Unit 8International Politics, Foreign Policy, and National Defense

Section One: International Politics1. Overview

A. States engage with one another in an environment known as the international system.1) All states are considered to be sovereign.2) Some states are more powerful than others.

B. Informal rules governor much of the international system (not binding).C. The modern international system is only a few centuries old.D. Contemporary International Systems

System Number of Nations with

Power

Nations with Power

Dates

Multipolar Many United States, European Union,

China, India, Russia, Brazil

21st Century

Unipolar One United States Post-Cold War (1990)

Bipolar Two United States, Soviet Union

Post WWII (1945) to 1990

Multipolar Many Great Britain, Germany, France,

Russia, Italy, Japan, United

States

Pre-World War I

E. Key Terms1) International Politics – Relationships between states (nations).2) Global Politics – Relationship among states and other interest groups such as global institutions, corporations, and political activists.3) Comparative Politics – Seeks to understand how states work by comparing them to one another.4) International Relations – Studies how states relate to one another.5) Global Interdependence – Refers to the degree of linkage among the community of nations.

2. Theories of International Relations.A. National Interest

1) The theory that states always act in accordance with the national interest.a) Interest of that particular state.b) Includes self-preservation, military security, economic prosperity, and influence over other states.

2) Sometimes two or more states have the same national interest (fostering peace and foreign trade)3) Sometimes states have opposing national interest (conflict and war).

B. Realism1) States work only to increase their own power relative to that of other states.2) The world is a harsh and dangerous place.

a) A powerful states will always be able to outdo (and outlast) weaker competitors.b) The most important and reliable form of power is military power.

3) A state’s primary interest is self-preservation.a) A state must seek power.b) Protect itself from attack.

4) There is no overarching power that can enforce global rules or punish bad behavior.5) Moral behavior is very risky because it can undermine a state’s ability to protect itself.6) The international system itself drives states to use military force and to war.

a) Leaders may be moral but cannot let moral concerns guide foreign policy.b) Leaders must do what is best for the nation.

7) International organization and law have no power or force; they exist only as long as states accept them.

C. Machiavellism1) Based upon the teachings of Niccola Machiavelli, Italian philosopher.2) Outlined in his book The Prince (1513).3) Encourages leaders to use of deceit and violence as tools against other states.4) Moral goals are so dangerous that to act morally will bring about disaster.5) Machiavellism has become synonymous with nasty and brutal politics.

D. Liberalism (also known as the Theories of Complex Interdependence)1) Emphasizes that the broad ties among states have both made it difficult to define national interest and have decreased the usefulness of military power.2) Formulated as a response to Realism:

a) Realism is outdated.b) Increased globalization, the rapid rise in communications technology, and the increase in international trade mean that states can no longer rely on simply power politics to decide matters.

3) Basic tenants of Liberalism:a) The world is a harsh and dangerous place, but the consequences of using military power often outweigh the benefits. International cooperation is therefore in the interest of every state.b) Military power is not the only form of power.

1) Economic and social power matter a great deal too.2) Exercising economic power has proven more effective than exercising military power.

c) Different states often have different primary interest.d) International rules and organizations can help foster cooperation, rust, and prosperity.

E. Idealism1) A specific school of liberalism that stresses the need for states to pursue moral goals and to act ethically in the international arena.2) Behavior considered immoral on an interpersonal level is also immoral in foreign policy.3) Dishonesty, trickery, and violence should be shunned.

3. International Agreements and LawA. Overview

1) In order to make the global system less chaotic and unpredictable, states often make agreements with one another to modify their behavior.2) International agreements are treaties signed by a number of states that establish global rules of conduct.

a) Some agreements focus on single issues, whereas other deal many areas.b) Theoretically, international agreements benefit that states that sign them.c) States that break these rules, sometimes called rogue states, are usually treated with wariness by the rest of the world.

B. International Law1) The collection of rules and regulations that have evolved over the past few centuries.2) These rules define the rights and obligations of states.3) Sometimes treaties codify and formalize international law, but just as often, international law arises from custom and habit.4) The International Court of Justice (Hague, Netherlands) is the judicial body of the United Nations and is responsible for resolving disputes among states.5) The Effectiveness of International Law?

a) How effective is international law?b) Realist – Because there is no international police for to enforce international law, the law has no real power. States only obey international law when it is in their interest to do so.c) Liberalist – There are real consequences to breaking international law (sanctions and military occupation). International organizations have a measurable impact on global relations.

C. International Treaties1) Serve as an important part of international law.2) States sign treaties to end wars, protect their interests, and make international law.

4. International OrganizationsA. International Organizations

1) Institutions that set rules for nations and provide venues for diplomacy.2) Exist for a variety of reasons:

a) Controlling the proliferation of conventional and nuclear weapons.b) Supervising trade.c) Maintaining military alliances.d) Ending world hunger.e) Fostering the spread of democracy and peace.

2) Two basic types:a) International Governmental Organizations (IGOs)

1) Forms when governments make an agreement or band together.2) Only governments belong to IGOs.

b) International Nongovernmental Organizations (NGOs)1) NGOs are made up of individuals, not businesses or governments.2) Serve a variety of functions and represent numerous interests.

3) Although not affiliated with governments, play an important role in international politics as nongovernmental actors.

a) Examples of nongovernmental actors:1) Amnesty International – Defends human rights.2) al Qaeda – Terrorist organization.

3) Examples of Important International Organizations:Name Type Date Founded Membership

(Since 2006)Amnesty International NGO 1961 1.8 million

members in 150 countries.

European Union (EU) IGO 1992 25 states, including United Kingdom,

Sweden, and Estonia.

International Olympic Committee (IOC)

NGO 1894 115 individuals, who represent the IOC in their home

countries.Organization of

Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC)

IGO 1960 11 states including Venezuela, Qatar,

and Indonesia.Salvation Army NGO 1878 Runs programs in

more than 100 countries; has 3.5 million volunteers.

Save the Children NGO 1932 Helps children in poverty around the

world.United Nations (UN) IGO 1946 191 states.

World Bank IGO 1945 Offers loans to more than 100

states.4) The United Nations (UN)

a) The concept of global cooperation goes back to the formation of the League of Nations after World War One.b) The UN was chartered in 1945.c) Organization of the UN.

1) General Assembly a) Made up of all the member nations.b) Elects ten nonpermanent members of the Security Council.

2) Security Council a) Five permanent members: United States, Russia, China, Great Britain,

and France.1) Each of the permanent members has the power to veto any UN resolution or action.

b) Ten nonpermanent members serving on a rotating basis.c) Given the power to place military and / or economic sanctions on nations in order to carry outs its primary responsibility of maintaining international peace.d) It has used this power throughout history.

3) Secretary Generala) Serves as the UN’s spokesperson and often acts as a negotiator.

4) Other UN bodies fostering economic and political include:a) Economic and Social Councilb) Trustee Councilc) International Court of Justice

5. Global Economicsa) Multinational Corporations (MNCs)

1) Multinational Corporations have had a significant impact on the international system in recent years.2) Businesses that operate in more than one country.3) Not considered to be NGOs.4) Primary aim of MNCs is to make money.

5) MNCs dominate the global economy.6) Examples – Coca-Cola, Microsoft, and IBM.

b) Free Trade1) Global economic interdependence has yet to be achieved.2) The United States has been an active participant in the move toward free trade.3) This policy has been controversial because the U.S. is facing a huge trade deficit and because organized labor has serious reservations about the impact of free trade on jobs and wages.4) Notable agreements:

a) GATT – General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade1) The primary mechanism for the negotiation of trade policies.2) GATT is opposed to any new trade barriers (restrictions) and existing tariffs (taxes on imports / exports) should be eliminated.3) Protective tariffs (to safeguard native industries) should used in only emergency situations.

b) NAFTA – North American Free Trade Agreement1) The agreement called for dramatic reductions of tariffs among the United States, Mexico, and Canada.2) Fear that production and jobs will follow cheap labor (to Mexico).

c) Monetary Organizations1) International Monetary Fund (IMF)

a) Acts as a clearinghouse for member nations to discuss monetary issues.b) Develops international plans and policies to deal with monetary issues.c) Regulating monetary exchange rates is the primary task of the IMF.

2) World Banka) Also called the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development.b) Provides monetary assistance to nations that develop industries and aims to stimulate economic growth of third-world nations.c) One of the goals of this assistance is to help these nations become more politically stable.

5. WarA. Overview

1) The central problem of international relations.2) When diplomacy fails, some states decide to use force.3) Some view war as a breakdown of the international system because so many of the rules of international institutions were designed to reduce conflict among states.

B. The Geneva Conventions1) In 1864 several states created an international agreement that regulated acceptable behavior during war and armed conflict.2) Since then, the Geneva Conventions have been amended in 1906, 1929, and 1949 as the nature of war and warfare has changed.3) The agreements prohibit torture, rape, genocide, mutilation, slavery, and other crimes against humanity.4) Prisoners of War (POWs) must be treated humanely and that civilians may not be used as hostages.

C. Common Causes of War1) Human Nature – Humans are naturally violent and aggressive making war inevitable.2) Regime types – Some regimes are more prone to waging war than others.3) Ideology – Some political beliefs favor war more than others.4) Religion – Religious belief has driven many states to war, either to spread the faith or to eradicate heretics.5) The Global System – Because the global system has no “global police force” to enforce global rules, states must engage in war to protect themselves.6) Economics and resources – Disputes over resources often lead to war.

D. Just War Theory1) Theory that argues that wars should be fought for noble and worthwhile reasons.2) Basic tenants (ideas) surrounding Just War Theory:

a) War must be the last option. All peaceful means to resolve the conflict must be exhausted before the war break out.b) The cause of the war must be just (such as overturning aggression and righting a great wrong).c) The war must be winnable.d) The war’s purpose must justify the cost in money and lives.e) The military must make every effort to prevent or limit civilian casualties.

E. Types of War1) Basic Background

a) All wars are violent; not all wars are the same.

b) Wars can be classified according to which people are actually fighting, the intensity of the conflict, and the extent of combatants - use of violence.c) Five types of war:

1) Total Wara) A war in which combatants use every resource available to destroy the social fabric of the enemy.b) Total wars are highly destructive.

1) Characterized by mass civilian casualties.2) Requires combatants to break the people’s will to continue fighting.3) Both World War One and Two were total wars.4) Complete destruction of the civilian economy and society.

2) Limited Wara) A war fought primarily between professional armies to achieve specific political objectives without causing widespread destruction.b) Combatants do not seek to completely destroy the enemy’s social and economic frameworks.c) Gulf War One (Operation Desert Storm) was a limited war.

3) Guerilla Wara) A war in which one or both combatants use small, lightly armed militia units rather than professional, organized armies.b) Guerrilla fighters usually seek to topple their governments or drive out occupiers, often with the support of the local population.c) These wars tend to be very long but are often successful for the insurgents (guerilla fighters).d) Examples – Vietnam War (1960s, 70s), Afghanistan War (1980s).

4) Civil Wara) A war fought within a single country between or among different groups of citizens who want to control the government and do not recognize another group’s right to rule.b) Civil wars are almost always total wars because each side feels compelled to destroy the enemy’s political support base.c) Civil wars may erupt over regional rifts (American Civil War) or because of ethnic rivalries (Bosnia), religious rivalries (Northern Ireland), or clan rivalries (Somalia).

5) Proxy Wara) A war fought by third parties rather than by the enemy states themselves.b) Cold War conflicts such as Korea and Vietnam were proxy wars waged by the United States and the Soviet Union.

F. Categorizing Wars1) Intervention

a) A fairly common way for a third-party to get involved in a civil war or a war between to or more other states.b) A state intervenes when it sends troops, arms, money, or goods to help another state that is already at war.c) During the Cold War, the term intervention was used to describe one of the superpowers becoming involved in a small country’s war.d) Sometimes states intervene in order to bring peace.

1) This type of intervention occurs when a country sends military forces into another state to act as peacekeepers or to block other forces from attacking.2) Sometimes these interventions are organized or conducted by the United Nations or another international governmental organization.

2) Revolutiona) Any fundamental change in the social or political aspects of a state.b) Most revolutions are political, occurring when the citizens of a country try to oust the existing government and replace it with a new one.c) Political revolutions tend to be tumultuous, violent events.d) There is no clear-cut explanation as to why people revolt; some possible reasons:

1) Injusticea) Aristotle argued that the cause of revolution was perception of injustice.b) If the underclasses feel that they are being treated unjustly, they will revolt.

2) Relative deprivation.a) Some scholars have argued that revolutions occur after a period of good times has ended.

b) The citizens begin to expect a higher quality of life and feel cheated when they perceive a stagnation or decline in the quality of their lives.

3) State of the government.a) Revolutions are more likely to happen in countries with corrupt governments.b) If citizens believe in the efficacy of their government, then revolution is unlikely.c) If a regime appears to exist solely to enrich the rulers, then revolution is more likely.

4) The military.a) As the strongest power in most states, the military frequently determines whether a revolution will occur and be successful.b) If the military backs the government, then revolution is unlikely.c) A turning point in many revolutions occurs when soldiers decide to stop obeying the government and decide to fight alongside the revolutionaries.

G. Terrorism1) Overview

a) Terrorism is the use of violence (often against civilian targets) to instill fear, generate publicity, and sometimes destabilize governments.b) Generally speaking, small groups fighting against powerful states practice terrorism, but governments also have the ability to practice terrorism.c) Throughout history, terrorism has taken many forms.d) Terrorism is not tied to any one particular ideology or group.e) Two board categories of terrorism – terrorism practice by governments and terrorism practiced by groups not affiliated with a government.

2) Terrorism practiced by governments.a) State Terrorism – A government commits acts of terror against its own citizens.b) International Terrorism (also known as State-Sponsored Terrorism) – A government supplies and trains terrorist to make attacks in other countries.

3) Terrorism practice by groups.a) Anti-state Terrorism – Any terrorist act not committed by a government.b) Domestic Terrorism – A group with no ties to another country or government commits terrorist acts within its own country.

4) The Purpose of Terrorisma) Terrorist acts ultimately aim to undermine governments and disrupt societies.b) Many terrorists are young, frustrated men who feel that they have been treated unjustly.c) Sometimes terrorists try to destabilize a government directly, via assassinations, kidnappings, and the bombing of government buildings.d) Terrorists can work to undermine governments indirectly by showing people that their leaders are too weak to prevent the attacks and that an active resistance movement exists.e) Sometimes terrorists attack in order to provoke a strong response from the government, hoping that the response will alienate more people form the government and foster even more political discord.

Section Two: Development of Foreign Policy1. The Goals of Foreign Policy (Basic Tenants)

A. Foreign Policy (an overview)1) The strategies and goals that guide a nation’s relations with other countries and groups in the world.2) Specific strategies and policies may change year-to-year or decade-to-decade depending on changes in the world.3) Long-term goals such as peace, stability, and prosperity, generally remain constant, reflecting both the nation’s ideals and its self-interest.

B. National Security1) Protection of a nation’s borders and territories against invasion or control by foreign powers.2) One of the primary goals of U.S. foreign policy.

C. Free and Open Trade1) A nation’s vital economic interest must be protected.2) Maintaining trade with other nations and preserving access to vital natural resource (such as crude oil from the Middle East) are the basic goals of U.S. foreign policy.3) Trade is absolutely essential for economic growth and stability.

a) U.S. factories and farms need foreign markets to sell their goods.b) The U.S. economy is heavily dependent on a steady supply of foreign oil.c) Generally, the U.S. supports trade that is free from both export and import restrictions and taxes.d) Example – NAFTA (North American Free Trade Agreement between the U.S., Canada, and Mexico).

D. World Peace1) The U.S. supports the concept and goal of world peace.2) Rationale

a) It helps the U.S. avoid international conflicts.b) Aids in overall national security.

3) The U.S. routinely offers mediation to help settle disputes.a) Israeli-Palestinian peace talks.b) Anglo-Irish peace talks.

4) Provides economic aid to at-risk countries.a) Helps to prevent uprising and revolutions.b) Example – Post World War II Marshall Plan to rebuild Europe.

E. Democratic Governments1) The U.S. has been a model of democracy for the world.2) The U.S. routinely aids democratic nations and helps others create or move towards democratic systems (Example – the nations of Eastern Europe after the fall of the Soviet Union in 1989).3) Sometimes this takes the form of nation building.

a) Rebuilding the governmental systems from the ground up.b) Examples – Iraq and Afghanistan in the 21st Century.

F. Humanitarianism1) The U.S. provides aid for victims of nature disasters or starvation.2) Aid may include food, medical supplies, and technical assistance.3) This type of aid supports the strategic interest of the U.S. by promoting political stability and friendship / cooperation.

2. Steps involved in implementing foreign policy.A. Agenda setting: A problem or issue rises to prominence on the agenda.B. Formulation: Possible polices are created and debated.C. Adoption: The government adopts one policy.D. Implementation: The appropriate government agency enacts the policy.E. Evaluation: Officials and agencies judge whether the policy has been successful.

3. Three basic tools of foreign policy:A. DiplomacyB. Foreign AidC. Military Force

4. DiplomacyA. The act of dealing with other nations, usually through negotiation and discussion.B. Diplomacy involves . . .

1) Meeting between political leaders.2) Sending diplomatic messages.3) Making public statements about the relationship between countries.

C. Most diplomacy occurs behind the scenes as officials hold secret negotiations or meet privately to discuss key issues.D. Approaches to diplomacy:

1) Unilaterally: The state acts alone, without the assistance or consent of any other state.2) Bilaterally: The state works in conjunction with another state.3) Multilaterally: The state works in conjunction with several other states.

5. Foreign AidA. States often help each other to improve relations and achieve their own foreign policy objectives.B. Two types of foreign aid:

1) Military Aid – States donate, sell, or trade military equipment and technology to affect the military balance of power in certain key regions of the world.2) Economic Aid – States donate or loan money to other countries to boost economic development.

6. Military ForceA. In some cases, states use military force or the threat of military force to achieve their foreign policy objectives.B. The use of military forces often involves stronger states pressuring weaker states to get what they want.C. Deterrence – The build up of military force as a threat to warn another state not to pursue a particular course of action.

7. Foreign Policy Continuum (options available for a nation or president to choose from)

Isolationism Foreign Aid Economic Sanctions Blockade Declare War

Neutrality Diplomacy Political Military

Pressure Intervention (Collective (Covert Action / Security) Police Action)

Section Three: Shared Foreign Policy Powers (The President, Congress, and the Supreme Court)1. Overview

A. The Framers of the Constitution attempted to divide the responsibilities of foreign affairs between the President and the Congress.B. They did not clearly outline the boundaries of power for each branch.C. This has left and invitation to struggle over decision-making.D. Historical events and crisis have enabled the President to assume more responsibilities in foreign policy.E. “Any discussion of the making of U.S. foreign policy must begin with the President. He is the ultimate decider.”

2. Presidential Powers and ResponsibilitiesA. Sources of presidential foreign policy powers.

1) U.S. Constitution.2) The President functions as an important world leader.3) Every President, even with the support of Congress and the advice of national security experts, must achieve public approval in order to successfully pursue and achieve a foreign policy initiative. When that does not occur, the nation becomes split.

B. Commander-in-Chief1) Power granted by the U.S. Constitution.2) The president may send troops, ships, and planes or use nuclear weapons anywhere in the world without congressional approval.

C. Head of State1) Diplomatic powers granted to the President by the U.S. Constitution (Article 2, Section 2).

a) Appoints ambassadors (government officials who represent the nation).b) Receives ambassadors from foreign governments.

1) By receive g a foreign ambassador or diplomat; the president formally recognizes the government of that nation.2) By refusing to receive an ambassador, the president can withhold diplomatic recognition of a government.3) Formal recognition is vital because it qualifies a foreign government for economic and other forms of aid.

c) Makes treaties – A formal agreement between the governments of two or more nations.3. Key Foreign Policy Advisors (The Machinery of Foreign Policy)

A. The President / Executive Branch1) The President has the final responsibility for establishing foreign policy.2) All Presidents rely on their advisors for advice and information before making decisions or establishing policy.

a) Regular advisors1) Presidential Cabinet2) White House Staff3) Specialized agencies dealing with foreign policy.

b) Non-traditional advisors1) Specialists outside of the government.2) Foreign affairs academics, analyst, etc.

3) Secretary of Statea) Supervises all the diplomatic activities of the United States.b) Most U.S. Presidents rely heavily on their Secretary of State.c) The secretary frequently travels to foreign capitals for important negotiations with heads of states.d) Represents the United States at major international conferences.

4) Secretary of Defense

a) Supervises the government’s military activities.b) Informs and advises the President on U.S. military forces, weapons, and bases.

5) Secretary of Homeland Securitya) Protects America from terrorist attacks domestically.b) Deals with domestic natural disasters.

6) National Security Advisor (NSA)a) Director of the National Security Council (NSC).

1) Chaired by the President.2) Includes the Vice President, Secretary of State, Secretary of Defense, Director of the CIA, Chair of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, and Attorney General.3) The goal of the staff is to present various perspectives, facilitate presidential decision-making, and implement presidential decisions.

b) The NSA is the chief advisor to the President on national security issues.c) Appointed by the President without confirmation from the Senate.d) Not connected to either the State Department or Defense Department; able to offer independent advice to the President without bureaucratic pressure from either department.e) In times of crises, the NSA operates from the White House Situation Room updating the President on the latest events of a crisis.

7) The Importance of Intelligencea) In order to conduct good foreign policy, officials must have accurate, reliable information.b) When the intelligence agencies fail to get quality information, policy often fails as well.

8) U.S. Intelligence Communitya) 15 intelligence agencies in the federal government.b) More than 100,000 people work in these agencies.c) Traditionally, each of these agencies was created to collect information for a specific official (example – President, Secretary of State, Secretary of Defense).d) As a result these agencies rarely shared information / intelligence with each other and often acted like competitors, hoarding vital information.e) Following 9/11, a new cabinet level position, the Director of National Intelligence, was created to serve as a clearing house for all incoming information / intelligence gathered by these various agencies.f) Key players in the intelligence community:

1) Central Intelligence Agency (CIA)a) Created in 1947.b) Gathers and coordinates intelligence data for the President from across the world.c) Engages in counterintelligence against other nations.

2) National Security Agency (NSA)a) The largest component of the intelligence community.b) Responsible for code-breaking and electronic spying.

3) Defense Intelligence Agency (DIA)a) The Pentagon’s intelligence gathering agency.b) Central producer of military intelligence.c) Coordinates the activities of the Army, Navy, Air Force, and Marine Corps. Intelligence components.

9) Other agencies that are an integral part of the foreign policy arena:a) Immigration and Naturalization Service (INS)

1) Deals with those people trying to seek residence in the United States from other countries.2) Charged with enforcing immigration policy.

b) United States Information Agency1) Acts as the propaganda arm of the United States.2) Uses the Voice of America shortwave radio station to inform foreign countries of U.S. policy abroad.

c) United States Arms Control and Disarmament Agency1) Maintains responsibility for negotiations, participation, and implementation of treaties dealing with disarmament.2) It has focused its attention on monitoring the Nuclear Test Ban treaties, Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty (START), and the Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT).

B. U.S. Congress / Legislative Branch1) The U.S. Constitution gives Congress significant foreign policy powers.

a) The power to declare war.b) The power to appropriate money.c) U.S. Senate – ratifies treaties, confirms diplomatic appointments.

2) The Power to Declare War

a) Only Congress has the power to declare war yet the President, as Commander in Chief, and order the military into action without Congressional approval (an invitation to struggle).b) Congress has declared war only five times:

1) 1812 against Great Britain.2) 1846 against Mexico.3) 1898 against Spain.4) 1917 against Germany.5) 1941 against Japan, Germany, and Italy.

c) A Declaration of War begins with a formal request by the President for the declaration followed by majority votes in both houses of Congress.

3) Other options besides declaring war.a) Joint Resolution for the use of U.S. troops.

1) Gulf of Tonkin Resolution (1964) authorized President Johnson to use military force against North Vietnam.2) The President is authorized “to take all necessary measures to repel any armed attack against the forces of the United States.”

b) War Powers Act of 19731) Law passed by Congress to try to check the President’s ability to send troops into combat without Congressional consent (approval).2) This law was passed as a response to President’s Nixon expansion of the Vietnam War into neighboring nations without the consent of Congress.

a) Requires the President to notify Congress within 48 hours of the commencement of military action.b) The President can send troops into combat for 60 days without Congressional consent.c) If Congress does not consent to the action the President is required, by law, to remove the forces within 30 days.

3) Presidents have argued that the War Powers Act violation of the separation of powers outlined in the U.S. Constitution and have refused to acknowledge its legitimacy.4) Presidents normally keep Congress “in the loop” regarding military operations and work to build support for their actions within Congress.5) Congress, fearing the public perception that they do not support the Commander-in-Chief or American troops in harms way during a crisis, have never tried to enforce the provisions of the War Powers Act.

4) Power to Appropriate Money for Foreign and Military Policya) This is the greatest source of Congressional power in foreign and military policy.b) Only Congress can appropriate the funds to equip U.S. armed forces and to build new weapons.c) Congress must authorize funds for defense and foreign aid each year.d) Congress can defund a military operation that it does not approve of in order to bring the military action to a halt.

1) Example – Cutting off funds to build bombs as a response to President Nixon’s expansion of the Vietnam War.2) Can also refuse to provide funds to aid other nations.

5) The Power to Ratify Treatiesa) The President normally makes treaties with foreign nations.b) 2/3rds of the Senate (67 votes) is required to ratify (or approve) a proposed treaty.c) The U.S. Senate has refused to ratify 130 treaties since 1789.d) Executive Agreements

1) Executive Agreements are more commonly used by Presidents today than are treaties.2) A tool for making binding commitments with foreign governments.3) Executive Agreements are pacts (agreements) between the U.S. President and the head of a foreign government that have the legal status of treaties but do not require Senate approval.4) Today, Executive Agreements make up more than 90% of all U.S. international agreements.

6) Most Favored Nation (MFN) status a) Recognition of important trading partners.b) Congress has authorized that all trade agreements by handled as Executive Agreements requiring only a simply majority of support from both house of Congress (This is a much lower threshold of support required than formal treaties).c) The President may grant MFN status to trading partners.d) Impact of MFN status:

1) Reduce tariff rates (taxes) on all exports from the nation to the United States (This substantially reduces the amount of import tax a foreign nation has to pay to the U.S. government for allowing their product to enter the country.2) Congress may repeal a nation’s MFN status by a 2/3rds vote.

7) Power to Confirm Appointmentsa) The Senate must confirm presidential appointments to diplomatic posts.

1) This allows the Senate to screen applicants on their foreign policy credentials and policy positions.2) This oversight allows the Senate input on the type of individuals appointed for foreign-service posts and the policies / positions they may advocate.

b) The Senate usually accepts the President’s appointments to diplomatic posts.8) Intelligence Oversight (Reviewing the of special operation forces in covert action).

a) Both the Intelligence Committees in the House of Representatives and the Senate must be fully informed of covert actions.b) Neither committee has the power to block the President’s use of covert operations.

9) The President versus the Congress a) Congress has the power to block some of a President’s foreign policies and even initiate policies of its own.b) Usually congress lets the President set a direction in foreign policy.c) On most issues, Congress passes the foreign policy bills and treaties that the President and his advisors propose.d) In times of war, most Presidents enjoy bi-partisan support from Congress.e) Presidential Advantages Over Congress

1) President’s position as the leader of the nation.2) Only the President can speak for the nation when dealing with other governments.3) Citizens look to the President for leadership in foreign affairs.4) The President controls the agencies tasked with dealing with foreign policy.

a) The President has greater access to vital secret information about foreign affairs.b) Such information is not readily available to Congress.

f) The President can take quick, decisive action.1) Use of the military.2) Congress simply cannot act as quickly as the President or maintain secrecy with so many people involved.

g) Executive Agreements – allows the President to by-pass the Senate ratification process.h) Presidents have been relatively strong in foreign affairs.

1) Tend to be more successful on foreign affairs than on domestic affairs.2) Presidents may be stronger than the Framers intended regarding military deployment and diplomacy.

C. Supreme Court1) The Supreme Court has ruled that the federal government has foreign and military policy powers beyond those specifically mentioned in the Constitution.

a) In United States v. Curtiss-Wright Export Company (1936), the Supreme Court recognized the broad discretion of the President since he is the only person that can speak for the country.

2) The Supreme Court is reluctant to intervene in Congress-President disputes about war powers.3) Examples:

a) President Lincoln’s measures as Commander-in-Chief during the Civil War.b) President Roosevelt’s relocation of 100,000 Japanese-Americans after Pearl Harbor.c) President Johnson’s Vietnam War deployments.

Section Four – Public Opinion and Foreign Policy1. Overview

A. Most Americans think that the President is in charge of foreign affairs.B. For the most part history confirms that belief.C. Americans tend to focus more on “bread and butter issues” (economic) than on foreign affairs.D. In times of crises, the public tends to support the President.

1) “Rally around the flag.”2) Immediate support for military action.3) Boost in popularity for the President immediately after a crisis.

E. Public’s interest and support will wane with a prolong engagement or an open-ended military commitment (Iraq & Afghanistan).F. The American public is generally poorly informed about foreign policy.G. Government elites tend to be much more internationalists than the general public.H. Public opinion can shape decision-making.

1) News coverage of the Vietnam War, particularly on television, brought about a shift in attitudes in favor of withdrawing from the conflict.2) Images of starvation in Somalia prompted public support for a U.S. intervention.3) News stories of “ethnic cleansing” in Bosnia and Kosovo also built pressure for U.S. intervention.

Section Five: U.S. State Department1. Overview

A. In the executive branch, two departments are primarily responsible for foreign policy.1) Department of State or State Department

a) One of the smallest cabinet-level departments.b) Carries out foreign policy on behalf of the nation.

B. It is the duty of both the departments of state and defense to put into practice the policies of the executive and the legislative branches.

2. Department of StateA. Created by Congress in 1789; it was the first executive department.B. Secretary of State

1) Head of the State Department.2) Generally considered the most important cabinet member below the President and Vice President.

C. Mission1) Advise the president and formulate/carry out foreign policy.2) The “primary objective in the conduct of foreign relations is to promote the long-range security and well-being of the United States.”3) Today, foreign policy is too big of job for the State Department to handle alone.

a) A host of other government agencies have foreign missions abroad independent of the Secretary of State or the State Department.

1) Department of Defense2) Central Intelligence Agency3) Agriculture Department4) Commerce Department5) Federal Bureau of Investigations6) Drug Enforcement Agency

b) Most of these agencies owe no political or bureaucratic loyalty to the Secretary of State.D. Four primary functions:

1) Keep the President informed about international issues.2) Maintain diplomatic relations with foreign governments.3) Negotiate treaties with foreign governments.4) Protect the interest of Americans who are traveling or conducting business abroad.

E. Organizational Structure of the State Department.1) The State Department is organized into topics and regions.2) Six assistant secretaries direct the six geographic bureaus of the State Department.

a) Bureau of African Affairsb) Bureau of European and Eurasian Affairsc) East Asian and Pacific Affairsd) Western Hemisphere Affairse) Near Eastern Affairsf) South and Central Asian Affairs

3) Other bureaus deal with educational and cultural affairs, political and military problems, and with intelligence and research.

F. The Foreign Service1) More than half of the employees of the State Department serve in other countries.2) Qualifications to serve in the Foreign Service:

a) College graduate.b) Pass and extremely demanding civil service exam.c) Successfully complete specialized training / course work.

3) Foreign Service Officers (FSOs)a) Normally spend several years abroad in a diplomatic post.b) Foreign Service Officers are normally assigned either to an American embassy or to an American consulate.

G. Embassies1) The official residence and offices of the ambassador and his or her staff.2) The U.S. maintains embassies in the capital cities of foreign countries.3) Currently, the State Department directs the work of more than 200 American embassies and consulates.

a) The primary function of an embassy is to make diplomatic communication between governments easier.b) Embassy officials keep the State Department informed about the politics and foreign policies of the host government.

c) They also keep the host government informed about American politics and policies.H. Ambassador

1) Heads each American embassy.2) Most ambassadors today come from the ranks of the Foreign Service as experienced and highly qualified professional diplomats.3) Some ambassadors may be political appointees, selected for reasons other than their diplomatic knowledge or experience (example – patronage – appointing an inexperienced person to a lavish post may be used by the President as a political payback for supporting him during an election).4) Every ambassador is appointed by the President and confirmed by the Senate.

I. Consulates1) The primary function of a consulate is to promote American business interest in foreign countries and to serve and safeguard American travelers in the countries where the consulates are located.2) Most consulates are located in major foreign cities.3) Consulates are not normally involved in diplomatic negotiations with foreign governments.4) Consul

a) A Foreign Service Officer who is head of a consulate.b) Normally handles individual problems and inquiries about such matters as shipping schedules, business opportunities, and travel needs.

J. Passports and Visas1) Passport

a) A document issued to Americans traveling abroad.b) It entitles the holder to certain privileges and protections established by an international treaty.

2) Visa (Not the credit card company!)a) A special document issued by the government of the country that a person would like to enter.b) American immigration laws require nearly all foreign visitors to obtain visas prior to entering the U.S.c) The countries of Western Europe, however, do not require American travelers to carry visas, only passports.

Section Six: The Department of Defense (DoD)1. Overview

A. The Secretary of Defense supervises the armed forces of the U.S.1) Assists the President in carrying out the duties of the Commander in Chief.2) The largest of all of the executive departments.3) Responsible for guarding the national security of the U.S.4) Pentagon – headquarters of the Department of Defense.

B. Civilian control of the military.1) The Framers wanted to ensure that the military would always be subordinate to the civilian leaders of the government.2) The ultimate authority for commanding the armed forces rests with the civilian Commander in Chief.3) Congress exercises considerable authority over military matters.

a) Defense appropriations – Congress determines how much money the Department of Defense will spend each year.b) Determines how each branch of the armed forces will be organized and governed.

4) All top leaders of the Department of Defense are required to be civilians.C. Size of the Department of Defense

1) Approximately 700,000 civilian employees.2) Over one million active duty personnel.

D. Branches of Service1) Two reasons for separate uniformed services.

a) Fear that a unified military would become too powerful.b) Desire of the services to preserve their autonomy.

2) U.S. Armed Forces (Active Duty Personnel Strengths Worldwide for 2010 – 1,428,868)a) Army – 544,065 b) Navy – 330,065c) Marine Corps. – 201,126d) Air Force – 337,505e) Coast Guard – 33,713

E. Components1) Active duty2) Reserves3) National Guard

F. The Joint Chiefs of Staff (JSC)

1) Provides military advice to the President, the National Security Council (NSC), and the Secretary of Defense.2) Composed of the top ranking officers of the armed forces:

a) Chief of Staff of the Army.b) Chief of Staff of the Air Force.c) Chief of Naval Operations.d) Commandant of the Marine Corps.e) Vice Chairmanf) Chairman

3) The Joint Chiefs of Staff does not have command authority over troops, but plays a key role in defense planning.

G. Unified Combatant Commands1) U.S. European Command2) U.S. Pacific Command3) U.S. Joint Forces Command4) U.S. Special Operations Command5) U.S. Transportation Command6) U.S. Central Command7) U.S. Southern Command8) U.S. Northern Command9) U.S. Strategic Command10) U.S. Africa Command

H. A Volunteer Military1) Conscription / Draft

a) Compulsory military service.b) First used during the Civil War.c) Implemented during World War One and Two.d) President Nixon suspended conscription in 1973 (end of Vietnam War).e) The draft was replaced with the Selective Service System.

1) 18 year old males must sign up with Selective Service.2) If conscription was ever reestablished, 18 to 25 year old male citizens could be called to serve in the armed forces.

2. Two views of the military (Necessity vs. Waste)A. Necessity Viewpoint - Everyone is protected; everyone pays taxes to support the military for national defense. (Sometimes called Hawks).B. Waste Viewpoint - The U.S. spends entirely too much on national defense that benefits a select elite in the nation. (Sometimes called Doves).

1) Military-Industrial Complex – warning issued by departing President Eisenhower.a) The massive apparatus of defense industries that is responsible for the building, arming, and maintaining of machinery and equipment of war.b) Contractors have an incentive to underestimate the cost of producing these weapons in order to get Congress to approve them.c) What is the money spent on?

1) Big Ticket Itemsa) Warships, fighters, bombers, tanks, bombs, missiles. etc.b) Cost Overruns: the difference between actual costs and estimated costs.c) Example – F-35 Lighting II Joint Strike Fighter.

1) Cost - $90 million dollars each.2) In 2010, Pentagon officials found that the cost of each plane had soared by over 50% above the original projections. 3) The U.S. plans on buying 2,443 F35s at a cost of $382 billion dollars.4) Add in the $650 billion that the Government Accountability Office estimates is needed to operate and maintain the aircraft, and the total cost reaches a staggering $1 trillion.

a) Example – U.S.S. Gerald Ford (aircraft carrier)1) Cost to build - $13.5 billion.2) Ten of these new class of aircraft carriers are scheduled to be built.

5) Goldplatinga) The Pentagon wants “the best” money can buy.b) Sole-sourcing: the lack of competition to build certain weapon systems means there is no incentive to control the cost of the system.

2) Small Ticket Items

a) Specialized equipment for unique situation drives up cost.b) Coffee makers for long-range bombers.

3) Personnela) Salaries.b) Housing and medical benefits.c) Veteran’s benefits (as of 2010 there are over 22 million U.S. military veterans).

4) Readiness / Traininga) Tends to be a low priority after building equipment and maintaining bases.

5) Basesa) According to the Department of Defense’s 2010 Base Structure Report, the U.S. military now maintains 662 foreign sites in 38 countries around the world. This is an approximate guess.a) In 2010, military construction and housing costs at all U.S. bases ran to $23.2 billion. An additional $14.6 billion was needed for maintenance, repair, and recapitalization.

d) Beneficiaries are generals, defense contractors, and members of Congress who benefit from campaign contribution and ensuring defense contracts benefit their home districts.

3. Select Nations with Largest Armed Forces, by Active-Duty Troop Strengths (2011 World Almanac)

Nation Active Duty

Troops

Reserve Troops

Defense Expenditure

s

Tanks(Army Only)

Cruisers / Frigates /

Destroyers

Submarines

AircraftCarriers

FightersGround Attack

Fighters

China 2.285 million

510,000 $60.2 billion 6,550 52 Frigates28 Destroyers

65 1 283 1,100

United States

1.580 million

865,000 $696. 2 billion 5,850 22 Cruisers21 Frigates

56 Destroyers

71 11 2,650 Tactical Fighters

India 1.325 million

1.155 million

$31.5 billion 4,047 12 Frigates8 Destroyers

16 1 536 96

North Korea

1.106 million

4.700 million

? 3,500 3 Frigates 63 0 152 388

Russia 1.027 million

20 million $40.5 billion 23,000 5 Cruisers14 Frigates

14 Destroyers

66 1 807 725

France 353,000 70,000 $67.2 billion 637 20 Frigates10 Destroyers

9 2 88 74

Germany 251,000 162,000 $46.9 billion 1,385 15 Frigates 12 0 156 114Japan 230,000 42,000 $46 billion 880 8 Frigates

44 Destroyers16 0 0 250

United Kingdom

175,000 199,000 $60.8 billion 386 17 Frigates6 Destroyers

12 2 168 40

Section Seven – Foreign Policy in Action1. Overview

A. In trade, as well as other issues, the desire to preserve national security and economic well-being often can lead to disagreements and even conflicts among nations.B. To minimize the danger to national security, the United States tries to settle such conflicts peacefully and to negotiate agreements with foreign governments.C. Tools of foreign policy include:

1) Alliances2) Programs of foreign aid.3) Economic sanctions.4) Military action (normally as a last resort).

2. Alliances and PactsA. Mutual Defense Alliances

1) When nations face a common threat (example – Soviet Union), they come together and agree to support one another in case of attack.2) Example – NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization).

a) Made up of the United States, Canada, and most of the nations of Western Europe.b) Created after World War Two in response to Soviet expansionism into Eastern Europe.c) Today NATO forces support U.S. operations in Afghanistan.

3) The United States has signed mutual defense treaties with nation in three broad regions.a) These are known as Regional Security Pacts and include:

1) Western Europe; the North Atlantic.2) Central and South America.

3) Island nations of the South Pacific.b) Multilateral Treaties – International agreements signed by several nations.

B. Europe / NATO1) NATO’s Cold War policies (1949 to 1990)

a) Article 5 of the treaty – “An attack on one is an attack on all members”.b) Deployment of larger number of American and British troops on military bases across Europe under a single NATO commander to deter any Soviet aggression.c) These troops provided the military security necessary to allow post World War Two Western Europe to establish stable democracies, free market economies, and to rebuild destroyed infrastructure.

2) Post-Cold War Europe (1990 to 2010)a) Diminished Russian threat with the collapse of the Soviet Union.b) Redefining NATO’s mission.

1) Crisis intervention and peacekeeping.a) Bosnia (1995).b) Kosovo (1999).c) Macedonia intervention (2001).d) Afghanistan (2001 to the present).

2) Expanded membership and protecting newly democratic Eastern European nations.

a) Poland, Hungary, and the Czech Republic joined NATO in 1999.b) Bulgaria, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Romania, Slovakia, and Slovenia joined in 2004.

c) The expansion of NATO may also mean that the U.S. may be called upon for more peacekeeping missions in the future to help provide stability in an era of ethnic unrest.

3) NATO and the 21st Centurya) Today the U.S. is less interest in protecting Europe now than it was during the Cold War.b) Due to budgetary constraints and a change in global threats, the U.S. is shifting its focus towards Asia and the Middle East.

1) Middle East – Arab Spring, oil dependence, “nuclear” Iran, and terrorism.2) Asia – Emerging China and India, “nuclear” North Korea, Pacific commerce.

c) Unilateralism – The U.S. is less concerned with cooperating with its allies and more willing to act on its own when dealing with global threats to American security.

C. Latin America 1) Latin America (A long history of U.S. involvement).

a) Monroe Doctrine (1823)1) Any further efforts by European nations to colonize land or interfere with states in North or South America would be viewed as acts of aggression requiring U.S. intervention.2) The intent and impact of the Monroe Doctrine persisted with only minor variations for almost two centuries.3) Its primary objective was to free the newly independent colonies of Latin America from European intervention and control that would make the New World a battleground for the Old. 4) The doctrine put forward that the New World (North and South America) and the Old World (Europe) were to remain distinctly separate spheres of influence, for they were composed of entirely separate and independent nations.

b) Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine (1904)1) The corollary states that The United States will intervene in conflicts between European nations and Latin American countries to enforce legitimate claims of the European powers, rather than having the Europeans press their claims directly.2) Reinforced the idea that Europe was not to meddle with Latin America.

b) President Roosevelt’s “Big Stick” Diplomacy.1) Also known as Gunboat Diplomacy.2) The use of America’s naval might to ensure Latin American governments comply with U.S. policies and objectives.3) Age of Colonialism / Imperialism.

c) Dollar Diplomacy1) The effort of the United States, particularly under President William Howard Taft, to further its aims in Latin America and East Asia through use of its economic power (rather than by military force) by guaranteeing loans made to foreign countries.2) Used to uphold economic and political stability of Latin American nations.

d) Good Neighbor Policy (1933)1) Established by Franklin D. Roosevelt.

2) Its main principle was that of non-intervention and non-interference in the domestic affairs of Latin America. 3) It also reinforced the idea that the United States would be a “good neighbor” and engage in reciprocal exchanges with Latin American countries.

4) Overall, the Roosevelt administration expected that this new policy would create new economic opportunities in the form of reciprocal trade agreements and reassert the influence of the United States in Latin America.

e) Rio Pact (1947)1) Signed by all 21 American republics.2) Under the treaty, an armed attack or threat of aggression against a signatory nation, whether by a member nation or by some other power, will be considered an attack against all.

f) OAS (Organization of American States) (1948)1) Thirty-five independent states of the American continent. 2) The goal of the member nations is "to achieve an order of peace and justice, to promote their solidarity, to strengthen their collaboration, and to defend their sovereignty, their territorial integrity, and their independence."

D. Pacific Theater1) ANZUS Pact (Australia, New Zealand, United States) (1951)2) Obliges Australia, New Zealand, and the United States to come to one another’s aid in case of attack.3) Japan (United States Forces Japan)

a) Treaty of Mutual Cooperation and Securityb) The United States is obliged to defend Japan in close cooperation with the Japan Self-Defense Forces for maritime defense, ballistic missile defense, domestic air control, communications security and disaster response operations.c) 35,000 to 40,000 U.S. troops deployed to Japan.

4) South Korea (United States Forces Korea)a) Established in 1954.b) U.S.-South Korea Mutual Defense Treaty.c) The security alliance counts as one of the most important of America’s alliances, not only serving to deter another North Korean attack on South Korea, but also providing a continental base for U.S. forces to face China and Russia and to provide a front-line defense for Japan. d) The alliance has also augmented South Korea’s military forces and provided a nuclear umbrella, thus enabling the South Koreans to pursue economic progress with relatively low military budgets.e) Approximately 30,000 U.S. troops are deployed to South Korea.

5) Taiwana) Taiwan Relations Act (1979)b) The act stipulates that the United States will "consider any effort to determine the future of Taiwan by other than peaceful means, including by boycotts or embargoes, a threat to the peace and security of the Western Pacific area and of grave concern to the United States".c) Requires the United States "to provide Taiwan with arms of a defensive character", and "to maintain the capacity of the United States to resist any resort to force or other forms of coercion that would jeopardize the security, or the social or economic system, of the people on Taiwan."d) Does not require the U.S. to intervene militarily if China attacks or invades Taiwan, and the U.S. has adopted a policy of "strategic ambiguity" in which the U.S. neither confirms nor denies that it would intervene in such a scenario.

E. Bi-lateral Treaties of Alliances1) An agreement that involves only two nations.2) Examples:

a) U.S.-Japan Alliance (1951).b) U.S.-South Korea Alliance (1951).c) U.S.-Philippine Alliance (1951).

3) The U.S. has alliances with almost 50 nations.a) These nations can count on the military support of the U.S. in case of attack.b) Collective Security

1) A system by which member nations agree to take joint action against a nation that attacks any one of them.2) Helps to promote global security / stability due to the threat of U.S. military intervention.

3. Foreign Aid Programs

A. Two basic types:1) Military support for the purchase of U.S. weapons.2) Economic aid (two purposes).

a) To establish friendly relations with other nations.b) To help emerging nations as eventual economic partners.

B. Agency for International Development (AID)1) An agency of the U.S. State Department.2) Administers economic aid to foreign nations.3) Dispenses loans and technical assistance to countries throughout the world.

4. Economic SanctionsA. Sanctions

1) Measures such as withholding loans, arms sales, or economic aid to force a foreign government to cease certain activities.2) Between 1900 and 2000 the U.S. employed economic sanctions 75 times.

5. The Use of Military ForceA. The use of force (or threatening to use force) has always been a powerful tool of foreign policy.B. Pros of using military force (including covert action / black ops).

1) Can be an effective way to avoid large-scale wars, ward off an impending attack, or protect human rights.2) The use of force can be surgical with limited collateral damage (civilian causalities).

C. Cons of using military force (including covert action).1) May ignite a far larger conflict.2) May not be able to achieve foreign policy aims with brute might.3) Breakdown of diplomacy / end of any possible peaceful settlement.4) Potential cost in treasury and human life may be significant.5) Quagmire – getting bogged down in military occupation of a nation (Iraq) or saddled with the responsibility of nation-building (Afghanistan).6) Blowback – May be responsible for a host of unintended consequences (increase in anti-American feelings in the world, loss of support from Allies, greater appeal of terrorism to counterbalance American might).

Section Eight - A Timeline of the Development and Evolution of U.S. Foreign Policy (A Historical and Contemporary Overview)1. Overview (Understanding foreign policy language)

A. Paradigm1) A term used to describe a model or mindset.2) Isolationism and internationalism are both a type of paradigm.3) Characteristics of a paradigm.

a) Tends to be a long lasting model.b) Shifts between paradigms tend to be infrequent.

4) Example of a paradigm – The Cold War (1945 to 1989).a) Every conflict in the world was viewed as a proxy war between the United States and the Soviet Union.b) The U.S. felt compelled to become involved in local disputes in order to limit the influence or spread of Communism.

5) The United States has shifted from the isolationist to the internationalist paradigm a number of times throughout the course of American history.6) The United States has embraced five distinctive paradigms throughout the course of U.S. History.

1) Isolationism2) Internationalism / Containment3) Disengagement4) Human Rights5) Preemption

B. Isolationism1) Avoidance of international involvement.2) Following the American Revolution the U.S. adopted the policy / paradigm of isolationism.

a) The U.S. was a small, weak nation.b) Deeply in debt, trying to build a new government following a revolution.

3) U.S. leaders at the time believed that the U.S. should avoid any European politics, crises, or wars.4) Washington’s Farewell Address (1796).

a) Address made by President George Washington before leaving the presidency.b) Advised citizens to avoid political parties and foreign entanglements (alliances).

5) The U.S. last embraced isolationism following World War One (1920s & 30s).a) Americans were disillusioned with the human cost of the conflict and the imperfect peace plan.b) Refused to join the League of Nations.c) Disengaged from European affairs.

C. Internationalism (key events)1) The belief or paradigm that U.S. involvement in world affairs was necessary due to national security concerns.2) Growth of U.S. internationalism.

a) Monroe Doctrine (1823)1) Shift away from isolationism.2) President James Monroe warned Europe that they should not attempt to extend their power or influence in North or South America.

b) Expansionism / Imperialism (1890s-1900s)1) As the U.S. became an industrial power there arose a growing need for new markets for its products, new sources for raw material, and a powerful navy to protect commerce.2) Alfred T. Mahan’s book, The Influence of Sea Power Upon History.

a) Argued for naval re-fueling stations (colonial empire).b) Powerful, state of art naval force.c) Central American canal linking the Atlantic and Pacific oceans.

3) To compete against European powers, the U.S. needed to play an active role in the world.4) Results

a) Spanish-American War (1898).b) Acquisition of the Philippines, Guam, Puerto Rico, Hawaii, and Samoa.c) Gunboat Diplomacy in Latin America – using the threat of military force to keep neighboring nations in line.d) Roosevelt Corollary (1904) to the Monroe Doctrine.

1) The United States will intervene in conflicts between European nations and Latin American countries to enforce legitimate claims of the European powers, rather than having the Europeans press their claims directly.2) Interventionism.

e) Philippine-American War (Philippine Insurrection) 1899-1902.1) America’s first overseas quagmire / guerrilla war.2) America’s 19th Century version of the Vietnam War.

f) Military invention in the Boxer Rebellion in China.g) Building of the Panama Canal after supporting the one-day Panamanian Revolution against Columbia with American military forces.

c) Two World Wars1) World War One (1914-18), U.S. involvement - 1917-1918.

a) At the onset of the war the United States openly embraced isolationism and neutrality.b) Following Germany’s unrestricted submarine warfare against neutral shipping the United States entered the war in 1917.c) After the war, Americans became disillusioned with the terrible cost of the conflict.d) The U.S. Senate refused to ratify the Treaty of Versailles or allow the United States to join the League of Nations.e) Return to isolationism.

2) World War Two (1939 to 1945), U.S. involvement – 1941 to 1945.a) Rise of authoritarian states in Japan, Italy, and Germany in the 1920s and 30s.b) The U.S. was neutral at the outbreak of the conflict in 1939.c) Appeasement – Policy embraced by the British and French to give Hitler what he wanted in the hopes he would not start a large-scale war – it failed.c) Following the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor in 1941 the U.S. entered the war.d) Since World War Two, U.S. foreign policy has been based on internationalism.

d) The Cold War (a Bi-Polar World)1) Post World War Two

a) Europe and Japan were in shambles socially, politically, and economically following the war.b) The United States and the Soviet Union were the only remaining global powers.

1) Superpower - a nation with a dominant position in the world that has the ability to influence events and project power on a worldwide scale to protect national interests.

2) The development of nuclear weapons and large militaries helped to elevate both the United States and the Soviet Union into superpower status.

c) The world was divided into two camps / spheres / poles.1) The Free World – lead by the U.S.2) Communist Bloc – lead by the U.S.S.R.

d) U.S. concerns during the Cold War.1) Communist takeover of Eastern Europe.2) Communist revolution in China in 1949.3) The Soviet Union obtains the atomic bomb.4) The spreading of Communism throughout the world.

e) Containment (Policy of . . .)1) Policy proposed by American diplomat George F. Kennan.2) The U.S. did not need to go to war with the Soviet Union.3) Focus efforts on keeping Communism contained and eventually the Soviet Union would collapse from its own internal problems.4) Sometimes called the anti-appeasement paradigm.5) Containment in action:

a) Provide aid to nations in danger of Communist revolution (Greece and Turkey).b) Provide aid to nations threatened by Communist neighbors (formation of N.A.T.O.).c) Truman Doctrine“I believe that it must be the policy of the United States to support free peoples who are resisting attempted subjugation by armed minorities or by outside pressures . . . I believe that our help should be primarily through economic and financial aid which is essential to economic stability and orderly political processes.”

President Harry S. Truman, 1947f) Nuclear Arms Race

1) Arms Race – build-up of U.S. / U.S.S.R. nuclear weapons stockpiles.2) Policy of deterrence – If any nation used nuclear weapons against the United States the U.S. promised it would retaliate with nuclear weapons.3) First Strike Doctrine – To counterbalance a numerically superior Soviet ground force in Europe, the U.S. reserved the right to use nuclear weapons first to stop any ground invasion from the Soviet Union.4) M.A.D. (Mutual Assured Destruction)

a) The doctrine / belief that the sheer number of nuclear weapons possessed by both the U.S. and U.S.S.R. would guarantee that they would never be used.b) In other words, any nuclear attack would result in a massive nuclear war that would end humanity.c) The sheer destructive consequences of a nuclear war made it highly unlikely that either nation would use their nuclear weapons.

5) Limited Nuclear Test Ban Treaty (1963)a) Prohibited testing of nuclear weapons in the atmosphere, underwater, or outer space.b) Treaty signers – United States, Great Britain, and the Soviet Union.

g) Proxy Wars of the Cold War1) Proxy War – Combatants in a local / regional conflict reflect a larger struggle between larger powers who support and aid either side of the conflict regardless of the causes of the conflict.

a) Domino Theory 1) Belief held by U.S. political leaders.2) If one country in a region “fell to Communism,” the others would soon follow.

b) Catalyst for U.S. involvement in Asia.2) Korean War (1950-53)

a) U.S. aided pro-U.S. South Korea when the country was invaded by Communist North Korea.b) The Soviet Union / Communist China supported North Korea.c) The three-year war did not produce any clear-cut winners and resulted in the permanent stationing of U.S. troops in South Korea (60+ year deployment of U.S. forces).

3) Vietnam War (roughly from 1964 to 1973)a) U.S. committed troops for many years to help South Vietnam fight against Communist North Vietnam.b) Long, bloody guerilla war that spread into Cambodia and Laos.c) Eventually U.S. public opinion turned against the war and U.S. forces were pulled out.d) South Vietnam was overrun by North Vietnam.

4) Russia’s Afghanistan War (1979 to 1989)a) The Soviet Union invaded Afghanistan in 1979.

b) The U.S. supplied and trained Afghan rebels in their war against the Soviets.c) After a ten-year guerrilla war the Soviets withdrew.d) The conflict is sometimes referred to the Soviet Union’s Vietnam War”.

h) End of the Cold War (1989 to 1991)1) The Soviet Union began to economically and politically collapse in 1989.2) Fall of the Berlin War.3) Re-unification of Germany.4) Overthrow of Eastern Europe’s Communist governments.5) 1991, the Soviet Union collapsed and split into fourteen nations.6) The bi-polar world of the Cold War was over.

e) The Post-Cold War Era (1989 to 2001)1) Overview

a) Massive changes in global politics.b) Paradigm shift from a bi-polar world to a unipolar world.

1) U.S. last remaining superpower.2) Hegemony

a) Leadership or predominate influence exercised by one nation over others.b) Assuming the role of the Global Policeman.

1) Dealing with every problem facing the world.2) Called upon for peacekeeping duties and humanitarian missions.

c) Pax Americana (The American Peace)1) The impact of U.S. military, economic, and political power since 1945 that has restrained the outbreak of either a nuclear war or a general global war.

3) Overseen by the presidencies of George H.W. Bush and Bill Clinton.4) Human Rights Paradigm

a) Use diplomatic and military might to prevent genocide (the mass murder of people usually because of their race or ethnicity).b) Applied unevenly (aided in ending genocide in Bosnia and Kosovo but ignored genocide in Africa).c) Goals of post-Cold War foreign policy:

1) Maintain peace.2) Support the building of democracies.3) Promoting global trade.4) Stability in the Middle East.5) Fostering democracies in Eastern Europe.6) Expansion of N.A.T.O. into Eastern Europe.

d) Post-Cold War Military Inventions

1) Gulf War I / Operation Desert Storm (1990-91)2) Panama (1989)3) Somalia (1992)4) Haiti (1994)5) Balkan War / Bosnia (1995)6) Kosovo (1999)

D. 21st Century Foreign Policy / Post 9/111) Overview

a) The era of unchallenged U.S. hegemony began to wane with the rise of the European Union (EU), China, India, Japan, Russia, and Brazil.b) The nature and type of warfare of the 21st Century has been dramatically impacted by the growth of terrorism.

2) 9/11 Attacks and aftermath (Paradigm shift in foreign policy).a) September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks against World Trade Center in NYC, the Pentagon, and Shanksville, PA (Flight 93).b) Foreign policy shifted to fighting internationalism terrorism.

3) Afghanistan invasion and occupation.a) Manhunt for Osama Bin Laden / al-Qaeda terrorist network.b) Taliban government toppled / prolonged occupation by U.S. ground forces.c) Endless guerilla war (quagmire).

4) The Strategy of Preemption / Preemption Doctrine (Bush Doctrine)a) The problem facing the United States.

1) During the Cold war the likelihood of the U.S. being attacked with WMDs (Weapons of Mass Destruction – Nuclear, Biological, Chemical) was relatively remote.2) Terrorism creates a unique problem.3) If terrorists used these weapons how could their origins be traced to the nations that supplied them?

b) A possible solution.1) Instead of waiting for an attack, the U.S. would strike first to prevent nations that support terrorism from developing weapons.2) Unilateralism – taking action with the support of Allies or world bodies (United Nations).2) Supporters of the Preemption Doctrine – traditional deterrence no longer work in a world of suicide bombers and rogue nations.3) Critics of the Preemption Doctrine – preemption ignores international law and might lead to an unending series of wars, especially if other nations adopt the same policy.

c) Iraq War (2003-2011)1) The U.S. invaded and occupied Iraq under the premise of Iraq having WMDs.2) No WMDs were found, a prolonged guerilla war against insurgents ensued.3) Billions spent in treasury; thousands of U.S. military personnel killed or wounded.4) Question – Does the Doctrine of Preemption include the cost and responsibility of nation-building? By the end of the war, the American public supported the end of the conflict and the removal of American forces.

5) Obama Doctrine (2008 to present)a) Ended the Iraq War.b) Promised and end to Afghanistan War by 2014.c) “Lead from the Rear”

1) Allow allies / NATO to shoulder more of the responsibilities of global peacekeeping and military operations.2) Libya Operation (France, Britain take the lead, U.S. in supporting role).

d) Expanded Drone War / Covert Operations1) Attacking terrorist targets wherever they may be found in the world.2) Expanded drone strikes in Pakistan and Africa.

e) Diminishing importance of Europe as a defense concern.f) Refocusing of American military might to the Pacific region to focus on growing concerns (China and North Korea).g) RIF (Reduction in Force) for the Army and Marine Corps.h) Greater emphasis and resources for naval and air power.

6) Other foreign policy concerns of the 21st Century.a) Nuclear Proliferation (spread of nuclear weapons).

1) Rogue nations developing nuclear weapons (Iran / North Korea).2) Original nuclear club: U.S., U.S.S.R., China, Britain, and France.

3) Nations that have acquired nuclear weapons: Pakistan, North Korea, India, and Israel.

b) Free Trade1) WTO – World Trade Organization

a) Seeks to promote free trade among member nations by reducing or eliminating domestic subsidies and protective tariffs.b) The governing body of the WTO has the authority to punish any member state that violates these rules.c) U.S. organized labor believes that the WTO hurt American industry and lead to outsourcing (transfer of U.S. jobs to other countries with cheaper work forces).d) Proponents of free trade argue it drives the cost of products down and allows Americans to purchase more with their money.

c) Humanitarianism1) The U.S. is a major proponent of international human rights.2) Since the end of World War Two the U.S. has been the largest donor of international aid.3) The U.S. lacks a codified humanitarianism foreign policy.

a) Intervened in Somalia in 1992.b) Ignored Rwanda in 1996, Darfur in 2004.

4) The U.S. has refused to sign most international human rights treaties out of fear that Americans may be stripped of their rights as U.S. citizens when tried in international courts for crimes against humanity.

d) Environmental Issues1) Population growth 2) Climate change3) Biodiversity

e) Immigration1) Immigration issues dominate American relations with many Latin American countries.2) Mass influx of legal and illegal immigrants.

f) Illegal Drugs1) Most illegal drugs entering the United States come from Latin America.2) Potential civil war in Mexico between Mexican government and drug cartels.