Introduction

By August the 4th, 1914, a war had erupted between many of the countries in Europe. On one side there was Britain, France and Russia. On the other was Germany and Austria-Hungary. Other countries, like Belgium, had chosen to stay neutral. However, when Germany invaded France through Belgium, they were forced to join in defence of their country.

In the years leading up to The Great War, there had been many alliances and agreements made between different combinations of these countries. Germany had just won a war against France about 40 years previously and captured the territories of Alsace and Lorraine, which France wanted back. To stop France being able to gain the support of other countries so she could mount an attack, Germany made an alliance (a formal agreement to fight on the same side if attacked or in the event of war) with Austria-Hungary. This was natural as they had a lot in common. Alliances with Russia and Italy soon followed. This left France relatively alone.

However, there had been a lot of trade rivalry and arguments between Germany and a few other countries about African colonies and empire in previous years. Britain signed an agreement with France, saying that it was in neither country's interests for Germany to invade France. Quite soon after this, Britain reached an agreement with Russia, after a new German Kaiser took over and gave up on their alliance. Europe was now divided into two "armed camps". On one side there were the Allies, Britain, France and Russia, and on the other were the Central Powers, Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy. An argument between any of these two countries could send Europe plunging into war, and after the assassination of the heir to the Austrian throne, it did.

World War One became a true "world war" when men from all over the huge British Empire began to be drafted in: Canadians, Australians, New Zealanders, South Africans, Indians and more. The USA joined too in 1917 and helped to swing the war in the Allies' favour.

Many people expected the war would be over by Christmas 1914. They were wrong. Germany would be "fighting a war on two fronts" because she was between Russia and France, two of her enemies. Count von Schlieffen developed a plan to solve this problem: to invade France via Belgium. Unfortunately for them, it did not work because Belgium fought back, so both sides were still fighting well into the winter. The men dug trenches in the battlefields of France for shelter, a place to rest until the weather got better. By late 1914 the trenches were home to millions of men on both side. When spring came, new attacks were expected to win the war. By early 1915, the trenches that had been dug for simple, safe shelter from enemy guns were a complicated network hundreds of miles long. Networks of trenches appeared on both fronts: the Western Front, where German was fighting France and Britain; and the Eastern Front, where Germany and Austria-Hungary were fighting Russia.

The "new attacks" of the spring did not succeed and the soldiers remained in the trenches, which became more and more complicated, stretching from the North Sea coast to the Swiss border. The problem was that once they got into the system of "Trench Warfare", how did they get out of it?

The image many people have of the trenches in WW1 is of thousands of young men of mixed ages and backgrounds clambering bravely out of the trenches and going "Over the Top". For many, it was to almost certain death.

In this investigation, I will try to find out exactly why trench warfare caused so many men (on both sides) to die, fighting for their country.

Trench Layout & Systems

Trenches began as shell-holes in the ground or ditches the soldiers dug to take cover. It was a well-known fact that it was easier for the enemy to shoot you when you were standing up than when you were lying down, especially if you were in a hole in the ground. This was proved in modern times in the Gulf War (1990), where a man in the open was 200 times more likely to die than a man lying taking cover in a ditch. Trenches appeared in the American Civil War (1860-65), but they were not used in World War Two (1939-45). This was mainly due to changes in military weaponry and tactics.

Each side used trenches; on the Western Front, where French and British Empire troops fought the Germans, and on the Eastern Front, where the Germans and Austrians fought the Russians.

As I have already mentioned, trenches began as simple ditches that were deep enough for men to take cover from gunfire, but soon they became very complicated. Each side (e.g. the British/French or the Germans/Austrians) had trenches. There were two, sometimes three lines of trenches running almost parallel to each other. Between the two sides, there was a desolate area called "No-man's Land", because it belonged to no one. No-man's Land could be anything from 25 to 100 metres wide. It was an area of devastation: with fragments of buildings, shattered and burnt down trees and craters and deep

holes in the ground left from intense shelling, which were often filled with water.

A close up diagram showing the layout of a trench. You can see the zig-zag line of the trenches and how they have been supported with wood. You can also see the communication trenches, sandbags and barbed wire.

The first trench, on the edge of No-man's Land was called the "Front line" trench. This was where the soldiers who were fighting lived. Some of these had firing bays, dug out into No-man's Land. The Front line trenches were reinforced with barbed wire in front. In some places on the German Hindenburg line on the Western Front, it was 20 metres wide.

Behind this line, there were the "reserve trenches", a second line of defence, but they were also a resting place for the troop either going to or coming back from the front line. These were also known as "support trenches". These trenches were also important because if the enemy captured the front line trench, the soldiers would retreat and the second line would become the first line of defence. Sometimes there was a third line of trenches but these were not so common.

Running across between the trenches were the "communication trenches". These were a link between the front and second lines, but also led back from the fighting to safety, sometimes for a kilometre or more. Troops, food, water, mail, ammunition and other supplies came down them one way, to the front line. Wounded men went the other, to the field hospitals.

The trenches were dug in a zig-zag line. There were a few reasons for this. One was so that if the trench was captured by enemy troops, they couldn't fire straight along the trench. Another reason, similar to this, was that shrapnel from a shell exploding would be contained in the right angle bends of the trench walls.

Most trenches were deep enough for a man to stand up straight and still have their head covered. However, there were some instances of tall men being killed by enemy snipers, as they were too tall for the trench. Tall men had to be careful to duck, especially because some sections of trench could not be dug deep because of the condition of the ground.

Looking down a trench. This shows how rough they were. A soldier is standing on the firing step on the right with his rifle.

On the Front line trench wall, there was a parapet of sandbags and mud. This was shot at all the time and had to be repaired constantly. This parapet was used for extra cover for men who were standing on the firing step. This was a step cut into the trench wall for soldiers to stand on while firing. It was dangerous to even show your head for as second, so this was used a lot at night, when fighting or by sentries. Men also used a periscope instead.

This is a diagram of a trench similar to the one in the photo above. You can see the duck boards, firing step (which men stood on to be able to see out into No-Man's

Land), barbed wire and the parapet of sandbags.

The sides of the trenches were reinforced with anything the soldiers could find or what could be brought in. These ranged from corrugated iron, railway sleepers and sandbags to wickerwork. Trench floors could also be extremely wet and muddy from all the rain that fell, so "duck boards" were put down for the soldiers to walk on. These were planks of wood that helped spread the weight of the men so they did not sink. Sometimes they were fixed down with a space underneath for the water to drain away.

Both sides had home-made equipment to help them. Gas was a common weapon in World War One, so many dug-outs (the soldiers' shelters) had simple rubber curtains to try to keep out the gas and protect sleeping soldiers. However, these were not very effective. A wind indicator was used to detect the wind direction to see if gas could be blown towards the enemy. If the wind was the wrong direction, they were safe, but this worked two ways. If it was blowing towards you instead, then you were in danger, so

this system also acted as a warning. Many trenches also had a simple bell/gong/hooter gas warning system.

From their simple beginnings, the lines of trenches soon became very long and complicated. The lines of trenches on the Western Front stretched from the North Sea Coast to the Swiss border. Belgian troops manned the trenches nearest the North Sea. The British and British Empire troops were stationed on the line between the Belgians and the River Somme in France. The French trenches stretched from the Somme to the border with Switzerland.

A Soldier's Day

The days in the trenches were always the same for the soldiers. You may think that it would be exciting, but the only excitement they got was when there was fighting, and it was not much fun knowing they could be killed. In this section I will take you through a typical day in a trench, starting at dawn.

At this time, the order "stand down" was given. This meant that the threat of a night raid was past. It also meant that the men could get on with preparing their breakfast.

Around mid-morning, most men were busy working on trench maintenance and other jobs. One very important job was to repair any damage to the trench. Trenches were damaged by the weather (heavy rain etc.), and enemy fire. They often needed deepening, widening and strengthening, and new support and communication trenches always seemed to be needed. They also filled sandbags, carried supplies, ran errands (these were done all day) and cleaned their rifles and machine guns. This was vital to stop them jamming.

There was also a medical check each day. The condition "Trench Foot" was a major problem, caused by constantly standing in water and mud. The soldiers' feet were permanently wet. Officers had to check the men dried their feet, rubbed oil in, then put on dry socks every day, but as their feet got wet again almost straight away, this wasn't much help.

Every afternoon from 2 to 4pm, the German artillery bombarded the allied trenches, but as long as the parapet was in good repair, the machine gun fire was not much of a problem. The soldiers took cover in their dug-outs.

In the evening, most men settled down to catch as much sleep as they could. Most were disturbed by the cold, rats or false alarms of attacks. Few slept for more than 3 or 4 hours. Sentries had to watch for the enemy attacking in the dark. Every life depended on them. For others, the night meant more repairs to the trench (which was dangerous in case the enemy sentries heard or saw them), or an observation patrol into No-man's Land to capture prisoners or try to overhear enemy plans. Once dawn arrived, the whole process began again.

Despite being on the front line, there were many days that the soldiers didn't have much to do, apart from their daily jobs. The days were very monotonous and passed very slowly. Boredom was a big problem. Some read to pass the time. Others smoked, played chess, and wrote letters home. These letters were heavily censored, and anything that was thought to be too risky if it got into enemy hands was scrubbed over with a thick pencil until it was unreadable. Many kept diaries, but this was against the official rules because they could give away valuable secrets if enemy raiders found them.

Food in the Trenches

Food was always the same in the trenches. There was no fixed ration amount for each soldier, but the amount they got depended on transport, the weather and enemy action. Broken up ammunition boxes were used as fuel. As you can imagine the trenches were not a nice place to eat in. This poem gives us an idea of the conditions.

"Breakfast" by Wilfred Gibson

We ate our breakfast lying on our backs Because the shells were screeching overhead. I bet a rasher to a loaf of bread That Hull United would beat Halifax When Jimmy Stainthorpe played full-back instead Of Billy Bradford. Ginger raised his head And cursed, and took the bet, and dropt back dead. We ate our breakfast lying on our backs Because the shells were screeching overhead.

There was quite a limited choice of food. Here are some examples of what could be on the daily menu: tins of "bully beef", pork, bread, beans, cheese, butter and many other things. Jam was always the same variety and many soldiers got fed up of it. A loaf of bread usually had to be shared between up to ten men. "Maconchie" was a tin of stewed meat and vegetables. The men had to share this between four of them, but many felt they could have finished one off themselves. They had a large supply of biscuits, which were extremely hard. The soldiers had to soak them in water, sometimes for a few days until they were soft enough to eat.

Getting clean water to drink was also a problem. It was brought to the front in empty petrol cans and chloride of lime was added to kill germs. This had a revolting taste and could even spoil the taste of things like tea. For water to wash in, men collected rainwater or melted snow and ice.

Living Conditions

"Mud, mud, glorious mud..."

As you can imagine, trenches were not a very nice place to live. I'm sure that nobody would choose to live in a wet and muddy hole in the ground, infested with rats and lice, but that is exactly what the soldiers had to do.

The weather in the area where the trenches were was often rainy. This meant water collected in the trenches, making the floors a bog. The trench floors had a raised platform of planks to walk on, called "duck boards". These were to stop the men sinking into the mud. The communication trenches were usually the wettest and muddiest. Scots regiments removed their kilts to walk

through them without their kilts getting wet and clogged up with mud. You couldn't do that with trousers!

Stretcher bearers at Passchendaele. It is easy to see why this became known as "The Battle in the Mud".

It wasn't just the trench floors that were reduced to a bog. In Flanders (Belgium), the land is very flat and low. The farmers who used the land previously had spent hundreds, perhaps thousands of years creating drainage ditches to drain the normally marshy land so they could farm it. The heavy shelling totally destroyed this system and the area was reduced back to marsh almost straight away. The heavy guns that were used by both sides often became stuck in the mud, and the battle at Passchendaele became known as "The Battle in the Mud" because of the conditions.

This is a close-up picture of a dug-out. You can see that it would give soldiers shelter but was not very pleasant to spend a lot of time in.

The soldiers in the trench slept and sheltered in rough "dug-outs", dug out of the trench walls. The British dug-outs for ordinary soldiers were no more than mud walls and a roof, with planks to sleep on, and blankets. The officers had slightly better conditions. They had a "room" underground with beds and a table for maps etc. The German dug-outs were often better than the British and French. They had concrete defences and deeper dug-outs. Even ordinary soldiers had "barrack rooms", which could be six to nine metres underground.

The problem was that the Germans knew they would be in the trenches for a long time, so they made themselves as comfortable as possible for the duration. The Allied Generals did not want the troops to get too comfortable, because they believed that they would soon be moving forward to drive the Germans out of France.

We also must not forget that No-Man's Land was basically a killing field. With so many

rotting corpses lying around, the smell was terrible. I suppose that each day the men would pray that the wind was not blowing in their direction not only for the smell, but also for the threat of a poison gas attack. Of course, the men went out to recover as many bodies as possible, but many were lost forever in the endless mud.

Diseases and Treatment

The lack of washing facilities and the fact the men were living in such cramped conditions meant that disease was common and spread very quickly. Lice were also a serious problem, and could not only cause discomfort but serious illness. There were epidemics of typhus, cholera and dysentery (which killed thousands), plus measles and influenza. There was also "trench fever", which had flu-like symptoms. The men had a high temperature for 3 to 5 days, and then they got better.

This man is standing in a trench full of water. This was the reason why many soldiers developed "Trench Foot".

"Trench Foot" was also very common. This was caused by the feet being constantly submerged in water. It started a bit like the foot had been in the bath too long. First the skin wrinkled, then the whole foot swelled up to a huge size. Then the skin died, turned black and started to rot. The men were supposed to take measures to avoid this, but they did not work. Many men lost their feet as a result.

There were no antibiotics for injured men. Wounds often went septic, which then led to gangrene. Many soldiers lost their limbs. Many died. There were field hospitals a safe distance back from the fighting, but men could easily die before they got there, some from blood loss. X-rays were rare and needles were not sterilised. The Americans introduced blood transfusions late on in the war, but the early British

attempts failed because they did not know about matching blood types. A rapid development in prosthetics (false limbs) led to the development of plastic surgery.

Under the constant strain of being under fire and hearing explosions all day caused shell-shock in some men. They were reduced to nervous wrecks. At first it was not recognised as a medical condition, but later it was understood and the men were sent home, and not shot for cowardice like they previously would have been. However, many were still branded as cowards by their family or friends, or felt ashamed of themselves. In some men, from then on, any sudden or loud noise could trigger fear, making them tremble, shake or cry out in sheer terror. Some just wept because their memories scared them so much.

Tactics of Trench Warfare

Trenches were a lot easier to defend than attack, as to attack a trench the soldiers had to come out "over the top" of their trench and walk across No-man's Land, with the enemy shooting at them from the relative safety of their trench. This was the reason why in an attack, the casualties were a lot higher on the attacking side.

The first stage of most attacks was a huge artillery bombardment (with heavy field guns) of the enemy trenches. In theory, this was supposed to break up the barbed wire, seriously damage (if not destroy) trenches and kill the men in them. Then the soldiers would be able to march across No-man's Land and meet almost no resistance at all.

The reality was very different from this plan. First of all, the artillery tangled up the barbed wire even more than it had been already, making it even more difficult to get through. The trenches were damaged, but the men were often safe underground. As soon as the heavy guns stopped firing, they came out of their shelters and attacked the advancing enemy troops with machine guns. These guns were not aimed and fired, they were simply swung in an arc from side to side while constantly firing. Considering the advancing troops were moving forward at walking pace, you can imagine just how many of them were killed.

One problem for the attacking side was the barbed wire. If it made it difficult to get into the trench, it made it even more difficult to get out. Attacks were planned in advance, and during the night men removed lots of the barbed wire from in front of their own trench. The heavy guns started firing, and once they had stopped, the soldiers who were going "over the top" lined up, waiting for the order to go. When it was given they clambered up and out on to No-man's Land, often into machine gun fire. They walked across in lines with equal distances in between. The problem with this was that when they reached the enemy barbed wire, they slowed down to find a way through, so the lines behind caught up.

Barbed wire could be deadly. In the Battle of the Somme, the Germans left a gap in their barbed wire. This acted as a funnel and as the British soldiers came through it they were in a concentrated mass. This meant a large number of them were killed when the Germans started firing their machine guns. However, if enough men made it through the wire, they went down into the enemy trench, killing the soldiers. Hand grenades were thrown are dug-outs to kill any soldiers hiding in them. A second wave of troops would soon be sent across. Then they would try to create a firing-step on the rear side of the trench, to shoot at the reserve trench where the rest of the troops would be. Captured trenches were very often reclaimed by the original owners quite soon after the attack.

The most dangerous periods for attacks from a defence point of view were dawn and dusk. This was because it would be light enough for an attacker to see to move forward, but it was difficult for defending sentries to see them. About half an hour before dawn, the order "Stand to" was given. The whole of the Allied Front became alert. Sentries gazed out into No-man's Land, while other soldiers woke up. When dawn (or dusk) came, the order Stand down" was given. This meant the tension could slacken a bit, but all the time sentries and snipers were posted to keep a look out. Highland gamekeepers were useful as snipers because they could take down a deer at 400 yards.

Dawn attacks were better for the British side who had a greater chance of success because as the sun rose, they had the light behind them. This meant the German sentries couldn't see them so clearly. Of course, it was the other way round at sunset. Then the Germans had the sun at their backs.

WW1 was the first time Britain had sent its army to Europe since the Battle of Waterloo (June 1815), which Britain and her allies won under the command of the Duke of Wellington, and tactics had not changed much since then. They believed that an artillery bombardment would reduce the enemy to defenceless and an advance in lines would then meet little resistance. In reality, the Germans hid in their shelters, waited for the often inaccurate and ineffective bombardment to stop, then came out and set up their machine guns... and then the slaughter began.

New Weapons in World War 1

There were many new and deadly weapons invented in the run up to and during World War One. In this section I will take a look at each of them separately, and explain why they were the cause of so many casualties.

The weaponry on both sides although not identical, was similar. It had developed to be much more effective if you were defending rather than attacking, and because of this casualties were often heavier on the attacking side. Many weapons were not new inventions, like the heavy field gun, but as the war went on they became more and more powerful.

Machine Guns

These were another type of weapon that was not new to the war. They became more efficient, and were a main cause of casualties.

A machine gun crew wearing their gas masks

The British had two standard machine guns - the Vickers and Lewis guns. The British generals ignored the fact that the Germans would also have machine guns, so the army had far too few of these weapons at the

start of the war. The British were confident in their ability to manufacture these guns and were surprised that they could be out-gunned. However, once they realised, the production rate speeded up rapidly.

These guns usually had a team of 2 to 3 men. They were very accurate and powerful and were not aimed, but used to "spray" the advancing enemy, swung from one side to another in an arc.

Field Guns and Shells

A shell was basically a metal tube filled with explosive. As the war went on, the shell production in Britain also rose rapidly.

Shells came in three sorts:

• High Explosive: designed to explode on impact and wreck buildings, as well as kill people.

• Shrapnel: these were packed with small iron balls. When they exploded over enemy trenches, hot iron rained down. This would kill or seriously wound anyone below.

• Armour piercing: these were designed to penetrate tough steel then explode. They were first used by the navy against ships, but they were later used against tanks.

Howitzers (huge field guns)

Shelling turned normal fields and

forests into the lunar landscape often associated with WW1, with demolished buildings, destroyed forests and water filled shell holes. They also caused shell shock among the soldiers.

An "iron harvest" of over 500 shells is still ploughed up by French and Belgian farmers each year. Some are still live and cause death and injury when they explode.

Trench Mortars

Trench mortars were similar to shells but more specialised. They added greatly to the misery of the soldiers in the trenches. Also, they were not a new weapon. They were a short metal tube used to fire steel drums packed with explosive and shrapnel high into the air. It dropped on to enemy lines. Soldiers could see them coming, because they were slower than shells, and hear their distinctive noise. Their German name was "minenwerfer" - mine thrower. The English name was "moaning minnies".

Concrete and Barbed Wire

Concrete was another development that was quite new, from the 1900's. It was used more by the Germans than the British and French, mainly for their concrete dug-outs.

Changes in the manufacture of iron and steel in the late 19th century meant that barbed wire could be made. This was used by both sides as a defence for their trenches from raiding enemy troops.

Poisonous Gas

Germany introduced all the new developments with poison gas. Gas samples were collected by the British and copied. There were two main types of gas:

• Chlorine gas: this was brought to the front in cylinders and released when the wind was in the right direction. When it was breathed in it dissolved in the fluid of the lungs and formed concentrated hydrochloric acid, which burns the lungs.

• Mustard gas: this looked like sherry but smelled like onions. It reacted vigorously with all body fluids and could either burn the lungs if inhaled or cause horrific burns and blisters on sweaty skin. Its effects and use made the War Office ban the kilt being used as uniform by the British army. Mustard gas also blinded many soldiers.

Because it caused such horrific injuries, gas masks developed very quickly. The masks were uncomfortable but necessary.

Poison gas at first seemed to be the weapon that would win the war but it was not used as much as expected, probably because both sides had defences against it. 90,000 of 9,000,000 men were killed by gas, and most of those were Russians, as they couldn't afford gas masks.

Tanks

Even before the war American farmers had been using tractors with tracks (not wheels) to spread the load over muddy ground. When one covered with thick steel plates was suggested to them, the British Ministry of War dismissed it as a silly idea. Most generals were cavalry men and wanted to win the war on horseback. They were having difficulty accepting the fact that this was not going to happen, with mud, barbed wire and machine guns. However, prototypes impressed the army leaders.

Tanks were first used in September 1916 at the Battle of the Somme, but they did not achieve the desired breakthrough. They were not used properly - they got stuck in mud, broke down and the generals had not worked out the best way to use them in battle tactics. In November 1917, at Cambrai, they were much more effective. The generals had learned. The tanks created havoc and terror among the German soldiers. Tanks played a vital part in the final months of the war, as they pushed the Germans back, although they were nice big targets for the big guns and many tanks fell victim to them.

From their humble beginnings as armoured tractors, tanks set the pattern for World War Two, and all conflicts after that, where there was very little trench warfare.

Air

Ever since the Wright brothers' historic flight in 1903, aircraft had been steadily improving. However, they were still a novelty in 1914. The British Army soon saw the potential of the aeroplane for spying on the enemy from the air. The Royal Air Corps became the Royal Air Force (RAF) in 1918. By the end of the war, both sides had large aircraft to carry and drop bombs, but these were not used for bombing trenches. Instead they were used for bombing towns and cities. At the end of the war, they were fitted with seats and used as the first passenger airliners!

At first when enemy pilots met in the air, they would wave! Later they had pistols with them to shoot at each other, then machine guns were mounted on the planes. The gun had to be synchronised with the propeller to only fire when the blades were horizontal, or the pilot would shoot his own propeller off. In effect, these were the first fighter planes, which became essential in the Second World War.

Chances

"The Chances" by Wilfred Owen

I mind as 'ow the night afore that show Us five got talkin', - we was in the know. "Over the top to-morrer; boys, we're for it. First wave we are, first ruddy wave; that's tore it!" "Ah well," says Jimmy, - an' 'e's seen some scrappin -"There ain't no more nor five things as can 'appen: Ye get knocked out; else wounded - bad or cushy; Scuppered; or nowt except yer feelin' mushy" One of us got the knock-out, blown to chops. T'other was 'urt, like, losin' both 'is props. An' one, to use the word of 'ypocrites, 'Ad the misfortoon to be took to Fritz. Now me, I wasn't scratched, praise God Almighty, (Though next time please I'll thank 'im for a blighty*). But poor young Jim, 'e's livin' an' 'e's not; 'E reckoned 'e'd five chances, an' 'e 'ad: 'E's wounded, killed, and pris'ner, all the lot, The bloody lot all rolled in one. Jim's mad.

(* : a wound bad enough for a soldier to be sent back to Britain (Blighty) for treatment.)

This poem was written by the famous war poet Wilfred Owen. He was a soldier in the trenches, and was killed one week before the end of the war.

"The chances" of survival were not very good for soldiers in the trenches. Out of the 5 million men who joined the British army between 1914 and 1918, one in five was killed, and two out of every four was wounded. In fact, the life expectancy for a 2nd lieutenant was only three months. So why did they volunteer in the first place?

The answer is simple - they were volunteers. They had pride and did not want to fail, or simply appear cowards. To be branded a coward was most young men's nightmare, so they joined up to prove themselves.

The number of casualties could reach 7000 a day, except when there was serious fighting. On these days the number was much, much larger.

It is impossible for anyone who was not there to imagine what it was like for those millions of young men, with horrible conditions, mud, constant fighting and bombardment with shells and explosives.

Every hour of every day their lives were in danger, and the country, never mind the rest of their unit, was depending on them. For sentries, this was much more prominent. Falling asleep on duty carried the death penalty. It took a tremendous amount of both mental and physical strength to live in the trenches, and a huge amount of courage to go "Over the Top".

For many soldiers, this became part of their daily life, and they learned to cope. Others didn't. For some, this constant threat was just too much. They couldn't stand the oppressive conditions and the horror. Some, like Owen's Jim, went mad, suffering from shell-shock. Some resorted to shooting themselves in the leg or the arm, so they would have a chance of escaping the trenches and going back to Britain. Some simply ran away. If these "deserters" were caught, they were put on trial by Court Martial. If found guilty, they were often executed by firing squad. Soldiers who were fortunate got a long prison sentence, but this was rare. The same fate was met by many shellshock victims being accused of cowardice by their own side. Later in the war, shellshock was recognised as a legitimate medical condition, and was treated like one. On average, one British soldier was executed every week of the war, although officers were less likely to be shot than lower ranks.

Court Martial records will not become available until a hundred years after the war. It is said officially that this is to protect families, and the identity of soldiers who were branded cowards. Others suspect it is simply to cover up the many unfair, biased trials and subsequent executions that too place.

Lions and Donkeys

There are many reasons for the huge casualties of World War One, but many people blame the out-dated tactics and the attitude of the leaders, dismissing new weapons and relying on out-dated tactics and weapons. They also had snobbish ideas that the machine gun was their best weapon and seemed to forget that others would have them too. As I mentioned in the "New Weapons" section, this led to the British army having far too few of these weapons in the early stages of the war. Once they realised the problem more machine guns were rapidly manufactured.

In 1915, General Ludendorff, a German, said to General Hoffmann (also German) that the British soldiers fought like lions. Hoffmann replied, "True, but they are lions led by donkeys!" As I have already mentioned, it is a common belief that Generals who were unimaginative, stupid or incompetent were a main cause of the many casualties of The Great War.

It is easy to see why this war would not be won on horseback, as many generals hoped. The mud caused problems for animals, as well as men. The big guns often got stuck too.

A Scot, Sir Douglas Haig, a Field Marshall (after whom the Haig fund was named) was in charge for the longest and has received the most criticism from experts.

"He was as stubborn as a donkey, as unthinking as a donkey, as inarticulate as a donkey. So Haig was in fact the worst donkey on the British side of the war. He didn't ever go up to the front line. He didn't go into the trenches and dirty his boots. Haig had no comprehension of what he was sending his men into. A great commander knows exactly what he is sending his men into, as later commanders, like Montgomery, did. "

"Haig's attitude to technology was virtually nil. He didn't understand technology. The horse was always what mattered to him."

(Dr John Laffin, an Australian historian.)

Others believe he was out-dated, but that he was still a great and valuable commander:

"Haig was far from the idiot of popular myth and the fact that his armies won the greatest series of victories in British Military history means he must be taken seriously as a commander."

(Dr Gary Sheffield, Royal Military Academy, Sandhurst)

"He never doubted himself and he never doubted the British Army. He had the determination to see things through and when other people started to buckle at the knees he held them up."

(John Hussey, Military Historian.)

Haig was present at the disastrous 1916 Battle of the Somme, and his critics blame him for the disaster it was for the British. But he was also present at the battle there two years later, when the British, along with their allies help, were victorious.

Ordinary soldiers resented the Generals. This was because they were safe, comfortable and clean, living in houses borrowed from French landowners miles from the Front. They never came near the front line, never risking their lives. The famous war poet Siegfried Sassoon, who was an officer of the infantry (which suffered the most casualties), wrote the following poem.

The General (by Siegfried Sassoon)

"Good morning; good morning!" the General said When we met him last week on our way to the line. Now the soldiers he smiled at are most of 'em dead And we're cursing his staff for incompetent swine. "He's a cheery old card," grunted Harry to Jack As they slogged up to Arras with rifle and pack. But he did for them both with his plan of attack.

A War of Attrition

Attrition - noun gradual wearing down; friction, abrasion, the wearing down of an adversary, resistance, resources, morale.

After the spring attacks of 1915 failed to provide the much sought-after breakthrough, the British and French continued to attack, to try to drive the Germans out of France and Belgium. The war of attrition had begun. Both sides were following this tactic. This basically meant that both sides were attacking each other, trying to slowly wear down each other's army. In effect, the British were saying to the Germans:

"We have more men and resources than you, and we can replace them more quickly and efficiently than you can when you suffer casualties, and you will run out of men first."

This was true. The Allies could afford to lose ten men for every seven Germans killed. This was partly because of Britain's huge empire, which it could draw fresh troops from. Germany only had Austria-Hungary and a very small empire, so did not have this advantage. The Allies were also helped when America joined the war, bringing even more men. This was partly the reason why Germany lost the war - she was starting to run out of men to fight. In the war of attrition, the generals saw their men as statistics and resources they had the right to use up, rather than individual people. Historians criticising Field Marshall Haig say he attacked many times, just to wear down the Germans without a though for his soldiers' lives. Historians defending him say he never did this.

Conclusion

The question that was set for this investigation was "Why was Trench Warfare so costly in human lives in World War One?" Throughout my investigation, I have tried to answer this question by exploring in more detail some main points, and here are the conclusions I came to for each one:

Trench Layout & Systems - The layout of a trench really helped the soldiers who were living in it. They had many special features like barbed wire and the zigzag walls for defence. This was not a main factor in the number of deaths.

A Soldier's Day - The days for a soldier were always the same. Most of the time when there was not any fighting, they were sitting around bored. The food, although it seems bad to us now, would have been okay for them. Water was the main problem here.

Living Conditions - This was one of the major problems in the war. The conditions the soldiers had to live in were terrible, with mud and water soaking everything. Disease was very common, because of dirty water, lack of washing facilities and cramped conditions. These diseases killed many soldiers. Medical technology was not very advanced, so some injuries that don't seem serious now were fatal then. Many other soldiers died while being treated, or even before they could get medical help. For some who were suffering from shell- shock, their experiences haunted them for the rest of their lives.

Tactics of Trench Warfare - In my opinion, the tactics used were crazy. There is no surprise that so many men were killed in the attacks on enemy trenches. With killing machines like the heavy artillery and the machine gun, there was not much hope of coming back alive. They could be classed as lucky if they were wounded, but survived. However, these attacks were really the only way out of the stalemate the trenches brought.

New Weapons in WW1 - The most obvious cause of the colossal casualties suffered in the war is the new and powerful weapons that had been developed. Machine guns and rifles, heavy artillery and shells, barbed wire and poisonous gas were the main culprits. As well as tanks and aircraft, these were seen as new ways to win the war by many and they were probably right. However, there is no doubt that these new weapons were the cause of a huge number of the total casualties sustained, when used along with the disastrous tactics.

Chances - As I have explained, the chances of survival were not good for a soldier, with so many things going against him. Weapons, tactics, disease, and even his own side, shooting "deserters". Once they joined the army, the soldiers' life expectancy plummeted, to a few months at the most. For the men who were volunteers, this did not seem to matter. They were driven into the army by their own pride, and eventually slaughtered by it.

Lions & Donkeys - There is no doubt that the generals can be blamed for their part in the deaths of so many soldiers. The tactics they employed were out of date by about 100 years, and they were too stubborn to change them. All they did was to bring in new weapons to help their side. In my opinion, The soldiers were the lions, fighting bravely, and the generals were donkeys.

War of Attrition - This tactic of wearing down the enemy because you believe you have more men than them was definitely one of the major reasons for the huge loss of life. Although it was a tactic which seemed to work in the end, this was only after four long years of war, and thousands of men dying. These were men who could have been put to better use in combat, than to be simply blown to pieces in a war of attrition.

List of Resources

Books

A Harris Pupil's Guide to World War One by Dr G D Brindle.

The Great War 1914-1918 (Origins, Nature & Aftermath) by Ronald Cameron.

The Ultimate Time Team Companion by Tim Taylor.

Britain at War 1914-1918 by Craig Mair.

Flying Machine (Eyewitness Guide) by Andrew Nahum.