TEKS and TAKS TEKS - World History

Course DescriptionWorld History Studies is the only course offering students an overview of the entire history of humankind. The major emphasis is on the study of significant people, events, and issues from the earliest times to the present. Traditional historical points of reference in world history are identified as students analyze important events and issues in western civilization as well as in civilizations in other parts of the world. Students evaluate the causes and effects of political and economic imperialism and of major political revolutions since the 17th century. Students examine the impact of geographic factors on major historic events and identify the historic origins of contemporary economic systems. Students analyze the process by which democratic-republican governments evolved as well as the ideas from historic documents that influenced that process. Students trace the historical development of important legal and political concepts. Students examine the history and impact of major religious and philosophical traditions. Students analyze the connections between major developments in science and technology and the growth of industrial economies, and they use the process of historical inquiry to research, interpret, and use multiple sources of evidence.

To support the teaching of the essential knowledge and skills, the use of a variety of rich primary and secondary source material such as biographies and autobiographies; novels; speeches and letters; and poetry, songs, and artworks is encouraged. Selections may include excerpts from Hammurabi's Code. Motivating resources are also available from museums, art galleries, and historical sites.

The eight strands of the essential knowledge and skills for social studies are intended to be integrated for instructional purposes with the history and geography strands establishing a sense of time and a sense of place. Skills listed in the geography and social studies skills strands in subsection (c) of this section should be incorporated into the teaching of all essential knowledge and skills for social studies. A greater depth of understanding of complex content material can be attained when integrated social studies content from the various disciplines and critical-thinking skills are taught together.

Throughout social studies in Kindergarten-Grade 12, students build a foundation in history; geography; economics; government; citizenship; culture; science, technology, and society; and social studies skills. The content, as appropriate for the grade level or course, enables students to understand the importance of patriotism, function in a free enterprise society, and appreciate the basic democratic values of our state and nations, as referenced in the Texas Education Code, §28.002(h).

Full Course Description: http://tea.state.tx.us/ssc/teks_and_taas/teks/course_descriptions.htm#worldhist TEKS

(1) History. The student understands traditional historical points of reference in world history.

The student is expected to:

(A) identify the major eras in world history and describe their defining characteristics;

(B) identify changes that resulted from important turning points in world history such as the development of farming; the Mongol invasions; the development of cities; the European age of exploration and colonization; the scientific and industrial revolutions; the political revolutions of the 18th, 19th, and 20th centuries; and the world wars of the 20th century;

(C) apply absolute and relative chronology through the sequencing of significant individuals, events, and time

periods; and

(D) explain the significance of the following dates: 1066, 1215, 1492, 1789, 1914-1918, and 1939-1945.

(2) History. The student understands how the present relates to the past.

The student is expected to:

(A) identify elements in a contemporary situation that parallel a historical situation; and

(B) describe variables in a contemporary situation that could result in different outcomes.

(3) History. The student understands how, as a result of the collapse of the Western Roman Empire, new political, economic, and social systems evolved, creating a new civilization in Western Europe.

The student is expected to:

(A) compare medieval Europe with previous civilizations;

(B) describe the major characteristics of the political system of feudalism, the economic system of manorialism, and the authority exerted by the Roman Catholic Church; and

(C) identify the political, economic, and social impact of the Crusades.

(4) History. The student understands the influence of the European Renaissance and the Reformation eras.

The student is expected to:

(A) identify the causes and characteristics of the European Renaissance and the Reformation eras; and

(B) identify the effects of the European Renaissance and the Reformation eras.

(5) History. The student understands causes and effects of European expansion beginning in the 16th century.

The student is expected to:

(A) identify causes of European expansion beginning in the 16th century; and

(B) explain the political, economic, cultural, and technological influences of European expansion on both Europeans and non-Europeans, beginning in the 16th century.

(6) History. The student understands the major developments of civilizations of sub-Saharan Africa, Mesoamerica, Andean South America, and Asia.

The student is expected to:

(A) summarize the major political and cultural developments of the civilizations of sub-Saharan Africa;

(B) summarize the major political, economic, and cultural developments of civilizations in Mesoamerica and Andean South America; and

(C) summarize the major political, economic, and cultural developments of civilizations in China, India, and Japan.

(7) History. The student understands the impact of political and economic imperialism throughout history.

The student is expected to:

(A) analyze examples of major empires of the world such as the Aztec, British, Chinese, French, Japanese,

Mongol, and Ottoman empires; and

(B) summarize effects of imperialism on selected societies.

(8) History. The student understands causes and effects of major political revolutions since the 17th century.

The student is expected to:

(A) identify causes and evaluate effects of major political revolutions since the 17th century, including the English, American, French, and Russian revolutions;

(B) summarize the ideas from the English, American, French, and Russian revolutions concerning separation of powers, liberty, equality, democracy, popular sovereignty, human rights, constitutionalism, and nationalism;

(C) evaluate how the American Revolution differed from the French and Russian revolutions, including its long-term impact on political developments around the world; and

(D) summarize the significant events related to the spread and fall of communism, including worldwide political and economic effects.

(9) History. The student understands the impact of totalitarianism in the 20th century.

The student is expected to:

(A) identify and explain causes and effects of World Wars I and II , including the rise of nazism/fascism in Germany, Italy, and Japan; the rise of communism in the Soviet Union; and the Cold War; and

(B) analyze the nature of totalitarian regimes in China, Nazi Germany, and the Soviet Union.

(10) History. The student understands the influence of significant individuals of the 20th century.

The student is expected to:

(A) analyze the influence of significant individuals such as Winston Churchill, Adolf Hitler, Vladimir Lenin, Mao Zedong, and Woodrow Wilson on political events of the 20th century; and

(B) analyze the influence of significant social and/or religious leaders such as Mohandas Gandhi, Pope John Paul II, Mother Teresa, and Desmond Tutu on events of the 20th century.

(11) Geography. The student uses geographic skills and tools to collect, analyze, and interpret data.

The student is expected to:

(A) create thematic maps, graphs, charts, models, and databases representing various aspects of world history; and

(B) pose and answer questions about geographic distributions and patterns in world history shown on maps, graphs, charts, models, and databases.

(12) Geography. The student understands the impact of geographic factors on major historic events.

The student is expected to:

(A) locate places and regions of historical significance such as the Indus, Nile, Tigris and Euphrates, and Yellow (Huang He) river valleys and describe their physical and human characteristics;

(B) analyze the effects of physical and human geographic factors on major events in world history such as the effects of the opening of the Suez Canal on world trade patterns; and

(C) interpret historical and contemporary maps to identify and explain geographic factors such as control of the Straits of Hormuz that have influenced people and events in the past.

(13) Economics. The student understands the impact of the Neolithic agricultural revolution on humanity and the development of the first civilizations.

The student is expected to:

(A) identify important changes in human life caused by the Neolithic agricultural revolution; and

(B) explain economic, social, and geographic factors that led to the development of the first civilizations.

(14) Economics. The student understands the historic origins of contemporary economic systems.

The student is expected to:

(A) identify the historic origins of the economic systems of capitalism and socialism;

(B) identify the historic origins of the political and economic system of communism; and

(C) compare the relationships between and among contemporary countries with differing economic systems.

(15) Government. The student understands the historical antecedents of contemporary political systems.

The student is expected to:

(A) explain the impact of parliamentary and constitutional systems of government on significant world political developments;

(B) define and give examples of different political systems, past and present;

(C) explain the impact of American political ideas on significant world political developments; and

(D) apply knowledge of political systems to make decisions about contemporary issues and events.

(16) Government. The student understands the process by which democratic-republican government evolved.

The student is expected to:

(A) trace the process by which democratic-republican government evolved from its beginnings in classical Greece and Rome, through developments in England, and continuing with the Enlightenment; and

(B) identify the impact of political and legal ideas

contained in significant historic documents, including Hammurabi's Code, Justinian's Code of Laws, Magna Carta, John Locke's Two Treatises of Government, and the Declaration of Independence.

(17) Citizenship. The student understands the significance of political choices and decisions made by individuals, groups, and nations throughout history.

The student is expected to:

(A) evaluate political choices and decisions that individuals, groups, and nations have made in the past, taking into account historical context, and apply this knowledge to the analysis of choices and decisions faced by contemporary societies; and

(B) describe the different roles of citizens and noncitizens in historical cultures, especially as the roles pertain to civic participation.

(18) Citizenship. The student understands the historical development of significant legal and political concepts, including ideas about rights , republicanism, constitutionalism, and democracy.

The student is expected to:

(A) trace the historical development of the rule of law and rights and responsibilities, beginning in the ancient world and continuing to the beginning of the first modern constitutional republics;

(B) summarize the worldwide influence of ideas concerning rights and responsibilities that originated from Greco-Roman and Judeo-Christian ideals in Western civilization such as equality before the law;

(C) identify examples of political, economic, and social oppression and violations of human rights throughout history, including slavery, the Holocaust, other examples of genocide, and politically-motivated mass murders in Cambodia, China, and the Soviet Union;

(D) assess the degree to which human rights and democratic ideals and practices have been advanced throughout the world during the 20th century.

(19) Culture. The student understands the history and relevance of major religious and philosophical traditions.

The student is expected to:

(A) compare the historical origins, central ideas, and the spread of major religious and philosophical traditions including Buddhism, Christianity, Confucianism, Hinduism, Islam, and Judaism; and

(B) identify examples of religious influence in historic and contemporary world events.

(20) Culture. The student understands the relationship between the arts and the times during which they were created.

The student is expected to:

(A) identify significant examples of art and architecture that demonstrate an artistic ideal or visual principle from selected cultures;

(B) analyze examples of how art, architecture, literature, music, and drama reflect the history of cultures in which they are produced; and

(C) identify examples of art, music, and literature that transcend the cultures in which they were created and convey universal themes.

(21) Culture. The student understands the roles of women, children, and families in different historical cultures.

The student is expected to:

(A) analyze the specific roles of women, children, and families in different historical cultures; and

(B) describe the political, economic, and cultural influence of women in different historical cultures.

(22) Culture. The student understands how the development of ideas has influenced institutions and societies.

The student is expected to:

(A) summarize the fundamental ideas and institutions of Eastern civilizations that originated in China and India;

(B) summarize the fundamental ideas and institutions of Western civilization that originated in Greece and Rome; and

(C) analyze how ideas such as Judeo-Christian ethics and the rise of secularism and individualism in Western civilization, beginning with the Enlightenment, have influenced institutions and societies.

(23) Science, technology, and society. The student understands how major scientific and mathematical discoveries and technological innovations have affected societies throughout history.

The student is expected to:

(A) give examples of major mathematical and scientific discoveries and technological innovations that occurred at different periods in history and describe the changes produced by these discoveries and innovations;

(B) identify new ideas in mathematics, science, and technology that occurred during the Greco-Roman, Indian, Islamic, and Chinese civilizations and trace the spread of these ideas to other civilizations;

(C) summarize the ideas in astronomy, mathematics, and architectural engineering that developed in Mesoamerica and Andean South America;

(D) describe the origins of the scientific revolution in 16th-century Europe and explain its impact on scientific thinking worldwide;

(E) identify the contributions of significant scientists such as Archimedes, Copernicus, Erastosthenes, Galileo, and Pythagoras.

(24) Science, technology, and society. The student understands connections between major developments in science and technology and the growth of industrial economies and societies in the 18th, 19th, and 20th centuries.

The student is expected to:

(A) explain the causes of industrialization and evaluate both short-term and long-term impact on societies;

(B) describe the connection between scientific discoveries and technological innovations and new patterns of social and cultural life in the 20th century,

such as developments in transportation and communication that affected social mobility; and

(C) identify the contributions of significant scientists and inventors such as Robert Boyle, Marie Curie, Thomas Edison, Albert Einstein, Robert Fulton, Sir Isaac Newton, Louis Pasteur, and James Watt.

(25) Social studies skills. The student applies critical-thinking skills to organize and use information acquired from a variety of sources including electronic technology.

The student is expected to:

(A) identify ways archaeologists, anthropologists, historians, and geographers analyze limited evidence;

(B) locate and use primary and secondary sources such as computer software, databases, media and news services, biographies, interviews, and artifacts to acquire information;

(C) analyze information by sequencing, categorizing, identifying cause-and-effect relationships, comparing, contrasting, finding the main idea, summarizing, making generalizations and predictions, and drawing inferences and conclusions;

(D) explain and apply different methods that historians use to interpret the past, including the use of primary and secondary sources, points of view, frames of reference, and historical context;

(E) use the process of historical inquiry to research, interpret, and use multiple sources of evidence;

(F) evaluate the validity of a source based on language, corroboration with other sources, and information about the author;

(G) identify bias in written, oral, and visual material;

(H) support a point of view on a social studies issue or event; and

(I) use appropriate mathematical skills to interpret social studies information such as maps and graphs.

(26) Social studies skills. The student communicates in written, oral, and visual forms.

The student is expected to:

(A) use social studies terminology correctly;

(B) use standard grammar, spelling, sentence structure, and punctuation;

(C) interpret and create databases, research outlines, bibliographies, and visuals including graphs, charts, timelines, and maps; and

(D) transfer information from one medium to another, including written to visual and statistical to written or

visual, using computer software as appropriate.

(27) Social studies skills. The student uses problem-solving and decision-making skills, working independently and with others, in a variety of settings.

The student is expected to:

(A) use a problem-solving process to identify a problem, gather information, list and consider options, consider advantages and disadvantages, choose and implement a solution, and evaluate the effectiveness of the solution; and

(B) use a decision-making process to identify a situation that requires a decision, gather information, identify options, predict consequences, and take action to implement a decision.

 

Copyright 2001 - Texas Education Agency

TEKS and TAKSTEKS Glossary - World History

1066In 1066 the Duke of Normandy, William the Conqueror, became the first Norman king of England after defeating the English at the Battle of Hastings. He extended feudalism into his new kingdom by demanding loyalty from the lords of England and giving them estates in return for their pledge to provide military support for his causes. He also appointed sheriffs to administer laws of the royal court throughout the nation.

<--Back to TEKS1215The Magna Carta, the cornerstone of English justice and law, was signed in 1215. King John, who ruled between 1199 and 1216 AD, angered the English nobility and commoners alike for his lack of military prowess and his heavy taxation to pay a large national debt. Members of the nobility, the archbishop of Canterbury, and the Earl of Pembroke forced King John to sign the charter to confirm the rights of nobility against the claims of the monarch. John agreed to seek permission from the lords before increasing taxes, and to seek permission from the Church before appointing bishops. The charter asserted the right of citizens to a trial by a jury of one's peers, no imprisonment without a trial, and no taxation except by legal means. One of the great documents of liberty, the Magna Carta clarified the mutual obligations of the king and the nobility. 

<--Back to TEKS1492In 1492 the Italian navigator Christopher Columbus, who sailed with the support of the Spanish crown, arrived in the Americas. His original intention was to reach the Indies by sailing west instead of east. This would ensure the Spanish crown a new trade route to the lucrative markets of the East. Instead of reaching the Indies, his first expedition sighted land in the Bahamas on October 12, 1492. He named the first island San Salvadore (Holy Savior). 

<--Back to TEKS1789The concentration on individual liberties and natural rights expressed by Thomas Paine in Common Sense and played out through the American Revolution set the stage for a peasant revolt in France in 1789. Frenchmen sought to limit the powers of the Catholic church, to weaken the power of the nobility and the monarch and, by doing so, to strengthen the political voice of the common man. An economic recession contributed to the unrest as did the election of a new assembly with a majority of members representing middle class interests. The assembly published a "Declaration of Rights of Man and the Citizen" in the summer of 1789. On July 14 the French Revolution began in earnest when peasants stormed the Bastille, a political prison. Peasants also seized manors in an attempt to gain title to land and establish their equality under the law. Peasants were freed from serfdom, the power of the aristocracy diminished as a result, and a strong parliament was established which limited the power of the king. 

<--Back to TEKS1914-1918On July 14, 1914, World War I began in Europe, triggered by the Serb assassination of the heir to the Austria-Hungary throne. Unrest had been building for some time prior to 1914 as diplomatic relations between the major European powers -- Britain, France, Russia, Germany, and Austria-Hungary -- became more tense. After the assassination the Central Powers of Germany, Austria-Hungary, and later Turkey and Bulgaria faced off against the Allies including France, Britain, and later Japan and Italy. President Woodrow Wilson

declared neutrality but both the Central Powers and the Allies sought the support of the United States. England and France benefited from American products which aided their war efforts and businessmen in the United States prospered even as anti-German sentiment increased. Two major fronts developed, one in France and the other in Russian Poland. Control of the seas also played a role. German U-boats (submarines) sank the British passenger liner Lusitania on May 7, 1915, at the cost of 128 American lives. In 1917 Germany announced the plan to wage unlimited submarine warfare. The declaration was partly prompted by the need to end the deadlocked warfare on the western front. Trench warfare, the technology of modern warfare, barbed-wire fences, and the use of poison gas became synonymous with the stalemate. German attacks on shipping prompted U.S. President Woodrow Wilson to ask Congress to declare war in April 1917. After the American Expeditionary Force (AEF) arrived in France, the German threat increased, and the Allied forces united under French Marshal Foch. By September, General John J. Pershing demanded separate command. The U.S. troops under Pershing participated in the last major offensive of the war, the Meuse-Argonne which lasted 42 days and involved 1.2 million U.S. troops. In the battle of Argonne Forest, one-tenth of all U.S. troops died in the heavy fighting. Germans surrendered on November 11, 1918. Peace negotiations began late in 1918 and continued into 1919. 

<--Back to TEKS1939-1945The deadliest war in history, World War II, began in 1939 and ended in 1945. A series of international conflicts occurred throughout the 1930s as Japan and Germany expanded militarily on two fronts, in the Pacific Ocean and in Europe. For a variety of reasons including national interests and internal unrest, the European powers and the United States did little to intercede as dictators first amassed internal power in the 1920s and then threatened republican governments in the 1930s. Militarism emerged and gained strength in Japan, Germany, and Italy as leaders sought to reverse the economic crises each government experienced in the 1920s and 1930s. Benito Mussolini sought to unite Italians under fascism, a form of belligerent nationalism. He became prime minister in 1922. The harsh peace imposed after World War I also contributed to the appeal of fascism in Germany. Adolf Hitler became its leading spokesman through the Nationalsozialistische Deutsche Arbeiter-Partei (later shortened to Nazi) which he led by 1921. While the League of Nations condemned Japan for invading Manchuria in 1931 it could do little more than express displeasure, nor did it act in 1935 when Hitler withdrew from the League and began rearming Germany. On September 1, 1939, Hitler attacked Poland. England and France responded with declarations of war. The Japanese engaged the Chinese at Beijing earlier, in 1937. In September 1940 the conflicts in Europe and the Pacific coalesced when Germany and Italy signed the Tripartite Pact with Japan. Until 1941 the Axis powers expanded unchallenged but then the Allies began a concerted effort to ward off further Axis offensives, particularly the German blitzkrieg or "lightning war" in which German troops and tanks quickly pushed into Poland, Denmark, Holland, Belgium, and France. England was more powerful economically and demographically than the European belligerents and it stolidly opposed Axis aggression. On December 7, 1941, the Japanese attacked Pearl Harbor. This infuriated Americans who called for a war of vengeance. President Franklin D. Roosevelt declared war on Japan, and Germany responded by declaring war on the United States. Industrial and agricultural output in the United States increased for the war effort. Nearly 15 million men and more than 200,000 women enlisted in the U.S. armed forces and more than six million women worked outside the home to keep the economy going. In 1942 U.S. troops invaded North Africa to thwart German forces, and in 1943 the Allied troops invaded Italy. Also in 1943, the Japanese were driven from Guadalcanal. On June 6, 1944, General Dwight D. Eisenhower led 3 million Allied troops in the cross-channel invasion of France, landing at Normandy and pushing German forces out of France, liberating Paris in August. Hitler countered with a concentrated attack on American forces in the Ardennes forest on December 16, 1944. Over ten days, the German advance was stalled and then repulsed in the Battle of the Bulge. Eisenhower's troops advanced through Germany, meeting Soviet troops at the river Elbe in April 1945, and pushed on to Berlin. Hitler committed suicide in his bunker in Berlin on April 30 and German officials surrendered unconditionally on May 7. May 8 is

designated V-E Day (Victory in Europe Day). War with Japan continued with the United States dropping fire bombs on Tokyo on March 9-10, 1945, in an effort to force their unconditional surrender. On August 6, 1945, the first atomic bomb was dropped on the military-base city of Hiroshima. A total of 180,000 were killed or missing. A second bomb fell on the naval-base city of Nagasaki on August 9 with 80,000 killed or missing. The Japanese agreed to surrender on August 10 if their emperor Hirohito remained. The surrender ceremony occurred on the U.S.S. Missouri anchored in Tokyo Bay on September 2, 1945. 

<--Back to TEKSAndean South AmericaThe Andes Mountain range extends over 5,000 miles along the western coast of South America from Tierra del Fuego to Venezuela. The tallest peaks are more than 6.5 miles above sea level. South American nations within the Andes range include Chile, Peru, Bolivia, and part of Argentina. The Inca created a civilization concentrated at Cuzco, c. 1438 A.D. 

<--Back to TEKSBuddhismBuddhism evolved from Hinduism in northern India and Nepal and diffused from this core area. The founder was Siddhartha Gautama (563 B.C.-483 B.C.) who left his rich Hindu existence to seek understanding. Buddha means "the Enlightened One." The Buddhist way to salvation is through self-discipline and poverty. It is a religion and philosophy of "Four Noble Truths": that suffering and misery are universal, that the cause of suffering is desire, that the end of suffering is realized when desire is controlled, and that the way to escape pain and suffering is to follow the Middle Way. Nirvana is the state of wanting nothing. The Middle Way is virtuous and marked by compassion for all living things. Today, Buddhism is practiced in different forms throughout the world. The largest concentrations of Buddhists occur in Southeast Asia, Sri Lanka, Tibet, and Japan. 

<--Back to TEKSCapitalismCapitalism is an economic system in which the factors of production are privately owned. Competition is based on free enterprise. Supply, demand, and prices, not politics, determine the answers to economic questions of how, what, and for whom to produce. The free competition fosters efficiency as companies compete for profits. Capitalism shares the characteristics of a free-enterprise system: economic freedom, voluntary exchange, private property, and the profit motive. The concepts of private property, negotiation, and cooperation were important developments in western Europe and contributed to the sustained Industrial Revolution, particularly in Britain. Capitalism does reward some but it also penalizes those who are not able to compete. 

<--Back to TEKSChristianityChristianity is a religion and philosophy with a belief in one God and in Jesus Christ as the messiah who freed followers from Roman rule and fulfilled the prophesy of the scriptures. (The Greek word for messiah is Christos and followers of Jesus became known as Christians). The Christian Bible incorporates the Old Testament and the New Testament . The New Testament chronicles the life of Jesus Christ in four books, the Gospels, written by his disciples after his death. Christianity was influenced by the ancient philosophy of the Greek Stoics who stressed self-discipline, courage, and moral conduct. Christian teachings were heavily influenced by the Hebrew faith. Jesus taught followers to believe in one God, obey the Ten Commandments, adhere to the Old Testament, and feel compassion for others. All were central to the ethical world view of Judaism. The 12 apostles of Jesus spread his teachings through expansion diffusion. They were persecuted by officials of the Roman Empire because they refused to worship

the emperor. Many suffered and died for their beliefs, becoming martyrs, but this strengthened, instead of weakened, the new faith. A hierarchical church structure evolved with the pope as "father of the Church." This hierarchy was challenged by Henry VIII when he created the Church of England. Others revised doctrines and formed new denominations of Christianity. These include the Lutheran, Presbyterian, Methodist, and Baptist churches, as well as other evangelical faiths. Christianity in its different forms has spread worldwide through both expansion and relocation diffusion. 

<--Back to TEKSCold WarFollowing World War II the United States and the Soviet Union emerged as superpowers. The two unions of states faced off in an arms race which last nearly 50 years. Instead of fighting a military war, they used diplomacy and nerves to compete for resources, markets and political strength in a world economy. In the United States the threat of nuclear attack prompted private citizens to build bomb shelters and worry about nuclear disaster. The Cuban Missile Crisis in 1962 created an atmosphere of fear as President John F. Kennedy warned Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev that an attack launched from Cuba on the United States would be considered an attack from the Soviet Union. In 1963 Kennedy secured a nuclear test-ban treaty with the Soviets and direct communication between the White House and the Kremlin ensured that national leaders could communicate in times of crisis. In 1972 President Richard M. Nixon strove to slow the arms race through the Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT) which frose the number of long-range nuclear missiles for a period of five years. Both nations continued to work on defense systems. In 1983, President Ronald Reagan initiated the Strategic Defense Initiative ("Star Wars"), a strategy based in advanced technology aimed at outpacing Soviet defense. The Cold War escalated as arms negotiations with the Soviets ceased in late 1983 and the Soviets boycotted the Olympic Games in Los Angeles in 1984. By the late 1980s the United States and Soviets deployed more than 16,000 nuclear warheads. A combination of factors including the rise of pro-democracy movements in Eastern Europe and China and the overthrow of communist governments in Poland, Hungary, Czechoslovakia, and Romania thawed the Cold War. The Berlin Wall tumbled in 1989 and the two Germanys united in October 1990 after 45 years of military separation. The USSR dissolved during the tenure of Mikhail Gorbachev as his policies of glasnost and perestroika worked to undermine communism. The Commonwealth of Independent States developed, 15 new governments which adopted free-market economics. This disunion of the USSR removed the "Soviet threat" which drove U.S. foreign relations for more than 40 years. Not only did former Soviet nations struggle with adopting "western" capitalism and politics but western European nations were forced to develop strategies to cope with refugees and challenges to their stable economies posed by their weaker neighbors. The United States also reassessed its foreign policy as a result of the end of the Cold War. 

<--Back to TEKSCommunismCommunism is a political and economic system in which factors of production are collectively owned and directed by the state. Because everything in a communist system is theoretically for the common good, communism fosters a classless society in which everyone contributes equally toward a shared goal. There is no private property, no voluntary exchange because the government owns and controls all resources and means of production, no economic freedom, and no profit motive. Communism offers security to the worker, and the state provides a range of public services. Communism evolved from the writings of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels. In 1848, in the Communist Manifesto, they described a form of socialism which depended on government or public ownership of resources, not private ownership. This system became known as communism and it appealed to politicians throughout Europe in the late 1800s and early 1900s. Several socialist parties were formed and their impact on world history is significant. (see fascism in Germany, Italy and Japan, and political revolutions: Russian) None have successfully implemented the pure scientific socialism Karl Marx envisioned with public ownership for public good. 

<--Back to TEKSCommunism (an economic system)Communism is an economic system in which factors of production are collectively owned and directed by the state. Because everything in a communist system is theoretically for the common good, communism theoretically fosters a classless society in which everyone contributes equally toward a shared goal and benefits equally from economic gain. There is no private property, no voluntary exchange because the government owns and controls all resources and means of production, no economic freedom, and no profit motive. No country has successfully implemented the pure scientific socialism Karl Marx envisioned in the mid-1800s, with public ownership for public good. 

<--Back to TEKSConfucianismConfucianism is a philosophy which adheres to the teachings of the Chinese philosopher Confucius (551 B.C.-479 B.C.), practiced primarily in China and in overseas Chinese populations. In contrast to Hinduism and Buddhism, Confucianism shows the way to ensure a stable government and an orderly society in the present world. It stresses a moral code of conduct focused on loyalty, courtesy, hard work, and kindness. Confucianism promotes five basic relationships in society: ruler and subject, parent and child, husband and wife, brothers, and friends. If everyone fulfills his or her duties, then society can be orderly and balanced. Confucianism is not considered a religion because Confucius did not attempt to save the soul. 

<--Back to TEKSConstitutional GovernmentA constitutional government is a system of democratic government in which the functions of government are defined by a constitution. 

<--Back to TEKSConstitutionalismConstitutionalism is the idea that the basic principles and laws of a government should be organized and administered through compliance with a written or unwritten constitution. The constitution effectively restrains the powers of the government and guarantees certain rights to the people. 

<--Back to TEKSCrusadesThe Crusades were a series of military adventures undertaken between 1096 A.D. and 1270 A.D. by European Christians to free the Holy Land from Muslim rule. The first Christian Crusade into Palestine occurred from 1096 to 1099. The last stronghold of the Christians in the Middle East, Acre, fell to Muslims in 1291. Some Christian kingdoms were established but the Crusades deteriorated into commercial wars and attacks against heresy before they ended. 

<--Back to TEKSDeclaration of IndependenceOn July 2, 1776, delegates to the Second Continental Congress approved a motion made on June 7 that "These United Colonies are, and of right ought to be, free and independent states. . . " Passing the resolution was not enough, however, and to gain support from other English colonies and foreign nations, the Congress appointed a committee to prepare an official declaration. Thomas Jefferson was responsible for drafting the Declaration of Independence which received congressional approval on July 4, 1776. In providing the justification to break with Britain he enumerated the "natural rights" guaranteed to humans and the ways British tyranny jeopardized those rights. The concept

of natural rights evolved from English political thought. In England in 1651, Thomas Hobbes proposed the idea of the social contract in which people created a government and elected a ruler who protected them in exchange for their support. Hobbes wrote at a time of political turmoil in England. Forty years later, in 1690, John Locke modified Hobbes social contract to stress the mutual dependency of elected officials and citizens and the obligation of the ruler to protect the natural rights of citizens. The work of Hobbes and Locke changed the way individuals and society were viewed, and contributed significantly to an effort to improve society. Their views influenced the authors of the Declaration of Independence and the U. S. Constitution. 

<--Back to TEKSDemocratic-Republican GovernmentAristotle studied the government of the Greek city-state to determine how political leaders gained and maintained power and how they related to the citizens. He distinguished three types of governments: autocracy, oligarchy, and democracy. The latter, rule by the people, described the system in ancient Greece. It was a direct democracy, where citizens had the opportunity to participate directly in government. While direct democracy works in city-states where the number of citizens is small, it is difficult to maintain as population increases. Representative democracy is the modern form of rule by the people, where citizens elect representatives to make laws and establish public policies. Representative democracy developed in ancient Rome. To the Romans, the term "republic" described the system by which elected representatives served the interests of citizens, and no public offices were inherited. In England in 1651, Thomas Hobbes proposed the idea of the social contract in which people created a government and elected a ruler who protected them in exchange for their support. Hobbes wrote at a time of political turmoil in England. Forty years later, in 1690, John Locke modified Hobbes' social contract to stress the mutual dependency of elected officials and citizens and the obligation of the ruler to protect the natural rights of citizens. The work of Hobbes and Locke changed the way individuals and society were viewed, and contributed significantly to an effort to improve society. During the 1700s, a period termed the Age of Enlightenment, scholars developed scientific, economic, social, and political ideas which changed modern concepts of government. Building on a century of expanding knowledge fostered by the Enlightenment including the ideas of natural rights and of social contracts, political leaders in the American colonies led the revolt in 1775 and established a democratic-republican government by 1787. The concept of democracy influenced leaders of the French Revolution in 1789 as they displaced the monarchy and wrote a constitution. 

<--Back to TEKSDevelopment of CitiesAs agriculture developed and excess grains prompted exchange, market centers developed where farmers could sell their excess produce. Over time population concentrated in these areas and cities developed. As the population grew, more agricultural produce was needed to sustain it. The market for grain increased significantly which supported the business of agriculture and allowed urban growth to occur. 

<--Back to TEKSDevelopment of FarmingThe New Stone Age (Neolithic) began about 10,000 B.C. and lasted until about 3,500 B.C. During this period, people changed from hunting and gathering food to domesticating animals and cultivating land as farmers. The revolution in agriculture production began in the Middle East and may have spread into Africa, Europe, Asia, and the Americas or it may have originated in these places spontaneously as examples of independent invention. The change in agricultural practices affected life by supporting larger populations. 

<--Back to TEKSEnlightenment

The Enlightenment was an intellectual movement concentrated in France during the 1700s. A group of philosophers including John Locke, Baron de Montesquieu, and Voltaire (François-Marie Arouet), sought to apply the rigors of scientific inquiry to study human society. They developed rational laws to describe social behavior and applied their findings in support of human rights and liberal economic theories 

<--Back to TEKSEuropean Renaissance and ReformationsThe Renaissance in Europe began about 1350 and continued through 1600 A.D. The era was a revival of the art, architecture, thought, and culture of ancient Greece and Rome. Buildings, ideology, sculpture, education, and philosophy reflected the influences of Greece and Rome. In contrast to the Middle Ages, the Renaissance was an era when scientific, artistic, and intellectual thought expanded. Reform movements challenged political or ecclesiastical authority. The reform efforts of Martin Luther in 1517 contributed to the split of the Roman Catholic Church and the development of Protestantism. The effort to reform the church was called the Protestant Reformation. A Counter Reformation, or Catholic Reformation, was launched by those loyal to Roman Catholicism. The church revived the Inquisition, a court established in the 13th century to try cases of heresy, in an attempt to limit the spread of Protestantism by destroying the opposition. The Inquisition was most active in Spain, Portugal, and Italy, and it continued in Spain until the 19th century. 

<--Back to TEKSFascismFascism is a philosophy or system of government distinguished by strict social and economic control; a strong, centralized government usually headed by a dictator; and often a policy of belligerent nationalism. Benito Mussolini was a socialist prior to World War I, but as he fought for Italy, he became a nationalist intent on uniting Italians and ensuring their obedience to a central authority. Fascists did not support the formation of political parties since this disrupted the unity of the state, and they did not support democracy because the concerns of the people were secondary to the good of the nation. A strong fascist nation had the right to build its following by controlling weaker nations. Mussolini was named prime minister of Italy in 1922 and retained control through 1943. In Germany, the Weimar Republic, established at the end of World War I, was challenged by leftists (communists) who believed in world revolution and by ultra-conservatives (fascists and extreme nationalists) who opposed the democratic goals of the republic. Adolf Hitler attempted to unite Germany as a fascist state. Because of the influences of fascism, it was natural for Hitler to destroy anything which threatened the unified nation, hence his fixation with purifying the dominant Aryan race and his insistence on totalitarian rule. In Japan, economic depression increased public dissatisfaction with the government and bolstered ideas of nationalism and protection of Japanese interests. In 1932 the military defied the civil government and established a military dictatorship in Japan. Fascism in Japan differed from that in Germany or Italy because there was not one dictator but a group of military leaders who ruled. They sought to expand the Japanese empire, secure more raw materials, and increase their trading networks. The militarism and nationalism of Japan propelled it into World War II. 

<--Back to TEKSFeudalismFeudalism is a political system based on the rule of local lords bound to a king by ties of loyalty. It developed in western Europe during the Middle Ages as a system of local defense against invaders. The relationship between lords and the king was hierarchical. Lesser lords or vassals pledged allegiance to their lords and served as knights. In exchange for loyalty, the king provided for their needs. Some knights also acquired land, a fief or estate. Tradition and custom governed the relationship of knights and lords and these formed a feudal contract. The subdivision of estates made the feudal system complex. Loyalties often conflicted and authority became fragmented. Feudalism is not

limited to western Europe. In 1192 A.D. Yoritomo gained the title of Shogun, the virtual military head of Japan. His assumption of power marked a transition in Japanese history from the aesthetic and cultivated Heian Period to the Feudal Age. Military activities became the focus of society and successful warrior families administered the country in exchange for land and titles. By 1600 Japan was divided into several hundred feudal domains ruled by lords who competed for local power. In 1603 the Tokugawa house rose to the status of shogunate and unified the country under military dominion. This changed in 1867 when Mutsuhito became Japanese emperor and transformed Japan from a closed feudal society to a world power. 

<--Back to TEKSHammurabi's CodeHammurabi's Code is the legal code of King Hammurabi (1792 B.C.-1750 B.C.) of Mesopotamia. The code was not the first enacted in the ancient civilization, but its influence is obvious in Hebrew and Islam laws today, and in the U.S. judiciary system. Hammurabi claimed that he had divine authority to establish law and justice in his land to promote the welfare of the people. His law was severe but just because Hammurabi believed he had the obligation to govern the Mesopotamians so they could live in harmony. The code specified crimes and punishments which fit the crimes to ensure uniformity and to help judges impose penalties. The saying "An eye for an eye and a tooth for a tooth" was a part of Hammurabi's Code and of the Hebrew Mosaic. Yet the punishment depended upon class. Aristocrats were not treated as harshly as commoners, and commoners were treated less harshly than slaves. While an aristocrat might pay a fine for damages to a commoner, a commoner could ask for exact punishment to fit the crime committed on him by another commoner. A judicial system tried cases. People represented themselves and had to prove the crime using documentation and witnesses. If someone accused another of murder and failed to convince the justice system of the crime, the accuser was put to death. Government officials, merchants, and businessmen were all to keep the best interests of the citizens in mind. The ultimate aim of Hammurabi's Code was to punish the criminal. 

<--Back to TEKSHinduismHinduism evolved from an ancient Aryan religion and blended the beliefs of peoples conquered by the Aryans. It is a religion and philosophy based on one supreme force, Brahma, and other gods including Vishnu and Shiva. Brahma created the world, Vishnu preserves it and Shiva is the destructive force. Each individual has a soul which forms part of the universal soul, atman. Hindus strive to free their soul from its individual existence so it can unite with atman. This takes more than one lifetime, and reincarnation continues until the soul is freed. Hinduism is practiced primarily in India today although a form exists on the Indonesian island of Bali. 

<--Back to TEKSHolocaustThe Holocaust was a methodical plan orchestrated by Hitler to ensure German supremacy. It called for the elimination of undesirables from German society. The Nazis first murdered non-conformists, political prisoners, homosexuals, the physically and mentally disabled, and non-Aryans (those who could not document a pure German ancestry). After a majority of these people were exterminated in gas vans, Hitler's focus turned toward "the final solution of the Jewish question." His anti-Semitism was rabid and it resulted in the execution of millions of Jews throughout Europe. Mass murder began in the Ukraine at Babi Yar but the system of digging mass graves was too slow and German soldiers protested too much. Instead the Nazis developed concentration camps to hold the prisoners, gas chambers to murder them, and ovens to cremate the bodies. Reports of the atrocities failed to inspire any country to oppose the heinous crimes. Not until the Allied troops marched into Germany in 1945 was the extent of the Holocaust confirmed. 

<--Back to TEKSHuman RightsHuman rights include inalienable rights of life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness, as well as freedom of speech, religion, and the press. In the United States, these and other human rights are protected in the Bill of Rights. All countries do not honor human rights, however. When threatened by public unrest, some governments punish or murder anyone who expresses opposing viewpoints, or threatens the existing system. Dictators usually suppress human rights. Gross abuses occurred in Nazi Germany when Adolf Hitler ordered the mass extermination of millions including the disabled, homosexuals, and Jews. In Cambodia following the Vietnam War, the communist Khmer Rouge murdered millions; similar massacres occurred in other countries affected by military or terrorist rule. In 1975, thirty-five countries met in Helsinki and pledged to honor human rights. This is known as the Helsinki Agreement. 

<--Back to TEKSImperialismImperialism is the domination by one country of the political, economic, or cultural life of another country or region. Imperialism led to the creation of a number of European empires which extended around the world. 

<--Back to TEKSIslamIslam is a religion based on the teachings of the prophet Mohammed which stressed belief in one god (Allah), Paradise and Hell, and a body of law written in the Koran and the Sunna. Followers of Islam are called Moslem (Muslim). The religion began in Arabia, in Mecca. There Mohammed had visions encouraging him to replace Arab paganism with Allah. He and his followers moved to Medina, gained strength and eventually returned to Mecca to carry out his obligation. In Mecca, the Kaaba was a sacred shrine, once home to many Arab gods; following Mohammed's return, it housed only Allah. Islam means "submission" and Muslims subscribe to the "Five Pillars of Islam." They believe that they follow Allah's will; pray five times each day toward Mecca, the holy city; perform acts of charity; fast during Ramadan; and make a pilgrimage to Mecca at least once in their lives. Worshipers of Islam gather in mosques to pray on Friday. Today, Islam is one of the fastest growing religions in the world, practiced by adherents in northern Africa (including Nigeria, the Sudan, Ethiopia, and Somalia), Europe (parts of the former Yugoslavia and Russia), southwest Asia, south Asia (Pakistan, Bangladesh), southeast Asia (Malaysia, Indonesia), central Asia (including parts of China), Uzbekistan, Kazakistan, and Tajikistan, and the United States. 

<--Back to TEKSJohn Locke's Two Treatises of GovernmentJohn Locke (1632-1704), an English philosopher and political theorist, proposed his "social contract" theory in his Second Treatise of Government published in 1690. The contract proposed that men who form a social contract agree to create a government to protect their natural rights of life, liberty, and property. The authority of government evolves from the consent of the governed. If government disappoints them and limits their natural rights, the people have a right to rebel. Locke favored a constitutional government which limited the authority of a monarch. His theory influenced thinkers of the Enlightenment including Baron de Montesquieu and Thomas Jefferson who drafted the Declaration of Independence. Montesquieu read Locke's publications and supported a system of government which protected the liberties of citizens and divided power between the three branches of government. Montesquieu also favored a system of checks and balances in government to prevent any branch from dominating another. Both Locke's and Montesquieu's ideas influenced the authors of the U. S. Constitution. 

<--Back to TEKSJudaismJudaism is a religion and philosophy with belief in one god (monotheism); it originated with Abraham and the Hebrew people. Hebrews believed that God (Yahweh) was responsible for the world and everything within it. They preserved their early history in the Old Testament which describes the migration of the Hebrews to Egypt, their enslavement by the pharaohs, their exodus under the guidance of Moses, and the covenant the Hebrews have with God based on their commitment to the Ten Commandments. They prospered in Israel for less than a century before they were again exiled and enslaved. The spiritual and ethical principles of Judaism are written in the first five books of the Old Testament, the Torah. Human life was respected but subject to God's judgment and punishment. The Hebrews developed an ethical world view based in their faith with belief in the ultimate power of one god and a concern for individuals. Today, Jews live in different parts of the world, including the United States. The Jewish homeland is Israel. 

<--Back to TEKSJustinian's Code of LawsJustinian was an emperor in eastern Rome who tried to unify the Roman empire between 527 and 565 A.D. He composed the most famous list of Roman laws. His code reduced confusion over laws and provided organization within the Empire. Called the Body of Civil Laws, the code was the clearest and most comprehensive which existed up to that time. It spread Roman legal principles beyond the Empire. 

<--Back to TEKSLimited EvidenceIt is difficult to accumulate enough evidence to document any past occurrence with absolute certainty. Therefore it is important for archaeologists, anthropologists, historians, and geographers to understand the limited evidence they have and augment it with evidence from other sources, to extend their knowledge as much as possible. They do this in a variety of ways. Looking at the artifacts uncovered in archaeological investigations provides some evidence about the material culture of the residents of a certain place and time. Studies of ancient civilizations rely heavily on artifacts because comparatively little support material exists. They also incorporate knowledge of geography, climate, and cultural exchange in the era to understand the effects of the environment and of other cultures on their subjects. In historical archaeology, written sources including newspaper advertisements and account books from artisans and other businesses provide additional information about items which may be found in a dig. Inventories of estates, wills, and diaries may provide clues about other possessions not found in archaeological investigations. Likewise, geographers observe physical and human changes on the landscape and must supplement this with other data to understand attitudes toward the land and strategies of adapting to or modifying the environment. 

<--Back to TEKSMagna CartaThe Magna Carta is the cornerstone of English justice and law. King John, who ruled between 1199 and 1216 A.D., angered the English nobility and commoners alike for his lack of military prowess and his heavy taxation to pay a large national debt. Members of the nobility, the archbishop of Canterbury, and the Earl of Pembroke forced John to sign the Magna Carta in 1215. It declared that the king and government were bound by the same law as other citizens of England. It contained the antecedents of the ideas of due process of law and the right to a fair and speedy trial. The English view it as a guarantee of law and justice. It became a symbol of liberty and the foundation of constitutional government. 

<--Back to TEKSManorialismManorialism is an economic system based on the manor, lands including a village and surrounding acreage which were administered by a lord. It developed during the Middle Ages to increase agricultural production. The land was farmed by peasants who were descended from small landowners who had given their property to lords in exchange for protection. Serfs were non-landholding peasants who were obligated to farm a specific piece of land in exchange for protection. They passed from lord to vassal along with the land. 

<--Back to TEKSMesoamericaMesoamerica includes Mexico and Central America. Sedentary agriculture in the Western Hemisphere developed here and in Peru in South America. This is significant because the cultivation of foodstuffs such as corn ensured a stable supply of food and encouraged groups of people to settle permanently instead of wandering in search of food as nomadic tribes did. This contributed to the rise of civilizations which sustained themselves through their food production and wielded control over less stable societies. Ancient civilizations in the area included the Mayan which extended over a broad region, built monumental architecture, and developed a language, a system of mathematics, and a religion. The Aztec, a nomadic tribe, pushed into the zone of sedentary agriculture and established an empire on the shores of Lake Texcoco after 1325 A.D. 

<--Back to TEKSMultiple Sources of EvidenceGeographers, historians, archaeologists, and others rarely rely on one source of evidence to formulate their theories of the social studies. Instead they look for multiple sources of evidence, study them, and search for patterns within the evidence. Sources might include letters, diaries, books published during a particular period, and other qualitative sources which express people's concerns and attitudes. Quantitative sources such as census returns, responses to questionnaires, and prices and amounts sold recorded in account books provide less subjective information but can still reflect biases of the recorder. For instance, determining something as ordinary as the foods people ate for supper requires a survey of period cookbooks, examination of cooking utensils and fireplaces or stoves used in the era, and an understanding of the crops farmers grew. 

<--Back to TEKSNazismIn Germany, the Weimar Republic, established at the end of World War I, was challenged by leftists (communists) who believed in world revolution and by ultra-conservatives (fascists and extreme nationalists) who opposed the democratic goals of the republic. Adolf Hitler attempted to unite Germany as a fascist state. Because of the influences of fascism, it was natural for Hitler to destroy anything which threatened the unified nation, hence his fixation with purifying the dominant Aryan race and his insistence on totalitarian rule. Born in Austria during a period of social unrest and economic depression, he served in the Bavarian army during World War I and was convinced that Germany was defeated not on the battlefield but internally, by conspiratorial forces. In 1919 he joined the German Workers' Party, a group favoring nationalism. In 1920 the name was changed to the National Socialist German Workers' Party (Nationalsozialistische Deutsche Arbeiter-Partei -- NSDAP -- shortened to Nazi). By 1921 Hitler was the party leader patterning his rule on that of Benito Mussolini and his Fascist Party in Italy. Hitler outlined his views in Mein Kampf (My Struggle) published in 1925. In 1933 the Nazis seized power and became the only legal political party in Germany. 

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Neolithic Agricultural RevolutionThe New Stone Age (Neolithic) began about 10,000 B.C. and lasted until about 3,500 B.C. During this period, people changed from hunting and gathering food to domesticating animals and cultivating land as farmers. The revolution in agricultural production began in the Middle East and spread into Africa, Asia, and the Americas. The change in agricultural practices affected life. The Neolithic farmer developed a concept of ownership and property, established permanent settlements, and abandoned a nomadic lifestyle. 

<--Back to TEKSParliamentary GovernmentIn parliamentary government, authority is held by a bicameral legislature called Parliament. It includes a House of Lords and a House of Commons. In Great Britain, for example, the prime minister is a leader of the majority party in the House of Commons and is chosen to be the executive by that body. With parliament's approval, the prime minister selects the members of the Cabinet from among the members of Parliament and directs the administration of the government. The executive is thus chosen by the legislature, is a part of it, and is subject to its direct control. 

<--Back to TEKSPoint of View, Frames of Reference & Hist. ContextHistorians and social scientists strive to understand what happened in the past but are often limited by incomplete evidence. To analyze available sources they identify the different interests, opinions, and attitudes reflected in the evidence (points of view) and understand the vantage point of those who created the evidence (frames of reference). Then they place the people and events in historical context, relating them to other events and ideas which occurred at the same time. By doing so, students gain a greater understanding of what happened and how it relates to current events. They become critical thinkers in the process. For instance, the French Revolution reflects conflicting agendas of special interest groups. The movement originated in aspirations of a rising middle class which sought rights to "liberty, property, security, and resistance to oppression," as proclaimed in the "Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen." Their representatives on the National Assembly denied the nobles some of their traditional privileges by eliminating manorialism, thus making all French citizens equal in the law. Over time the reformers became more radical. They abolished the monarchy, seized the land owned by the Roman Catholic Church, and executed King Louis XVI in January 1793. These incidents and others during the decade of revolution provide evidence of the points of view of the time ranging from the King of France and his family to the members of the middle class who affected change and the peasants freed from their obligations to nobility. Any explanation of the significance of the French Revolution of 1789 and its heritage remains incomplete if the points of view which caused the conflict are not understood and acknowledged. Members of the mob in Paris who stormed the Bastille on July 14 had an opinion about the actions needed to change French society as did the merchant involved in the National Assembly and the nobility relying on peasants to produce wheat for consumption and trade. The information each acquired differed based on their participation in the events and the effects the events had on them. Just as the perception of a football player on the line of scrimmage differs from that of the referee and of the fan sitting in the bleachers, the frame of reference of the Marquis de Lafayette who commanded the National Guard or radicals such as Maximilien Robespierre who sought to create a republic of virtue differed from that of the King or the peasants. Historians and other social scientists also have a frame of reference, one based in the present, and informed by new approaches and methods. They analyze the available evidence by sorting through it, prioritizing it, distinguishing important information from the less important, and interpreting it. Thus, interpretations of one event change over time, partially due to new ways to look at old sources. New sources also contribute to new understandings. Thus, some historians consider the French Revolution as a triumph of democracy which followed on the heels of the successful American Revolution and drafting of the U.S. Constitution. Others argue that the short-lived effort in France failed to address the economic and political problems which riddled the nation. The effort failed

after ten years when the military dictator, Napoleon Bonaparte, gained power. 

<--Back to TEKSPolitical RevolutionsIn January 1649 Charles I was executed for ignoring the limitations of power imposed on the English monarch. This brought an end to the English Civil War (1642-1649) and marked the start of the Commonwealth, the English republic. In 1660, Charles II became king and restored the role of the monarch in English government. Yet the revolution in England had lasting effects. Political parties, the Tories and the Whigs, emerged during the reign of Charles II and the balance of power shared by Parliament and the ruler was enforced. Fear of suppression by the Catholic Church prompted the Glorious Revolution of 1689 when, at the encouragement of English citizens, Mary and her husband Prince William of Orange became king and queen of England. They signed the English Bill of Rights which protected the liberties of English citizens. The Glorious Revolution was a bloodless political revolution. Political revolutions in the 18th century in America and France were more bitter disputes over the need to balance power between government and the people and to protect the rights of citizens in a democracy. Both were instances of the people demanding and earning more control of government and security of their rights. In the United States, these were secured through the adoption of a constitution and a bill of human rights. (See American Revolution, constitutional democracy, democratic-republican government) In France peasants revolted in 1789. Frenchmen sought to limit the powers of the Catholic church, to weaken the power of the nobility and the monarch, and by doing so, to strengthen the political voice of the common man. An economic recession contributed to the unrest and to the election of a new assembly with a majority of members representing middle class interests. The assembly published a "Declaration of Rights of Man and the Citizen" in the summer of 1789. On July 14 the French Revolution began in earnest when peasants stormed the Bastille, a political prison. Peasants also seized manors in an attempt to gain title to land and establish their equality under the law. Peasants were freed from serfdom and the power of the aristocracy diminished as a result. A strong parliament was established which limited the power of the king. The Russian Revolution was prompted by labor unrest and a call for better working conditions, personal liberties, and elected representatives. The czar Nicholas II sought to maintain absolute control of the country. In 1917 the royal family was murdered and Vladimir Lenin sought control to implement his ideas of socialism. His followers were known as Bolsheviks, members of the Russian Social Democratic party. In November 1917, Bolsheviks revolted and Lenin was chosen as the new leader. Anti-Bolshevik sentiment ran high and a Civil War erupted in opposition of the communist take-over. The Bolsheviks sought to create a classless society which functioned for the good of the citizenry (see socialism and communism). Yet, the "Reds" and the threat of takeover by workers caused a worldwide defensive reaction to the communist threat. In spite of opposition to communism, threats to Russia by Allies at the end of World War I unified Russians as they sought to defend their homeland. This feeling of pride and devotion to one's country is known as nationalism. 

<--Back to TEKSPopular SovereigntyPopular sovereignty is the concept that political power rests with the people who create and can alter and abolish government. The voice of the people is heard through voting and free participation in government. Popular sovereignty is a characteristic of democratic government, and a basic principle of the American system of government. 

<--Back to TEKSRoman Catholic ChurchThe Church exerted considerable control over society during the Middle Ages. Priests lived within villages, and in a non-scientific age, they used natural phenomena as signs to explain God's anger with the members of the church. The pageantry used in church ceremony further impressed peasants to pay their tithes regularly and abide by church

rules. In this way the Roman Catholic Church influenced behavior in villages, cities, and even the government in Catholic nations such as France and Spain. The church sought to convert non-Christians and increase its power. It succeeded at both and became an important part of feudal society. Priests were involved politically as members of lords' courts and socially as officials at civil ceremonies including knighthood. Kings in Catholic nations regularly sought council from senior members of the church hierarchy. The power of the Catholic Church prompted some to challenge its doctrines during Protestant Reformation. 

<--Back to TEKSSecularismThe view that the present well-being of mankind should predominate over religious considerations in civil or public affairs is termed secularism. In common usage, the term means indifference to or rejection of religious ideas. Secularism has increased in the 20th century as more people worldwide have exercised their right to choose whether to worship in an organized religion. It has seemed to coincide with "modernization" of societies through industrialization and urbanization; traditional, conservative, and rural societies have tended to resist secularism and remain bound to their religious affiliations. It has caused some traditions to change. Until relatively recently in the United States, all stores and businesses were closed on Sunday, a day reserved for religious celebrations. Today, shopping centers and other businesses are open. Some view this as an example of secularism. 

<--Back to TEKSSeparation of PowersThe separation of powers between independent and co-equal branches of government derives from the work of the French political and social philosopher, Baron de Montesquieu. He defined the principle of separation of powers, calling for a system of checks and balances in government, in The Spirit of Laws (1734). His ideas influenced the founding fathers. Thomas Jefferson developed them further in his Notes on the State of Virginia (1784), and James Madison expressed them in the Virginia Plan as proposed to the Philadelphia Convention of 1787, the body which undertook the drafting of the U.S. Constitution. The Virginia Plan outlined a new form of government organized in three branches, a legislative branch (Congress), an executive branch (the President) and a judicial branch (Supreme Court). Convention delegates argued about the appropriate means of apportioning representatives and ultimately compromised that Congress would include representatives from each state based on population, and an equal number of senators from each state. This branch would make laws. The President would lead the executive branch, which would carry out laws and ensure that they were just. The judicial branch consisted of the courts of the United States including the highest court, the Supreme Court. The judicial branch would interpret the laws. 

<--Back to TEKSSocial MobilitySocial mobility is the ability of individuals to move from one social standing to another. Social standing is based on degrees of wealth, prestige, and power. Related to social standing are the level of education attained, occupation, and place of residence. As technology, transportation, education, and communication become more accessible, people become more mobile between social strata. 

<--Back to TEKSSocialismSocialism is an economic system in which government owns some factors of production and participates in answering the four economic questions of "what to produce," "how to produce," "how much to produce," and "for whom to produce." Politics play a role in the operation of the economy, and it is often less efficient because of these influences.

Socialism, however, offers some security and benefits to those who are less fortunate, homeless, or underemployed. Interest in reforming substandard factory conditions and wages prompted workers and reformers to support socialism in the early 1800s. Robert Owen was a utopian socialist who founded an industrial community in Scotland in 1800. Socialism was a rallying cry of Louis Blanc who participated in the revolution of 1848 in Paris which marked the beginning of the short-lived Second Republic in France. Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels adopted Blanc's principle: "From each according to ability, to each according to need." Socialism exists today in New Zealand, in parts of Europe, and in Scandinavian countries where government owns transportation and communication systems and offers citizens a range of benefits. 

<--Back to TEKSStraits of HormuzThe straits linking the Persian Gulf with the Gulf of Oman. 

<--Back to TEKSSub-Saharan AfricaThe land south of the Sahara Desert is called Sub-Saharan Africa. The Sahara, the largest and driest desert in the world, separates North Africa from the rest of central and southern Africa. Therefore, the cultures of Sub-Saharan African developed differently than those of North Africa. Sub-Saharan Africa extends about 1,600 miles north of the equator and 2,200 miles south of it. It is an area of contrasts where people live in modern cities and primitive tribal villages. It includes one of the world's largest rainforests, located in the Congo Basin, and a dry savanna region which almost surrounds the rainforest. The Congo River serves as a highway through the rainforest carrying tropical products such as cacao beans, palm kernels and palm oil, coconut oil, rubber, and coffee to the coast. Sub-Saharan Africa includes some of the world's richest deposits of minerals, and mining employs nearly as many people as agriculture. Still the area remains one of the largest regions of undeveloped natural resources in the world. Most people in the region are black and include the Bantus, one of the largest groups; the Nilotes who live in Kenya and Uganda; the Pygmies who live in the forests of Zaire, Congo, and Gabon; and the Khoisans which include the Bushmen and the Nama of the Botswana and Namibia deserts. The Khoisans are considered the oldest group of African peoples. European countries including Britain, France, Holland, Spain, Portugal, and Belgium colonized or influenced many areas of Sub-Saharan Africa. The Portuguese first built ships to navigate the west coast in the 1400s. Europeans sought gold, cacao, and other commodities including slaves. They eventually dominated the areas rich in these resources and built international trade networks around the exchange of such goods. By 1914, only Liberia and Ethiopia retained independent status. European powers controlled all other areas. The African nations gradually gained their independence through fighting or establishing peaceful agreements. Today nearly two-thirds of the whites in Africa and their descendants live in the nation of South Africa. Comparatively few people from India, Africa's neighbor to the east, live on the continent. Those who do are mostly descended from Indians who settled in the southeast portion of Sub-Saharan Africa in the 1800s. 

<--Back to TEKSWorld War I (1914-1918)World War I was a global conflict which began in 1914 and continued into 1918 in which the Allied Powers (Great Britain, France, and Russia) defeated the Central Powers (Germany and Austria-Hungary). About 20 other countries assisted the Allied Powers, including the United States which entered the war in 1917. The Ottoman Empire (Turkey) and Bulgaria supported the Central Powers. The war was triggered by the assassination of Austrian archduke Franz Ferdinand by a Slavic nationalist, but the central issue was the competition between nationalism and imperialism as practiced by major European powers. 

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World War II (1939-1945)World War II was a global conflict which began in 1939 and continued into 1945, in which the Allies (Great Britain, Russia, the United States) defeated the Axis Powers (Germany, Italy, Japan). Economic and social crises followed World War I in much of Central Europe. Political unrest and fear of communist revolutions comparable to that led by Vladimir Lenin in Russia in 1917 triggered the rise of Benito Mussolini and the founding of the Fascist Party in Italy, and the rise of Adolf Hitler and the founding of the Nazi Party in Germany. At the same time, extreme militarists in Japan exerted more control in the 1930s. Hitler's attempts to unite all German-speaking people in Europe led to his invasion of Czechoslovakia and then Poland in 1939. Britain and France promptly declared war on Germany. The United States declared war on Germany following the invasion of Russia in June 1941, and on Japan following the attack on Pearl Harbor in December 1941. The war remains the deadliest in history with between 40 and 60 million dead from battle and from genocide imposed by Nazi officials in opposition to Jewish and non-Aryan peoples. 

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