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Chapter 31-Southeast Asia

Geography Matters...

Southeast Asia is one of the most diverse regions on Earth. All the world's religions, political systems, and economic systems can be found here—and so can hundreds of ethnic groups speaking hundreds of different languages. The physical geography is just as diverse, with towering volcanoes, broad river deltas, and a wide variety of tropical biomes and climates. The region includes a mainland area and two large island archipelagos.

LESSON 1- Physical Geography of Southeast Asia

ESSENTIAL QUESTION How do physical systems and human systems shape a place?

IT MATTERS BECAUSE

Few regions have such diverse physical features as Southeast Asia. The Pacific Ocean dominates this subregion where the combined landmass of island countries is greater than the combined landmass of countries on the mainland. Southeast Asia’s physical geography also shows the effects of the Pacific Ring of Fire. Most Southeast Asian countries are mountainous, and many have volcanoes and are prone to earthquakes.

Landforms  

GUIDING QUESTION What are the major physical characteristics of Southeast Asia?  

The 11 countries of Southeast Asia can be divided into two areas: the countries of the mainland in the west, and island archipelagoes in the east. Cambodia, Vietnam, Thailand, Myanmar (Burma), Laos, and the citystate of Singapore make up most of the subregion’s mainland. Malaysia is partly on the Malay Peninsula and partly on the island of Borneo. In the east, Indonesia, East Timor, Brunei, and the Philippines form island countries that stretch across the western half of the Pacific Ocean.

It is important to realize how large Southeast Asia’s island countries are. Their landmass is actually larger than that of the subregion’s mainland countries. Indonesia consists of more than 13,000 islands that span a distance of 1,000 miles (1,609 km) from north to south and 3,000 miles (4,828 km) from west to east—an area wider than the continental United States. The Philippines is a close second to Indonesia, with more than 7,000 islands and an area close in size to the state of Arizona. Countries on the mainland are also large. Myanmar is larger than the country of France, while Laos is almost as large as the entire United Kingdom.

Southeast Asia also includes some of the world’s tiniest countries. On the Malay Peninsula, the tiny city-state of Singapore, at 433 square miles (697 sq. km), is approximately a third of the size of Rhode Island. Brunei, which borders Malaysia on the island of Borneo, is a little smaller than Delaware.

Southeast Asia’s position along the Pacific Ocean places it within the Ring of Fire, a belt of volcanoes and tectonic plate boundaries that surrounds the Pacific. About 75 percent of the

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world’s volcanoes are located along the Ring of Fire. Most of the world’s strongest earthquakes also occur here because of the moving and colliding of Earth’s tectonic plates. As tectonic plates move, they produce earthquakes and volcanoes. In much of Southeast Asia, earthquakes and volcanic eruptions are common. Volcanic eruptions are more typical in the subregion’s island countries. One exception, however, is the large island of Borneo. Borneo is often called a mini-continent because it is so stable. This stability makes Borneo’s physical geography an exception to the pattern of the rest of the subregion. Although it has mountains, Borneo has no volcanoes and rarely experiences earthquakes.

The rest of Indonesia, in contrast, has the largest concentration of active volcanoes in the world. In 2010 Mount Merapi erupted, sending hot gases high into the air and dropping hot ash and debris on nearby villages. As Merapi’s explosions grew more violent, Indonesia’s government evacuated nearby villages and cut off access to them. It was two weeks before villagers were able to return.

Eruptions in Indonesia have changed world history. In 1815 Mount Tambora sent so much ash into the sky that the year was dubbed “the year without a summer” because ash blocked so much solar energy. Crops failed and millions went hungry in places as far away as the United States, Europe, and northern Africa. In 1883 Krakatau exploded, killing some 36,000 people. Indonesia’s most destructive volcanic eruption is thought to have occurred about 73,000 years ago, when Mount Toba exploded. That eruption changed weather patterns worldwide for the next 20 years.

Some of Southeast Asia’s earthquakes occur under water. When this happens, they can produce tsunamis, dangerous huge waves that can flood inland areas with little warning. This is what happened in 2004, when an underwater earthquake in Indonesia triggered a devastating tsunami in the Indian Ocean. The tsunami generated a series of waves, killing more than 300,000 people.

The same tectonic forces that produce volcanoes also produced the mountains for which this subregion is famous. Not all Southeast Asian countries are as vulnerable to volcanic eruptions as Indonesia. All, however, are known for their mountains and hills. These mountains have folded together into a fanlike shape as the Indian subcontinental plate has collided with the Eurasian plate over the past 50 million years. Mountain ranges on the mainland run from north to south and form a natural backbone for most mainland countries in this region. Mountains also form natural borders. For example, the border between Thailand and Myanmar is marked by a mountain range. So is Thailand’s border with China. Another major mountain range divides Laos and Vietnam. The island archipelagoes and the Malay Peninsula are also mountainous. Many elevations in the region exceed 10,000 feet (3,000 m).

READING PROGRESS CHECK

Explaining How does the Ring of Fire affect the landforms of Southeast Asia?

Water Systems 

GUIDING QUESTION What are the major waterways of Southeast Asia?  

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In much of Southeast Asia, everyday life revolves around water. Rivers provide water for crops and serve as navigable arteries for trade. Much of the subregion’s population lives along the rivers. This is especially the case on the mainland, where the population has become concentrated in certain areas. The Pacific Ocean is also ideal for transportation, which has made it the basis of international trade networks and much of the subregion’s tourism. Southeast Asia’s waterways have made it one of the most accessible regions in the world. This accessibility has shaped the region’s economy and its politics. Not surprisingly, waterways have historically been important to Southeast Asian cultures as well.

Southeast Asia’s most dominant waterway, the Pacific Ocean, holds the archipelagoes of the eastern half of the region. But Southeast Asia’s mainland countries also depend on the ocean for trade, fishing, and tourism. Rivers on the islands are mostly short, steep, and fast-flowing. The vast majority of Southeast Asia’s population is concentrated on the islands of Indonesia and the Philippines.

The mainland has five major rivers: the Mekong (sometimes called the Danube of Southeast Asia), the Red River, the Irrawaddy, the Salween, and the Chao Phraya. Three of these rivers—the Irrawaddy, the Salween, and the Mekong—originate in the mountains of Tibet in China. Southeast Asia’s river systems differentiate the farming economies of the lowland valley and delta areas from the hill and mountain communities that separate the river valleys.

The Mekong River is the longest river in Southeast Asia and the seventh longest in Asia. It flows south for some 2,600 miles (4,200 km) across the mainland to the South China Sea. As it progresses, the Mekong passes through or along the borders of five Southeast Asian countries: Myanmar, Laos, Thailand, Cambodia, and Vietnam. It forms Laos’s border with Myanmar and part of its border with Thailand. Access to the Mekong and its tributaries is the basis of several international disputes. The countries most affected by the Mekong—Laos, Thailand, Cambodia, and Vietnam—have formed a committee to study water projects involving the river.

By contrast, the mainland’s other four major rivers are shorter and each is mostly (though not entirely) contained within a single country. The Irrawaddy and the Salween form part of the drainage system for Myanmar’s western mountains. The Chao Phraya is the shortest of the four rivers and drains Thailand’s western mountains. Thailand’s capital, Bangkok, is located on the Chao Phraya’s delta. The Red River, though it has a smaller drainage area than the other rivers, provides Vietnam with a second river delta (in addition to that of the Mekong). Both of these deltas provide rich soil for farming.

READING PROGRESS CHECK

Explaining How do the major waterways of Southeast Asia affect population distribution?

Climates, Biomes, and Resources 

GUIDING QUESTION How does climate affect human activities in Southeast Asia? 

Southeast Asia’s climate is tropical and subtropical. Its seasonal changes are based more on rainfall than on temperature. Most of Southeast Asia, like many tropical oceanic regions, divides the year into just two seasons: the dry season and the rainy monsoon season. These seasons are created by the changing wind patterns over the Indian and Pacific Oceans. For most of the mainland, the rainy season is from May to September when the monsoon winds blow from the Indian Ocean. Between November and March, the winds blow in a reverse direction and make

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the season drier. Some parts of Malaysia, Indonesia, and the Philippines have a rainy season that lasts all year, however. They are surrounded by the Pacific and Indian Oceans so that the winds bring rains no matter which way they are blowing. During the rainy season, rainfall is quite heavy. Most of Southeast Asia gets more than 60 inches (150 cm) of rain each year. Some areas get two or three times that amount. For example, Ranong, on the coast of Thailand, receives some 160 inches (400 cm) of rain each year.

During the rainy season, some weather systems become severe tropical storms. These storms are called cyclones in the Indian Ocean and typhoons in the western Pacific Ocean. They are the same kind of storm as Atlantic hurricanes. In late 2013, Typhoon Haiyan struck in what meteorologists refer to as the “typhoon belt” of the Philippines. Haiyan was among the strongest storms ever recorded. Besides devastating winds, it produced torrential rains that caused flash floods which destroyed villages. Thousands died and many more were left homeless.

Climate Regions and Biomes 

Overall, the average annual temperature in most Southeast Asian countries is around 80°F (27°C). But temperatures in Southeast Asia, like temperatures around the world, tend to vary by elevation. Mountainous regions are differentiated from river lowland deltas not only by their different landforms, but also by their cooler temperatures. Air temperatures typically drop by about 0.9°F (0.5°C) for every 328 feet (100 m) climbed.

Some tourists to Southeast Asia head for the cooler highlands. Other tourists go to the coastal areas to experience the beaches and coral reefs. They find that the heat of these areas is somewhat mitigated by the sea breezes.

Southeast Asia’s warm, wet tropical climate is conducive to plant growth. Plants thrive even in areas where the soil is poor. Some soils are poor, but areas where volcanoes have enriched the soil with minerals have richer soils. In mainland areas that have a dry season, the vegetation is tropical-deciduous, or monsoon, forest. In areas that are wet and rainy all the time, the vegetation is tropical rain forest. In the monsoon forests, trees shed their leaves during the dry season and grow new ones during the rainy season.

Southeast Asia is one of the few regions in the world in which equatorial rain forests can still be found. These tropical rain forests get more than 70 to 100 inches (180 to 250 cm) of rainfall every year. Rain forests around the world are known for their exceptional biodiversity. Southeast Asia’s rain forests are especially biodiverse. Scientists think that as much as 10 percent of Earth’s plant and animal species can be found in Southeast Asia’s rain forests, which are mainly found in Myanmar, Thailand, Malaysia, Indonesia’s island of Sumatra, the Indonesian half of New Guinea, and the Philippines. The island of Borneo (which is part of Malaysia, Indonesia, and Brunei) is also covered with rain forest.

Natural Resources 

Southeast Asia’s river deltas, its areas of volcanic soil, and its warm, wet climate are good for farming. Agriculture is an important part of the economy for most countries in the subregion, although living near volcanoes also means living at risk of an eruption or an earthquake—and the risk of a tsunami if near the coast. Nevertheless, farming remains a critical part of Southeast Asia’s economy.

Southeast Asia is also rich in minerals, including offshore oil. Indonesia, Malaysia, Brunei, and

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East Timor are some of the subregion’s largest producers of oil and natural gas. Cambodia also has recently discovered offshore oil deposits, and Myanmar has a developing natural gas industry. Copper, gold, iron, and gems are also mined in various parts of Southeast Asia, particularly in Cambodia and Laos. In addition, Cambodia has deposits of bauxite, a mineral that is used in the manufacture of aluminum.

READING PROGRESS CHECK

Evaluating How does Southeast Asia’s elevation affect its climate?

LESSON 2-Human Geography of Southeast Asia

ESSENTIAL QUESTION How do physical systems and human systems shape a place?

IT MATTERS BECAUSE

Southeast Asia’s waterways, a natural transportation network, have brought waves of immigrants. The subregion’s dominant religions—Islam, Buddhism, and Christianity—were brought by immigrants from other parts of the world. Some of these waves of immigration are the result of Southeast Asia’s position as a buffer zone between more powerful states. In addition, all of the countries of Southeast Asia, except Thailand, experienced European colonization.  

History and Government  

GUIDING QUESTION How have conflicts between powerful neighbors affected the history of Southeast Asia? 

The mainland countries of Southeast Asia are positioned near two countries that have been historical centers of power: India and China. This position alone made the region a shatter belt, as larger and more powerful countries invaded. When Europe began to colonize the area, Southeast Asia was caught between powerful European powers as well. A shatter belt, though, can also serve as a buffer zone, a neutral area separating powerful nations from each other, and thereby reduce conflict.

Early Cultures and European Conquest 

At the time of European contact in the 1500s, Southeast Asia was a patchwork of small kingdoms, principalities, and sultanates. The Dutch colonized Indonesia. Portugal colonized part of eastern Timor. The British, expanding from their empire in India, colonized Burma (now Myanmar), Malaysia, and several islands in the South China Sea. The French colonized what was once known as French Indochina and divided it into regions based on the boundaries of the cultural groups already living there. Today these regions are the countries of Vietnam, Cambodia, and Laos. Spain colonized the Philippines, which became a territory of the United States after the Spanish-American War in 1898. In some cases, European powers united hundreds of ethnic groups into one country. The British united Malaysia’s nine sultanates with the indigenous groups of northern Borneo. The Dutch colonized indigenous people on hundreds of islands who spoke different languages. The colony became Indonesia. Thailand remained an

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independent country called Siam because it served as a buffer zone between the British and the French colonies.

Independence and Movements for Change 

The era of European colonialism did not last. The first independence movement began in the Philippines. Following the Spanish-American War, the Filipino revolutionaries targeted the U.S. military. In World War II the Philippines were invaded by Japan. World War II ended in 1945, and the Philippines became independent in 1946. The last U.S. military base in the Philippines was closed in 1992 following the eruption of the Mount Pinatubo volcano.

The end of World War II started the independence movement in Southeast Asia. Britain’s colonies in the region gained independence: Myanmar in 1948; Malaysia and Singapore in the 1960s. Indonesia declared independence in 1946. French Indochina had a strong colonial administration that resisted independence movements. After 1946 the colonies of France became flash points for struggles between groups supporting either democratic or communist leaders.

Independence from colonial powers did not always lead to peace. Cambodia became independent in 1953. In the 1970s it fell to the Khmer Rouge, a brutal regime that murdered at least 1.5 million Cambodians. In Vietnam, France fought to keep control until it was finally defeated at Dien Bien Phu in 1954. Vietnam was divided between communist forces in the north and a U.S.-supported government in the south. U.S. support for the democratic Republic of Vietnam ended in 1975. In 1976 North and South Vietnam were unified under a communist government.

Cambodia and Vietnam were not the only countries in the region to have internal conflicts. Thailand had a military coup in 2006, followed by mass protests in the streets from 2008 to 2010. When Thailand held elections in 2011, the new government began reforming the Thai constitution to be more democratic. The country also struggles with an armed separatist revolt in its southern provinces, where the population is ethnically Malay rather than Thai. In Burma, a military coup overthrew the government in 1988 and renamed the country Myanmar. A military junta has ruled ever since, although democratic elections were held in 1990. After the election, the junta put the leader of the winning opposition party, Aung San Suu Kyi, under house arrest. In 2007 the junta killed 13 people and arrested thousands more who participated in protests led by prodemocracy activists and Buddhist monks. Elections were held in 2010, and Myanmar is now slowly reforming its government.

Several Southeast Asian countries such as Indonesia and the Philippines have guerrilla independence movements. The Philippines has struggled to achieve a peace accord with an ethnic group called the Moro in the south and is threatened by Maoist guerrillas throughout the entire country. Indonesia made peace with its separatists in 2005, though it still faces an independence movement in Papua. East Timor is an example of a local independence movement that succeeded. East Timor was invaded by Indonesia after declaring independence from Portugal in 1975. Over the next 24 years, hundreds of thousands of East Timorese died fighting for independence. In 1999 a majority of East Timorese voted for independence in an election supervised by the United Nations (UN). The Indonesian military violently retaliated, however. Later that year, Australian-led UN peacekeeping troops stopped the bloodshed. In 2002 East Timor became independent. East Timor continued to struggle with a rebel group for several more years, but most rebels surrendered in 2008 after unsuccessfully trying to attack East

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Timor’s president and prime minister.

Today, Southeast Asia’s political map is diverse. The subregion includes communist governments, emerging democracies, and recent military dictatorships. There is also a sultanate (Brunei) and a city-state (Singapore).

READING PROGRESS CHECK

Explaining How did European colonialism affect the countries of Southeast Asia?

Population Patterns 

GUIDING QUESTION How has Southeast Asia’s physical geography influenced its population patterns? 

Southeast Asia’s mainland countries are not densely populated. The soil on the volcanic islands tends to be more productive than soil in the region’s mainland. River valleys and flood plains of major rivers, such as the Mekong, are the exception with rich alluvial soil. Islands and river plains are where the population density is greatest. Southeast Asia’s largest population center is located on Java, an island in Indonesia. Almost 150 million people live on this one island in this country that is entirely made up of islands. More than half of all Indonesians live on Java, and more than half of the people on Java work as farmers.

Despite Indonesia’s agrarian economy, it is the fourth most populous country in the world. After Indonesia, the next most populous country in Southeast Asia is the Philippines. Southeast Asia is becoming more urban as it industrializes. Each country has at least one large city: Kuala Lumpur in Malaysia; Bangkok in Thailand; Manila in the Philippines; Yangon (Rangoon) in Myanmar; Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh City in Vietnam; and the city-state of Singapore. All of these cities have become a thriving part of the global economy.

READING PROGRESS CHECKExplaining What parts of Southeast Asia have the highest population density?

Society and Culture Today 

GUIDING QUESTION Why is Southeast Asia one of the world’s most culturally diverse areas? 

Southeast Asia encompasses hundreds of different ethnic groups. Most ethnic groups have their own language. The greatest ethnic diversity is found in the island countries. For example, Indonesia’s ethnic groups include Javanese, Madurese, Sundanese, and Balinese. In addition, while Malays predominate in Malaysia, they have also emigrated to nearby areas. As a result, there are enclaves of Malay minorities throughout Indonesia, and Indonesia’s official language is a modified form of Malay.

The borders of Southeast Asia’s mainland countries match the locations of each country’s majority ethnic group. In Myanmar, which is also called Burma, Burmans form the majority. The Thai dominate Thailand. Cambodia’s population is mostly Khmer, and Vietnam’s population is primarily Vietnamese. Each of these countries has other, smaller ethnic groups that live in the mountains. In addition to indigenous ethnic groups, Southeast Asian countries are home to minority ethnic groups that originally emigrated from other countries. For example, Malaysia and Singapore have large Indian communities. However, the largest minority ethnic group in the

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region is Chinese. About 32 million Chinese live in Southeast Asia, primarily in urban areas. Nearly one-fourth of Malaysia’s population is Chinese. The population of Singapore is about 77 percent Chinese.

Southeast Asia’s religions reflect the waves of immigration that have reached this subregion. The most common religion in Southeast Asia is Islam. Muslim traders who traveled to the region in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries introduced the religion to Southeast Asia. Islam is the dominant religion in Southeast Asia’s largest country, Indonesia. About 90 percent of Indonesian people are Muslim. So are most Malaysians. Malaysia’s South Asian minority, though, tend to be Hindu, while Chinese Malaysians are mostly Buddhist. Buddhism predominates in the following mainland countries as well: Myanmar, Thailand, and Cambodia. Vietnam historically served as a religious crossroads for Buddhism, Catholicism, Daoism, Confucianism, and ancestor worship. In the last census, however, more than 80 percent of the people of Vietnam, a communist country, claimed no religion. In the Philippines, where Spanish missionaries accompanied colonists, most people are Catholic.

Family and the Status of Women 

Women in Southeast Asia have traditionally been responsible for raising families but are also a major part of the workforce. This produces a double burden for women who must both work outside the home and still keep up with the daily household responsibilities. In rural areas, women often work as farmers. In cities, women frequently work in factories, especially in industries such as textiles, food processing, and electronics.

Increasingly, Southeast Asian women are rising to positions of leadership as activists for change. In Myanmar, activist Aung San Suu Kyi leads a democratic opposition party that often wins national elections. But Aung San Suu Kyi has not become president of Myanmar. Instead, she has spent much of her life under house arrest because of her outspoken opposition to the military government. She was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1991 for her work to bring democracy to Myanmar. After the government liberalized policies, she was elected to the lower house of the Myanmar parliament in 2012.

In 1991 a young Indonesian woman and law student, Dita Sari, began leading factory workers to strike for higher wages and better working conditions. She was jailed and beaten, but was later released as Indonesia became more democratic. Today Sari is still a union leader, but instead of leading strikes, she lobbies Indonesia’s parliament for labor law reforms.

The Arts 

The arts in Southeast Asia have been heavily influenced by religion, which can be seen through the architectural style of Buddhist and Hindu temples and monuments. Chinese and Indian styles are prevalent in Southeast Asian ceramics and bronze, as well as architecture. Elaborate Chinese-style pagodas and Indianstyle wats, or temples, dot the landscape. Traditional crafts such as weaving and other textile techniques such as batik are still practiced.

READING PROGRESS CHECKIdentifying What are the dominant religions of Southeast Asia?

Economic Activities 

GUIDING QUESTION How have Southeast Asia’s location and natural resources

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contributed to its economic development? 

Southeast Asia is as diverse economically as it is politically. It holds one of the world’s most prosperous cities, Singapore, and a wealthy sultanate, Brunei. The subregion also includes some countries that are among the world’s poorest, such as Myanmar. During the 1980s, the industrializing countries of Southeast Asia enjoyed an economic boom. This boom was based on advantages of location, natural resources, inexpensive labor, and increased foreign investment. Some countries that did not have strong economies in the past—such as Indonesia, Malaysia, and Vietnam—are now considered to be emerging markets, ripe for foreign investment.

Today agriculture remains Southeast Asia’s leading economic activity. Most people in the subregion make their living as farmers. More than half of the subregion’s arable land is used to grow rice. Thailand and Vietnam are among the world’s top exporters of rice. Indonesia and Myanmar are also two of the region’s major rice producers. Farmers in Southeast Asia also grow cassava, yams, corn, bananas, sugarcane, coffee, coconuts, and spices. Thailand, Indonesia, and Malaysia—the world’s “rubber belt”—have many rubber plantations. Palm oil, a product of oil palm trees, is an important cash crop in Malaysia and Indonesia. Forestry and logging have also become important in Malaysia, the Philippines, Indonesia, and Thailand. Forests include teak and ebony trees, which are very valuable. The high value results in illegal logging and export to other countries. Along the coasts and rivers, many people make a living by fishing.

Resources, Power, and Industry 

Southeast Asia is rich in mineral resources. Thailand, Malaysia, and Indonesia are three of the world’s leading producers of tin. Iron ore is mined in Malaysia and the Philippines. Brunei, Malaysia, and Indonesia also produce oil. Indonesia once exported much of its oil. Now that it is industrializing, however, it has begun to import more oil than it exports. Malaysia uses some of its resources for industries such as manufacturing electronics, cement, chemicals, and processed foods. Indonesia’s industries focus on textile and garment manufacturing.

Economic Integration 

Southeast Asia has long been the crossroads of major ocean trade routes. Today, most shipping between Europe and East Asia passes through the Strait of Malacca, near Singapore. The city-state of Singapore was originally founded as a British trading colony. Not only does Singapore have a strategic location at the crossing of trade routes, but it has a large, deep natural harbor. Historically, this harbor was used by British warships to displace the economic dominance of the Dutch in the region. Today, its location enables Singapore to prosper as a free port, a place where goods can be unloaded, stored, and reshipped free of import duties. Its port is the largest container port in the world. These large metal containers may be stacked on ships for crossing oceans, and then carried by rail or truck after they reach ports. Singapore has also attracted foreign investors, especially in technology, consumer electronics, and pharmaceuticals. Singapore’s efforts to build its economy have paid off. Its population has the highest standard of living in the subregion, and its per-capita income levels are comparable to those of the United States and Switzerland.

In contrast, the countries of Indonesia and the Philippines have much larger populations, but less than one-tenth of Singapore’s per-capita income. Singapore is both a city and a country, which makes it a city-state. Of all the countries in the subregion, Singapore has the most dynamic economy. Because it is small, Singapore also tries to promote peaceful interdependence and

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international cooperation in the region. Other regional ports include Haiphong in Vietnam, Bangkok in Thailand, Jakarta in Indonesia, and Manila in the Philippines.

In 2010 several Southeast Asian countries signed a free trade agreement with China. They hope to cooperate to improve trade networks. Now work is underway to build railroads from the city of Kunming in China’s Yunnan Province into Laos. From there, railroads will extend into Cambodia, Vietnam, Thailand, Malaysia, and Singapore. From Singapore goods can be shipped to world markets by sea.

In recent decades, Southeast Asian countries have become more interdependent. Based in the Philippines, the Asian Development Bank (ADB) was founded in 1966 to promote regional economic development. The Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) was formed in 1967 to promote regional stability.

The ADB provides international loans to aid the economies of Asian member countries. ADB’s loans support agricultural, transportation, and industrial development projects. For example, in Indonesia, ADB funds are being used to improve infrastructure such as transportation networks. ADB is also currently working to develop financing and loans that are compliant with Islamic law. ADB is attempting to be more culturally sensitive to countries that have a high percentage of Muslims, such as Indonesia and Malaysia.

Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore, and Thailand are ASEAN’s founding members. ASEAN’s mission is to promote regional economic growth. Brunei joined in 1984. In 1992 ASEAN’s member nations agreed to form the ASEAN Free Trade Area (AFTA). This meant that ASEAN members agreed to cooperate economically by opening trade between member countries and by reducing tariffs on nonagricultural products. By the late 1990s, Vietnam, Cambodia, Laos, and Myanmar had all become members. Growth is increasing in these countries, but it is slowing in Indonesia because of political instability. In 2004 ASEAN’s members signed a trade agreement with China. Now ASEAN’s members hope to develop a regional trading market by 2015 that could operate as one interdependent unit, much like the European Union.

READING PROGRESS CHECKDrawing Conclusions How has Southeast Asia’s location along trade routes affected the histories and economies of countries in the subregion?

LESSON 3-People and Their Environment: Southeast Asia

ESSENTIAL QUESTION How do physical systems and human systems shape a place?

IT MATTERS BECAUSESoutheast Asia contains some of the most biodiverse areas on Earth. The subregion’s equatorial rain forests provide a habitat for hundreds of unique plant and animal species, some of which have never been documented or studied by scientists. Many of the rare plant and animal species of Southeast Asia’s rain forests are now facing extinction. In addition, the people of Southeast Asia depend on their environment for clean air to breathe and clean water to drink.  

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Managing Resources  

GUIDING QUESTION How has the management of natural resources impacted the environment in Southeast Asia? 

Minerals, metals, and rain forest timber are among the natural resources most valued by the countries of Southeast Asia. They provide important sources of income. However, mining and harvesting these resources also involve shifting some parts of Southeast Asia from a rural economy to an urban one. These changes cause deforestation and pollution. This environmental damage threatens current and future generations. Southeast Asia still has some of the world’s last remaining rain forests. However, large sections of the rain forests are being cut down. Countries such as Laos, Thailand, Malaysia, and Myanmar rely on teak and other timber as sources of income. Economies have benefited, but the widespread cutting of trees has diminished the region’s forests. Scientists predict that many unique environments will be lost to deforestation, the cutting down or clearing of trees, within a few years. This threatens plant and animal species that do not exist anywhere else on Earth. On the Indonesian islands of Sumatra and Borneo, logging has already destroyed much of the forests bordering national parks.

Agricultural activities pose another threat to Southeast Asia’s forests. In some countries, forests are cleared to make room for rubber and palm tree plantations. Together, Malaysia and Indonesia produce 85 percent of the world’s palm oil. Palm oil is a product that is used as a lubricant by industries. It is also an additive in more than half of foods sold in grocery stores. According to the United Nations, however, palm oil plantations now form the single largest threat to rain forests in these two countries. Southeast Asian palm oil plantations cover an area equivalent to the size of the country of Austria. Every day, about 30 square miles (48 sq. km) of rain forest are cleared from Indonesia’s Sumatra, an island the size of Spain, and from Borneo, an island the size of Turkey that is shared by Malaysia, Indonesia, and Brunei.

The loss of forested lands is putting many unique plant and animal species in danger. Sumatra’s rain forest is estimated to have 465 bird species, 194 mammal species, 217 reptile species, and 272 species of freshwater fish. It also is home to more than 10,000 plant species. Borneo is believed to have 420 bird species, 210 mammal species, 254 reptile species, and 368 freshwater fish species. Some 15,000 species of plants grow in Borneo’s forests. Many unique animal species are in danger of becoming extinct. This may be avoided if governments intervene to protect at least some sections of the rain forests. Endangered species include orangutans, pygmy elephants, Sumatran rhinoceroses, and Sumatran tigers. Of all these animals, biologists may be most concerned about the orangutan. Orangutans are intelligent apes. They can make tools and use them to build things like rain hats and leakproof nest roofs. Orangutans are also said to be able to distinguish between more than 1,000 different plants.

In some Southeast Asian countries, such as Laos, threats to forests come not only from big plantations, but also from small subsistence farmers who practice shifting cultivation. These farmers clear forests in order to plant fields. After cultivating the land for a few years, they then abandon it to move to a new spot. Farmers practice shifting cultivation deliberately. It allows the land time to become fertile again after a period of intensive farming. Farmers do not always realize that rain forest soil is frequently lacking in nutrients. Soil in these areas has often been depleted by the already lush growth in the rain forest.

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Deforestation also leads to other environmental problems. Without the trees’ root systems, topsoil is easily eroded by heavy rains and washed into streams. The soil clogs rivers and reduces the amount of water available for irrigation. Deforestation can also cause flooding. Without forests to absorb downpours, flash floods occur.

READING PROGRESS CHECKExplaining What economic activities are increasing the rate of deforestation in Southeast Asia?

Human Impact 

GUIDING QUESTION Why do urban growth and industrialization create environmental problems in Southeast Asia? 

Industrialization and economic development in Southeast Asia have resulted in the pollution and the destruction of natural environments. Southeast Asians—like people everywhere—affect their environment. Increased manufacturing and industrialization create jobs and raise standards of living. They also produce industrial waste, however. Growing populations and crowded conditions in cities such as Bangkok, Manila, and Jakarta raise concerns about adequate housing, water supplies, sanitation, and traffic control. Bangkok, for example, has become overheated as a result of increased industrial development. In recent years, Bangkok’s heat, humidity, and pollution levels have increased at levels higher than the global average. Its levels are also higher than the surrounding rural areas, making it what is known as an urban heat island.

Urbanization and industrialization also put a strain on shared local resources. Such resources include rivers and water supplies. When different communities share a river, the communities upstream have an advantage because the water flows there first. Currently, Southeast Asian communities face a dispute over how to best manage the shared Mekong River. The Mekong originates in China, and the Chinese are building a series of hydroelectric dams across it. Downstream farmers worry, however, about what will happen if the water level in the Mekong drops. Cambodians are concerned about the Tonle Sap lake, which gets its water from the Mekong. Vietnamese farmers fear that Mekong Delta rice paddies could be invaded by salt water from the sea if the Mekong’s water levels drop.

The dumping of toxic waste from newly developed industries has become a widespread problem. In some cases, pollution extends into rural areas. This includes the subregion’s national parks. In one of Thailand’s national parks, for example, most of the freshwater wells have been contaminated by poor waste disposal. Water pollution is also severe in Thailand’s coastal areas. Activities related to agriculture, as well as offshore oil and natural gas exploration, have resulted in the loss of over half of Thailand’s mangrove forests.

One industry that produces substantial water pollution is mining. At Indonesia’s largest gold mine, waste is dumped into the Ajkwa River that flows through part of Papua province, contaminating the surrounding water systems. Even the fishing industry causes some water pollution. Southeast Asian fishers use poisons and explosives to capture certain kinds of fish to supply Asian restaurants and the world’s aquarium industry. Many of these fish come from the coral reefs. Like rain forests, coral reefs are a rich source of biodiversity. Also like rain forests, the reefs are being threatened by economic development. The live reef-fish trade generates huge profits, but current fishing methods are destroying the reefs. Once the reefs are gone, local

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communities will lose a primary source of food.

Deforestation has become a source of air pollution. Land is often cleared by fire, especially in Indonesia, where rain forests are being cleared to make room for palm oil plantations. Forest fires cause air pollution in rural areas, and this pollution often makes its way to cities as well. Since the late 1990s, Indonesian forest fires have created pollution and respiratory problems for people as far away as mainland Malaysia and Singapore. The Malaysian government has been forced on occasion to declare a state of emergency. Singapore’s government often advises residents who have heart or respiratory conditions to avoid going outside.

READING PROGRESS CHECKIdentifying What environmental challenges are the results of human economic activities in Southeast Asia?

Addressing the Issues 

GUIDING QUESTION How are people and governments addressing environmental issues in Southeast Asia? 

Many Southeast Asian countries are shifting their economic policies to focus on sustainable development. This strategy means encouraging technological and economic growth that relies on renewable resources. For example, to prevent further loss of rain forests, Thailand, Indonesia, the Philippines, and Malaysia have limited certain timber exports. They have also introduced reforestation programs. In Laos, the government has encouraged some highland farmers to resettle on more fertile ground and marked some of its forests as protected areas.

Southeast Asian governments are also starting to develop ideas to reduce the impact of urban growth on the surrounding environment. Scientists are trying to come up with solutions to urban heat islands. One proposal is to create “green zones,” areas within a city that are granted special environmental protection. Another idea is to ban the construction of tall buildings near the sea so that winds would be able to blow farther into the city and disperse more air pollution.

Southeast Asia’s environmental issues have attracted widespread interest. The Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) has tried to address some of these issues. In 2002 ASEAN countries formed an agreement on Transboundary Haze Pollution. Indonesia refused to ratify it. However, countries around the world are still pressuring Indonesia to conserve its rain forests. In 2012 Indonesia announced a two-year ban on forest clearing.

READING PROGRESS CHECKIdentifying How are Southeast Asian governments working to limit deforestation?

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