised plants of Arka Neelachal Kesri showed more canopy area and 62.51 % plant recorded 4-7 m2 canopy area under rain fed conditions of Bhubaneswar. This clearly indicates that nursery raised plants has developed more canopy area than in situ raised plants which possibly be due to formation of more number of tertiary branches (Fig. 2).

Canopy volume (m3) of plants also varied with different treatments. Analyses of canopy volume (Table 6) reveal that about 40 % plants of Amrapali had less than 5 m3

canopy volume where as about 40 % plants had 5-10 m3

canopy volume under in situ conditions. In Arka Neelachal Kesri, nearly 45 % plant had less than 5 m3

canopy volume and 33 % had 5-10 m3 canopy volume under similar conditions. Nursery raised plants of Arka Neelachal Kesri recorded comparatively more canopy volume and about 42 % plant were noticed to have 25-35 m3 canopy volume after 3 years under rain fed conditions of Bhubaneswar (Fig. 3).

88 Vishal Nath, H.S. Singh, Kundan Kishore and Deepa Samant

Fig. 2: Canopy area (m2) of in situ/nursery raised mango plants under rain fed Fig. 3: Canopy volume (m3) of in situ/nursery raised mango plantscondition.

Table 5: Canopy area (m2) of in situ/nursery raised mango plants under rain fed condition

Treatment Range of canopy area (% plant)

0-1 1-2 2-3 3-4 4-5 5-6 6-7 7-8 8-9 9-10

Amrapali (I) 30.00 43.75 24.25 2.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00Arka Neelachal Kesri (I) 40.04 32.97 18.56 7.03 1.17 0.78 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00Arka Neelachal Kesri (N) 4.69 3.13 7.81 10.94 21.88 15.63 25.00 7.81 3.13 1.56

Table 6: Canopy volume (m3) of in situ/nursery raised mango plants

Treatment Range of canopy area (% plant)

0-5 5-10 10-15 15-20 20-25 25-30 30-35 35-40 40-45 45-50

Amrapali (I) 39.50 40.00 18.50 1.50 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00Arka Neelachal Kesri (I) 44.92 32.81 13.18 6.45 2.34 0.20 0.39 0.00 0.00 0.00Arka Neelachal Kesri (N) 7.81 1.56 4.69 6.25 4.69 18.75 23.44 6.25 14.06 14.06

REFERENCESAmin, R.S. 1978. Softwood grafting of mango in situ. Indian Journal of

Horticul-ture, 35:105-108.Kumar, D., V. Pandey and Vishal Nath. 2008. Effect of organic mulches on

moisture conservation for rain fed turmeric production in mango orchard. Indian Journal of Soil Conservation, 36:188-191.

Mac Rae, A.W., W.E. Mitchem , D.W. Monks, M.L. Parker and R.K. Galloway. 2007. Tree growth, fruit size and yield response of mature peach to weed free intervals. Weed Technology, 21:102-105.

NHB. 2008-09. Database, National Horticulture Board, Gurgaon, Haryana. Samra, J.S. 2010. Horticulture opportunities in rain fed areas. Indian Journal of

Horticulture, 67:1-7.Sarkar, D., C.T. Thampi, J. Sehgal and N. Velaythum. 1998. Soils of India-soils

of Orissa for optimizing land use. Tech. Bull. NBSS LUP. Nagpur. 63.

Saroj, P.L., K.C. Dube and R.K. Tiwari, 1994. Utilization of degraded lands for fruit production. Indian Journal of Soil Conservation, 22:162-176.

Singh, H.S., N. Vishal, A. Singh and S. Mandal. 2008. Mango-Preventive practices and curative measures SSPH. New Delhi. pp.1-501.

Vishal Nath, P.L. Saroj, R.S. Singh, R. Bhargava, and O.P. Pareek. 2000. In situ establishment of ber orchard under hot arid ecosystem of Rajasthan. Indian Journal of Horticulture, 57: 21-26.

Westwood, M.N., F.C. Reimer and V.L. Quackenbush. 1963. Long term yield as related to ultimate tree size of three pear varieties grown on root stocks of five Pyrus sp. Proceedings of American Societies of Horticultural Sci-ence, 82: 103-108.

International Journal of Innovative Horticulture. 6(1):89-92, 2017 Varietal Release

A new short duration turmeric variety, IISR PRAGATI–a boon to Indian farmers

D. Prasath*, Santhosh J. Eapen, B. Sasikumar, H. J. Akshitha, N.K. Leela, R. Chitra1, B. Mahender2 C. Chandrasekhara Rao3 , S.L. Swargaonkar4 and K. Nirmal BabuICAR- Indian Institute of Spices Research, Marikunnu PO, Kozhikode-673 012, Kerala, India 1Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore-641003, Tamil Nadu, India2SKTHU, Kammarpalli, Telangana, India3YSRHU, Chintapalli; Andhra Pradesh, India4IGKV, Raigarh, Chhattisgarh, India

Turmeric is a dried underground rhizome of perennial herb Curcuma longa L., of the family Zingiberaceae. It is traditionally used in Asian countries as condiment, dye, drug and cosmetic in addition to its use in religious ceremonies. India is the leading producer, consumer and exporter. Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Tamil Nadu, Odisha, Karnataka, West Bengal, Gujarat, Meghalaya, Maharashtra and Assam are the important states that cultivate turmeric. In India, it is grown in 0.18 million ha with a production of 0.83 million tones.India harbours rich diversity of Curcuma, especially species and cultivar diversity. There are many popular turmeric cultivars, which are specific to each region of cultivation. Duggirala, Armoor, Tekurpeta, Nandyal, Alleppey, Rajapuri, Salem, Erode, Gorakhpur, Mydukur, Lakadong, Waigaon etc. are some of the popular local cultivars which are essentially named after the places where they are grown extensively. Wide variability among the existing cultivars was recorded in respect of growth parameters, yield attributes, and resistance to biotic and abiotic stresses and quality characters. Collection, evaluation and conservation of turmeric genetic resources is one of the core areas of research in India. The turmeric conservatory of ICAR-Indian Institute of Spices Research (ICAR -IISR), Kozhikode, Kerala consists of 1450 accessions. In addition to ICAR-IISR, germplasm collections are also maintained at various AICRPS centers located in different turmeric producing states.

Generally, crop improvement programme in turmeric was restricted to clonal selection and induced mutation and subsequent selection. The main emphasis was yield, high

curing percentage and high curcumin content. Clonal selection played the most significant role in developing several high yielding varieties in turmeric. This was due to rare seed set in turmeric. The selection was mainly applied on land races collected from different turmeric growing areas of the country.

IISR-PRAGATIThe ICAR- Indian Institute of Spices Research, Kozhikode through its systematic breeding programme has developed a short duration, high yielding turmeric variety for the benefit of farmers. The variety, IISR PRAGATI (Fig. 1), is a clonal selection (Acc. 48) from the vast repository of turmeric germplasm maintained at the institute.

Screening of germplasm for disease and other attributes:

During 1996-2006, 253 turmeric germplasm accessions were screened against root knot nematode (Meloidogyne incognita) and seven nematode resistant accessions (Acc. 35, 48, 79, 130, 142, 146 and 200) were identified (Tables 1 and 2). These genotypes, along with a susceptible accession (Acc. 376) and a released variety IISR Prathibha, were evaluated during 2008-2012 to assess the yield performance under Kerala conditions.Results indicated that in terms of yield, Acc. 79 and Acc. 48, performed significantly higher compared to the national check. Maximum yield per hectare was recorded in Acc.48 (31.94 t/ha) followed by Acc 79 (31.79 t/ha) over three years (Table 3). The stability parameters of Acc. 48 and Acc. 79 showed good stability for yield and it indicates general adaptability of these two genotypes over years.


90 D. Prasath et al.

Table 1: Screening of turmeric germplasm accessions to root knot nematode, Meloidogyne incognita (mean of five replications)

No. of accessions Egg Mass Promising accessionsscreened Index (EMI)

253 < 2 Accs. 03, 21, 31, 35, 43, 48, 62, 64, 67, 72,78, 79, 82, 84, 130, 142, 146, 150, 165, 178,182, 193, 198, 199, 200, 203, 210, 223, 224,228, 235, 237, 239, 243, 245, 246, 250, 252,253, 255, 260, 262, 263

Table 2: Reaction of short-listed accessions on inoculation with root knot nematodes, Meloidogyne incognita

Entry Gall index Egg Mass Reproduction Host reaction(GI) Index (EMI) factor (R)

Acc. 35 2.0 0.2 0.67 ResistantAcc. 48 2.7 3.0 1.07 Moderately

ResistantAcc. 79 2.0 2.0 0.03 ResistantAcc. 130 2.0 1.8 0.24 ResistantAcc. 142 3.0 2.0 0.00 ResistantAcc. 146 1.0 1.2 0.56 ResistantAcc. 200 1.3 0 0.12 ResistantAcc. 376 3.3 4.3 2.07 SusceptibleIISR Prathibha 3.0 2.8 2.12 Susceptible

Table 4: Pooled yield data (2013-16) of turmeric in selected AICRPS centres

Table 3: Evaluation of turmeric accessions for yield

Entries Fresh yield (kg/3m2)

2010-11 2011-12 2012-13 Mean Kg/ha

Acc. 35 12.00 9.92 15.25 12.39 27.26Acc. 48 14.00 13.44 16.13 14.52 31.94Acc. 79 14.00 13.34 16.00 14.45 31.79Acc. 130 9.75 9.05 12.88 10.56 23.23Acc. 142 9.75 11.42 14.56 11.91 26.20Acc. 146 10.25 12.32 14.88 12.48 27.46Acc. 200 10.50 9.67 10.38 10.81 23.78Acc. 376 10.25 10.42 12.75 11.14 24.51Prathibha 15.23 10.62 12.25 12.70 27.94Mean 11.75 11.13 13.90 12.26CD (0.05) 1.82 1.69 2.53 1.12CV (%) 10.62 8.80 12.48 10.57

During 2010-14, this genotype was field tested as Acc. 48 along with other test varieties, for over three years in different turmeric growing regions of the country and under various climatic conditions through All India Coordinated Research Project on Spices (AICRPS). Among the genotypes evaluated, maximum yield per hectare was recorded in NDH 98 (a long duration variety, 240 days) followed by Acc. 48 (a short duration variety, 180 days)

Chintapalle Coimbatore Kammarpalli Kozhikode Raigarh Mean % N C % L C Rank Dry recovery Dry(fresh yield/ha) (%) yield/ha

Acc 48 38.83 34.04 27.12 51.79 14.20 33.19 30.74 30.89 II 20.22 6.71Acc 79 29.98 32.22 24.79 40.01 10.14 27.43 8.02 8.15 21.28 5.84SLP 389/1 24.27 30.67 21.80 26.60 13.80 23.43 -7.73 -7.62 21.99 5.15NDH 8 40.15 27.97 27.79 31.58 8.33 27.16 6.98 7.10 19.15 5.20NDH 79 35.74 28.25 25.85 30.45 15.28 27.12 6.79 6.92 19.41 5.26NDH 98 46.22 29.17 25.79 48.85 23.20 34.65 36.46 36.62 I 20.59 7.13TCP 64 25.96 30.43 18.96 26.34 8.59 22.06 -13.13 -13.03 23.36 5.15PTS 12 29.33 33.39 22.47 32.31 6.75 24.85 -2.12 -2.01 21.73 5.40PTS 8 31.34 27.63 17.37 37.93 8.91 24.64 -2.96 -2.85 22.21 5.47PTS 55 27.87 28.61 23.95 34.02 6.18 24.13 -4.98 -4.87 21.98 5.30Prathiba 27.68 29.78 21.28 37.82 10.41 25.39 0.01 0.13 22.55 5.73Local 19.08 32.28 31.58 29.77 14.09 25.36 -0.13 -0.01 21.51 5.46Mean 31.37 30.37 24.06 35.62 11.66

over three years pooled data (Table 4). It has 30 % and (fresh rhizomes). The potential yield is 52 t ha-1 under35% yield increase over national and local turmeric varieties, favourable conditions.respectively. This variety was identified for release during

Stable and high curcumin content (5.02%) acrossthe XXVII All India Coordinated Research Project on Spiceslocations (Table 5).(AICRPS) Group Meeting held at NRC Seed Spices (Ajmer,

Moderately resistant to root knot nematodeRajasthan) in 2016.

The characteristic featuresinfestation.

The variety is suitable for cultivation in Kerala, Tamil Short duration variety and takes only 180-200 days Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Karnataka and

to harvest. Chhattisgarh states.• High yielding variety with average yield of 38 t ha-1

A new short duration turmeric variety, IISR PRAGATI–a boon to Indian farmers 91

Table 5: Morphological and quality attributes of IISR Pragati

Morphological characters

Plant height (cm) 95.0Leaf length/breadth (cm) 46.0/15.0No. of tillers per clump 2.5No. of leaves per clump 13.8Dry recovery (%) 20.00Crop Duration 180 daysYield 38.0 tonnes of fresh rhizomes/haPotential yield 52.0 tonnes of fresh rhizomes/haQuality attributesCurcumin 5.02%Oleoresin 12.14%Essential oil 3.60%

Short duration and high yieldThe productivity of the local turmeric cultivars is low and often crop failures are experienced either due to shortage of irrigation water or disease occurrence. Also, most of the local cultivars and released varieties are long duration in nature (210-240 days). The improved high yielding short duration variety, IISR Pragati,is highly suitable for all such turmeric growing areas.

Table 6: Performance of turmeric genotypes in on-farm trials

Stable and high curcuminThe primary active constituent of turmeric is an important secondary metabolite namely, curcumin. It is accepted that curcumin has wide range of beneficial properties, including anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, chemo-preventive and chemotherapeutic activity. Stability of curcumin and yield in turmeric is one of the concerns in spices industries, as genotypes perform differently across environments. IISR Pragati showed high stability for curcumin across environments and is suitable for spice industries aiming curcumin extraction.

Moderately resistant to root knot nematodeRoot knot nematode (Meloidogyne incognita) is the most predominant nematode in turmeric, causing considerable crop loss in the states of Kerala, Tamil Nadu, and Andhra Pradesh. Planting of IISR Pragati is safe and effective strategy to manage nematode problems in turmeric.

Performance in turmeric growing regionsThe on-farm trials conducted in farmer’s fields clearly demonstrated its performance in many turmeric growing regions (Table 6). As per farmer’s feedback, IISR Pragati is performing well in Andhra Pradesh,Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Telangana and Himachal Pradesh.

Tamil Nadu Andhra Pradesh

Fresh yield Dry recovery Dry yield Curcumin Fresh yield Dry recovery Dry yield Curcumin(t/ha) (%) (t/ha) (%) (t/ha) (%) (t/ha) (%)

IISR 30.06 22.00 6.61 5.12 32.82 23.00 7.55 2.60Acc. 48 38.04 19.00 7.23 5.62 41.31 21.50 8.88 5.01Acc. 849 47.19 22.00 10.38 1.97 36.21 21.50 7.79 1.56Acc. 79 29.37 19.00 5.58 5.62 32.64 23.30 7.61 4.06Salem Local 30.21 17.00 5.14 4.80 34.93 21.50 7.51 3.85PTS 10 29.33 20.00 5.87 4.48 - - - -Mydukkur - - - 29.12 18.30 5.33 1.40

Kerala Karnataka

Fresh yield Dry recovery Dry yield Curcumin Fresh yield Dry recovery Dry yield Curcumin(t/ha) (%) (t/ha) (%) (t/ha) (%) (t/ha) (%)

IISR 33.92 21.05 7.14 5.46 36.46 21.25 7.75 3.97Acc. 48 51.95 17.60 9.14 4.96 43.14 18.96 8.18 4.52Acc. 849 51.75 21.90 11.33 2.03 31.38 23.81 7.47 2.12Acc. 79 38.94 17.50 6.81 4.54 28.02 18.56 5.20 4.52Salem Local 32.64 19.00 6.20Suguna 40.08 16.00 6.41 3.36 23.37 17.55 4.10 4.785

92 D. Prasath et al.

Fig. 1: Field view of IISR Pragati in a) Karnataka; b) Tamil Nadu; c) Telangana State; d) rhizome characters

REFERENCESAnandaraj, M., Prasath, D., Kandiannan, K., John Zachariah, T., Srinivasan, V.,

Jha, A.K., Singh, B.K., Singh, A.K., Pandey, V.P., Singh, S.P., Shoba, N., Jana, J.C., Ravindra Kumar,. K. and Uma Maheswari, K. 2014. Genotype by environment interaction effects on yield and curcumin in turmeric (Curcuma longa L.). Industrial Crops and Products, 53:358-364.

Eapen, S.J., Ramana, K.V., Sasikumar, B and Johnson, K.G. 1999. Screening ginger and turmeric germplasm for resistance against root-knot nematodes. In: Proc. Nat. Symp. ‘Rational Approaches in Nematode Management for Sustainable Agriculture’, Nov. 23-25, Nematological Society of India, New Delhi, p: 142–144.

Kandiannan, K., Anandaraj, M., Prasath, D., John Zachariah, T., Krishnamurthy,

K.S. and Srinivasan, V. 2015. Evaluation of short and tall true turmeric (Curcuma longa) varieties forgrowth, yield and stability. Indian Journal of Agricultural Sciences, 85(4):718-720.

Prasath, D., Eapen, S. J. and Sasikumar, B. 2016. Performance of turmeric (Curcuma longa) genotypes for yield and root-knot nematode resistance, Indian Journal of Agricultural Sciences, 86(9): 89-92.

Nirmal Babu, K., Sasikumar, B., Ratnambal, M.J., George, J.K and Ravindran, P.N. 1993. Genetic variability in turmeric (Curcuma longa L.). Indian Jour-nal of Genetics and Plant Breeding, 53: 91–93.

Sasikumar, B and Jayarajan, K. 2004. Phenotypic stability for fresh rhizome yield in turmeric. Journal of Medicinal and Aromatic Plant Science, 26: 277–278.

Book Review 93

Introduction to Soil PhysicsPradeep K. Sharma (Vice Chancellor, SKUAST, Jammu)Published by: Westville Publishing House47, B-5, Paschim Vihar, New Delhi - 110063Tel: 011-25284742 Telelax: 011-25267469 Mobile: 0-9868124228Email: [email protected] [email protected]: 528p, Price: Rs 3,000 (Hardback) / Rs 425 (Paperback)

Soil fertility is many times misunderstood as nothing more than the presence of N, P, K and other micronutrients in soil. However, the fate of these nutrients in the soil including the availability and uptake by the plants is dependent on soils’ physical and microbial environments. The soil physical properties ideal for easy availability of these nutrients are much more important than any other soil parameter. In fact, many of the soil chemical properties are a function of soil texture and structure. The

soil physical environment determines the aerobic or anaerobic organisms to dominate in the soil, which have their own roles to play for the availability of nutrients to plants. A lot of work on soil physical properties has been done in India but somehow, its documentation in the form of a text book for undergraduate and postgraduate students as well as a guiding document for the teachers was lacking especially in the context of work done under Indian conditions.

I foresee this book to go a long way in providing an easy to read and understand document for our students and teachers as well. The concept of soil physics in Chapter 2 has been explained in an excellent way. The water, being the major component of crop growth, has been discussed in Chapter 3 in relation to agriculture. The other phase of soil, viz., soil solids has been described in Chapters 4-6 in a simple way. The fate of water in soils has been explained with good examples under Indian context has been detailed out in Chapters 7-11. The third phase of soil, viz., soil air has been explained in Chapter 12. Other soil physical properties like soil colour, soil temperature, soil strength etc. has been dealt in Chapters 13-16. The most important component of this book i.e. management of soil physical properties, has been explained in chapter 16, which I feel is rare to be an independent chapter in any book on soil physics.

The most important aspect of this book is that this has been written by a renowned Soil Physicist of the country, who himself, has done a lot of research on many of these topics. His expertise in this field has made the book much more interesting and easy-to-read and understand by the students. The solved and unsolved numericals, short and long answer questions listed in the book make it an excellent document for the teachers who teach the subject of soil physics in various colleges and universities. I am sure that this book will prove to be an important document for the students and teachers engaged in the field of agriculture.

(Dr. Surinder S Kukal, PhD, FNAAS, FISSS)Dean, College of Agriculture

Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana, India

94 New Books Received

Tropical Ornamental Trees for Landscape GardeningM. Kannan, P. Ranchana, S. VinodhPages: 292p, Price: Rs 3,000 (Hardback)ISBN: 9789383491858Published by: Westville Publishing House47, B-5, Paschim Vihar, New Delhi - 110063Tel: 011-25284742 Telelax: 011-25267469 Mobile: 0-9868124228Email: [email protected] [email protected]

Mechanization in Plantation CropsA.C. Mathew, M.R. Manikantan, P. ChowdappaPages: 180 coloured pages, Price: Rs 2,500 (Hardback)ISBN: 9789383491834Published by: Westville Publishing House47, B-5, Paschim Vihar, New Delhi - 110063Tel: 011-25284742 Telelax: 011-25267469 Mobile: 0-9868124228Email: [email protected] [email protected]

Attaining Food and Nutrition Security in the Developing WorldPrem NathPages: 576p, Price: Rs 4,000 (Hardback)ISBN: 9789383491841Published by: Westville Publishing House47, B-5, Paschim Vihar, New Delhi - 110063Tel: 011-25284742 Telelax: 011-25267469 Mobile: 0-9868124228Email: [email protected] [email protected]

ICT Based Agricultural Extension Initiatives in IndiaV. Sangeetha, J.P. Sharma, R.R. Burman, S.K. Dubey, M.S. Nain Pages: 288p, Price: Rs 2,000 (Hardback) ISBN: 9789383491193Published by: Westville Publishing House47, B-5, Paschim Vihar, New Delhi - 110063Tel: 011-25284742 Telelax: 011-25267469 Mobile: 0-9868124228Email: [email protected] [email protected]

Sabzi Utpadan Evam Sansadhan Ke Unnat Krishi YantraEvam Pradyogikiyan (Hindi)

P.K. Sahu, Ranbir Singh, A.P. Srivastava, C.B. Singh Pages: 188p, Price: Rs 1,500 (Hardback) ISBN: 9789383491308Published by: Westville Publishing House47, B-5, Paschim Vihar, New Delhi - 110063Tel: 011-25284742 Telelax: 011-25267469 Mobile: 0-9868124228Email: [email protected] [email protected]

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Single Author(Ryan, 2011)Two Authors(Smayda and Reynolds, 2012)More Than Two Authors(Falkowski et al., 1998)

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