Week 3b. Merge, feature Week 3b. Merge, feature checkingchecking

3.6-4.23.6-4.2

CAS LX 522CAS LX 522Syntax ISyntax I

C-selectionC-selection Verbs are recorded in the lexicon with the Verbs are recorded in the lexicon with the --

roles they assign as part of their meaning.roles they assign as part of their meaning. But, verbs are more selective than that.But, verbs are more selective than that.

Pat felt a tremor. Pat felt uncomfortable. Pat felt Pat felt a tremor. Pat felt uncomfortable. Pat felt that Chris had not performed well.that Chris had not performed well.

PatPat is the Experiencer; is the Experiencer; a tremora tremor (noun), (noun), uncomfortableuncomfortable (adjective), or (adjective), or that…wellthat…well (sentence) is the Theme/Source. So (sentence) is the Theme/Source. So -role does -role does not determine syntactic category. And syntactic not determine syntactic category. And syntactic category certainly does not determine category certainly does not determine -role.-role.

So verbs also need to be recorded with So verbs also need to be recorded with information about the syntactic categor(y/ies) information about the syntactic categor(y/ies) they combine with.they combine with.

C-selection C-selection (“Subcategorization”)(“Subcategorization”)

KickKick needs a nominal object.needs a nominal object. Pat kicked the pail.Pat kicked the pail.

KickKick has a [V] category feature, but also needs has a [V] category feature, but also needs to have some form of [N] category feature to have some form of [N] category feature indicating that it needs a nominal object.indicating that it needs a nominal object.

We don’t want to risk interpreting We don’t want to risk interpreting kickkick as a as a noun, though. So, the [V] and [N] features noun, though. So, the [V] and [N] features must have a different status.must have a different status.

On On kickkick, the [V] feature is , the [V] feature is interpretableinterpretable— the — the [N] feature is just for use in assembling the [N] feature is just for use in assembling the structure, it is not interpreted—hence structure, it is not interpreted—hence uninterpretableuninterpretable..

C-selectionC-selection Not all transitive verbs (that take just Not all transitive verbs (that take just

one object) can take the same kind of one object) can take the same kind of object.object. Sue knows [Sue knows [DPDP the answer ] the answer ] Sue knows [Sue knows [CPCP that Bill left early ] that Bill left early ] Sue hit [Sue hit [DPDP the ball ] the ball ] *Sue hit [*Sue hit [CPCP that Bill left early] that Bill left early]

So So knowknow can take either a DP or a CP as can take either a DP or a CP as its object argument; its object argument; hithit can only take a can only take a DP as its object argument.DP as its object argument.

S-selectionS-selection Verbs also exert semantic control of the kinds Verbs also exert semantic control of the kinds

of arguments they allow.of arguments they allow.

For example, many verbs can only have a For example, many verbs can only have a volitional (agentive) subject:volitional (agentive) subject: Bill likes pizza. Bill kicked the stone.Bill likes pizza. Bill kicked the stone. #Pizza likes anchovies. #The stone kicked Bill.#Pizza likes anchovies. #The stone kicked Bill.

We’ll assume that this is not encoded in the We’ll assume that this is not encoded in the syntactic features, but if you mess up with syntactic features, but if you mess up with respect to s-selection, the interpretation is respect to s-selection, the interpretation is anomalous.anomalous.

Feature checkingFeature checking To model this, we will say that To model this, we will say that if a syntactic if a syntactic

object has an uninterpretable feature, it object has an uninterpretable feature, it must Merge with a syntactic object that has a must Merge with a syntactic object that has a matching featurematching feature— and once it’s done, the — and once it’s done, the requirement is met. The feature is requirement is met. The feature is checkedchecked..

Specifically:Specifically: Full Interpretation:Full Interpretation: The structure to which the The structure to which the

semantic interface rules apply contains no semantic interface rules apply contains no uninterpretable features.uninterpretable features.

Checking Requirement:Checking Requirement: Uninterpretable features must Uninterpretable features must be checked (and once checked, they are deleted)be checked (and once checked, they are deleted)

Checking (under sisterhood):Checking (under sisterhood): An uninterpretable An uninterpretable feature F on a syntactic object Y is checked when Y is feature F on a syntactic object Y is checked when Y is sister to another syntactic object Z which bears a sister to another syntactic object Z which bears a matching feature F.matching feature F.

Feature checkingFeature checking To distinguish interpretable To distinguish interpretable

features from features from uninterpretable features, we uninterpretable features, we will write uninterpretable will write uninterpretable features with a features with a uu in front of in front of them.them.

D has uninterpretable D has uninterpretable feature Ffeature F

E has interpretable feature E has interpretable feature F.F.

If we Merge them, the If we Merge them, the uninterpretable feature can uninterpretable feature can be checked (under be checked (under sisterhood).sisterhood).

D[uF]

E[F]

Feature checkingFeature checking To distinguish interpretable To distinguish interpretable

features from features from uninterpretable features, we uninterpretable features, we will write uninterpretable will write uninterpretable features with a features with a uu in front of in front of them.them.

D has uninterpretable D has uninterpretable feature Ffeature F

E has interpretable feature E has interpretable feature F.F.

If we Merge them, the If we Merge them, the uninterpretable feature can uninterpretable feature can be checked (under be checked (under sisterhood).sisterhood).

C

D[uF]

E[F]

Feature checkingFeature checking Or, for a more concrete Or, for a more concrete

exampleexample

kickkick is a verb (has an is a verb (has an interpretable V feature) and interpretable V feature) and c-selects a noun (has an c-selects a noun (has an uninterpretable N feature).uninterpretable N feature).

me me is a noun (a pronoun in is a noun (a pronoun in fact, has an interpretable N fact, has an interpretable N feature, and others like feature, and others like accusative case, first accusative case, first person, singular)person, singular)

kick[uN, V]

me[N, acc, 1, sg]

Feature checkingFeature checking Or, for a more concrete Or, for a more concrete

exampleexample

kickkick is a verb (has an is a verb (has an interpretable V feature) and interpretable V feature) and c-selects a noun (has an c-selects a noun (has an uninterpretable N feature).uninterpretable N feature).

me me is a noun (a pronoun in is a noun (a pronoun in fact, has an interpretable N fact, has an interpretable N feature, and others like feature, and others like accusative case, first accusative case, first person, singular)person, singular)

Merging them will check the Merging them will check the uninterpretable feature, and uninterpretable feature, and the structure can be the structure can be interpreted.interpreted.

V

kick[uN, V]

me[N, acc, 1, sg]

Feature checkingFeature checking The head is the “needy” one. The head is the “needy” one.

The one that had the The one that had the uninterpretable feature that uninterpretable feature that was checked by Merge.was checked by Merge.

The combination has the The combination has the features of the verb features of the verb kickkick and and so its distribution will be so its distribution will be like a verb’s distribution like a verb’s distribution would be.would be.

Pat wants to kick me.Pat wants to kick me. Pat wants to drive.Pat wants to drive. I like to draw elephants.I like to draw elephants. *Pat wants to elephants.*Pat wants to elephants. *I like to draw kick me.*I like to draw kick me.

V

kick[uN, V]

me[N, acc, 1, sg]

glance at Patglance at Pat

PatPat [N, …][N, …] atat [P, [P, uuN, N, …]…]

glance glance [V, [V, uuP, …]P, …]

Chris glanced at PatChris glanced at Pat

PatPat [N, …][N, …] ChrisChris [N, …][N, …]

at at [P, [P, uuN, …]N, …] glancedglanced[V, [V, uuP, P, uuN, N, …]…]

The ideaThe idea Sentences are generated Sentences are generated derivationallyderivationally, by , by

means of a series of syntactic operations.means of a series of syntactic operations. A sentence that A sentence that can can be generated by such a be generated by such a

procedure is grammatical. One that cannot is not procedure is grammatical. One that cannot is not grammatical.grammatical.

Syntactic operations operate on Syntactic operations operate on syntactic syntactic objectsobjects..

Lexical items are syntactic objects.Lexical items are syntactic objects. A derivation starts off by selecting a number of A derivation starts off by selecting a number of

syntactic objects from the lexicon, and proceeds syntactic objects from the lexicon, and proceeds by performing syntactic operations on them.by performing syntactic operations on them.

Syntactic operationsSyntactic operations MergeMerge is a syntactic operation. It takes two is a syntactic operation. It takes two

syntactic objects and creates a new one out syntactic objects and creates a new one out of them.of them.

The new syntactic object created by Merge The new syntactic object created by Merge inherits the features of one of the inherits the features of one of the components (the components (the head projects its featureshead projects its features).).

Merge cannot “look inside” a syntactic Merge cannot “look inside” a syntactic object. Syntactic objects are only combined object. Syntactic objects are only combined at the root.at the root. The Extension ConditionThe Extension Condition:: A syntactic derivation A syntactic derivation

can only be continued by applying operations to can only be continued by applying operations to the root projection of ate tree.the root projection of ate tree.

Feature checkingFeature checking Syntactic objects have features.Syntactic objects have features.

Lexical items (syntactic objects) are bundles of Lexical items (syntactic objects) are bundles of features.features.

Some features are Some features are interpretableinterpretable, others are , others are uninterpretableuninterpretable..

By the time the derivation is finished, there By the time the derivation is finished, there must be no uninterpretable features left (must be no uninterpretable features left (Full Full InterpretationInterpretation).).

Uninterpretable features are eliminated by Uninterpretable features are eliminated by checkingchecking them against matching features. This them against matching features. This happens as a result of Merge: Features of happens as a result of Merge: Features of sisters can check against one another.sisters can check against one another.

Merge doesn’t just happen. It Merge doesn’t just happen. It hashas to happen. to happen.

Heads and complementsHeads and complements When Merge combines two When Merge combines two

syntactic objects, one projects syntactic objects, one projects its features, one does not.its features, one does not.

When a lexical item projects When a lexical item projects its features to the combined its features to the combined syntactic object, it is generally syntactic object, it is generally called the called the headhead, and the thing , and the thing it combined with is generally it combined with is generally called the called the complementcomplement..

A syntactic object that projects A syntactic object that projects no further is called a no further is called a maximal maximal projectionprojection.. Where X is the category, this is Where X is the category, this is

alternatively called Xalternatively called Xmaxmax or XP. or XP. The complement is necessarily The complement is necessarily

a maximal projection.a maximal projection.

VP

kick[uN, V]

me[N, acc, 1, sg]

maximalprojection

maximalprojection

head complement

Heads and complementsHeads and complements A syntactic object that has A syntactic object that has

not projected at all (that is, not projected at all (that is, a lexical item) is sometimes a lexical item) is sometimes called a called a minimal minimal projectionprojection.. Where X is the category, this is Where X is the category, this is

alternatively called Xalternatively called Xminmin or X. or X. The head is a minimal The head is a minimal

projection.projection.

In traditional terminology, In traditional terminology, the complement of a verb is the complement of a verb is generally called the generally called the objectobject (or “(or “direct objectdirect object”).”).

So, often, is the complement So, often, is the complement of a preposition (“object of of a preposition (“object of the preposition”).the preposition”).

VP

kick[uN, V]

me[N, acc, 1, sg]

minimalprojection

minimalprojection

head complement

Linear orderLinear order

Merge takes two syntactic objects and Merge takes two syntactic objects and combines them into a new syntactic combines them into a new syntactic object.object.

Merge does not specify Merge does not specify linear orderlinear order (which of the two combined objects comes (which of the two combined objects comes first in pronunciation).first in pronunciation).

In the English VP, heads always precede In the English VP, heads always precede complements. But languages differ on complements. But languages differ on this.this.

The head parameterThe head parameter Languages generally have something like a Languages generally have something like a basic basic

word orderword order, an order in which words come in in , an order in which words come in in “neutral” sentences.“neutral” sentences.

English: English: SVOSVO Akira ate an apple.Akira ate an apple.

Japanese: Japanese: SOVSOV John wa ringo o tabeta.John wa ringo o tabeta.

John top apple acc ateJohn top apple acc ate‘John ate an apple.’‘John ate an apple.’

In our terms, this amounts to a (generally In our terms, this amounts to a (generally language-wide choice) as to whether heads are language-wide choice) as to whether heads are pronounced before complements or vice-versa.pronounced before complements or vice-versa. English:English: head-initialhead-initial Japanese:Japanese: head-finalhead-final

Second MergeSecond Merge

Merge occurs when there is a selectional feature Merge occurs when there is a selectional feature that needs to be satisfied.that needs to be satisfied. If there is more than one such feature, Merge must If there is more than one such feature, Merge must

happen more than once.happen more than once. As always, the node that projects is the one whose As always, the node that projects is the one whose

selectional feature was satisfied by the Merge.selectional feature was satisfied by the Merge. The sister of the head (that projects) after the first The sister of the head (that projects) after the first

Merge involving that head is called the Merge involving that head is called the complementcomplement (as above).(as above).

The nonprojecting sister of a syntactic object that has The nonprojecting sister of a syntactic object that has already projected once from a head is called the already projected once from a head is called the specifierspecifier..

Specifiers, heads, and Specifiers, heads, and complementscomplements

A transitive verb like A transitive verb like calledcalled needs two needs two arguments (the caller and arguments (the caller and the callee).the callee).

We encode this knowledge We encode this knowledge by hypothesizing two by hypothesizing two selectional features for N.selectional features for N. The first selectional feature The first selectional feature

will be checked by the callee.will be checked by the callee. The second selectional The second selectional

feature will be checked by feature will be checked by the caller.the caller.

So, So, calledcalled is Merged with is Merged with meme..

called[uN, uN, V]

me[N, acc,1, sg]

they[N, nom,

3, pl]

Specifiers, heads, and Specifiers, heads, and complementscomplements

So, So, calledcalled is Merged with is Merged with meme..

One of the selectional One of the selectional features is checked off, features is checked off, the remaining features the remaining features project to the new object.project to the new object.

A selectional feature still A selectional feature still remains.remains.

Merge applies again, Merge applies again, Merging the new object Merging the new object with with theythey..

V [uN]

called[uN, uN, V]

me[N, acc,1, sg]

head complement

they[N, nom,

3, pl]

Specifiers, heads, and Specifiers, heads, and complementscomplements

The second selectional The second selectional feature has been feature has been eliminated.eliminated.

The sister to this second The sister to this second Merge is the Merge is the specifierspecifier..

A node that does not A node that does not project further is a project further is a maximal projectionmaximal projection..

A node that has been A node that has been projected and projects projected and projects further is neither maximal further is neither maximal nor minimal and is usually nor minimal and is usually called an called an intermediate intermediate projectionprojection..

V [uN]

called[uN, uN, V]

me[N, acc,1, sg]

maximalprojection

intermediateprojection

head complement

they[N, nom,

3, pl]

VP

specifier

Specifiers, heads, and Specifiers, heads, and complementscomplements

In English, specifiers are In English, specifiers are on the left of the headon the left of the head Unlike complements, which Unlike complements, which

are on the right.are on the right. As with the head-As with the head-

complement order, complement order, languages (arguably) also languages (arguably) also differ in the linear order of differ in the linear order of their specifiers.their specifiers. However, Spec-initial order is However, Spec-initial order is

overwhelmingly more overwhelmingly more common…common…

VOS order (Malagasy)VOS order (Malagasy)Nahita ny mpianatra ny Nahita ny mpianatra ny vehivavay.vehivavay.saw the student the womansaw the student the woman‘The woman saw the student.’‘The woman saw the student.’

V [uN]

called[uN, uN, V]

me[N, acc,1, sg]

maximalprojection

intermediateprojection

head complement

they[N, nom,

3, pl]

VP

specifier

Historical note: XHistorical note: X-theory-theory In the ’70s and ’80s, these ideas went by In the ’70s and ’80s, these ideas went by

the name “Xthe name “X-theory”.-theory”. Every XP has exactly one:Every XP has exactly one:

head (a lexical item)head (a lexical item) complement (another XP)complement (another XP) specifier (another XP)specifier (another XP)

for any X (N, V, A, P, I, etc.)for any X (N, V, A, P, I, etc.)

specifier

complementX

YP X

XP

headZP

intermediateprojection

maximalprojection

minimalprojection

Merge vs. XMerge vs. X-theory-theory The system of selectional The system of selectional

features and Merge is features and Merge is preferable because it preferable because it gets this structure gets this structure without stipulating the without stipulating the template.template. The structure assigned to The structure assigned to

sentences is generally the sentences is generally the same—except that for us, same—except that for us, there no intermediate or there no intermediate or maximal projections unless maximal projections unless they are needed.they are needed. specifier

complementX

YP X

XP

headZP

intermediateprojection

maximalprojection

minimalprojection

AdjunctsAdjuncts *Pat put the book.*Pat put the book. Pat put the book on the shelf.Pat put the book on the shelf. Pat put the book on the shelf dramatically.Pat put the book on the shelf dramatically. Pat put the book on the shelf dramatically on Pat put the book on the shelf dramatically on

Tuesday.Tuesday. Pat put the book on the shelf dramatically on Pat put the book on the shelf dramatically on

Tuesday before several witnesses.Tuesday before several witnesses.

Some things are required. Some things are not.Some things are required. Some things are not. ArgumentsArguments get get -roles and are -roles and are requiredrequired.. AdjunctsAdjuncts are modificational and are are modificational and are optionaloptional..

Adjuncts and distributionAdjuncts and distribution Adjuncts are relatively “transparent”— Adjuncts are relatively “transparent”—

having an adjunct does not seem to change having an adjunct does not seem to change the distributional characteristics.the distributional characteristics. Pat wants to eat lunch (quickly).Pat wants to eat lunch (quickly). Pat wants to dine.Pat wants to dine. *I like to draw eat lunch (quickly).*I like to draw eat lunch (quickly). I like to draw (happy) elephants.I like to draw (happy) elephants. *Pat wants to (happy) elephants.*Pat wants to (happy) elephants.

Idea:Idea: A verb (phrase) with an adjunct is still a A verb (phrase) with an adjunct is still a verb (phrase), just as if it didn’t have an verb (phrase), just as if it didn’t have an adjunct.adjunct.

AdjoinAdjoin The operations The operations MergeMerge and and AdjoinAdjoin are two different are two different

ways to combine two objects from the workbench.ways to combine two objects from the workbench. MergeMerge takes two objects and creates a new object takes two objects and creates a new object

(with the label/features inherited from one of them).(with the label/features inherited from one of them). AdjoinAdjoin attaches one object to the top of another one. attaches one object to the top of another one.

The linear order of adjuncts does not appear to be set The linear order of adjuncts does not appear to be set parametrically, so they can either before or after the object parametrically, so they can either before or after the object they attach to.they attach to.

quickly

VP

eat lunch

VP

eat lunch

VP quickly

VP

eat lunch

VP

The luxury of adjunctionThe luxury of adjunction We will also assume that We will also assume that Adjoin only applies to Adjoin only applies to

maximal projections.maximal projections. That is: If a syntactic object still has a selectional That is: If a syntactic object still has a selectional

feature, Adjoin cannot attach something to it. feature, Adjoin cannot attach something to it. Merge must happen first. Once all of the things Merge must happen first. Once all of the things that that needneed to happen are taken care of, to happen are taken care of, thenthen you you have the luxury of adjunction.have the luxury of adjunction.

quickly

VP

Pat

VP

ate lunch

V

The luxury of adjunctionThe luxury of adjunction Any number of adjuncts can be added, and generally in any Any number of adjuncts can be added, and generally in any

order.order. Adjuncts come in many different categories— “adjunct” is Adjuncts come in many different categories— “adjunct” is

not a category, but rather a structural description.not a category, but rather a structural description.

PPwith the

candlestick

VP

ColonelMustard

VP

killed Mr.Boddy

V

PPin thestudy

VP PPbefore

tea

VP

A phraseA phrase So, a full phrase So, a full phrase

can have all of can have all of these piecesthese pieces

(plus perhaps (plus perhaps some additional some additional adjuncts)adjuncts)

specifier

complementhead[X, …]

X

XPintermediateprojection

maximalprojection

minimalprojection

adjunct

XP

maximalprojection

Complements vs. Complements vs. adjunctsadjuncts

PPs seem to be freely reorderable— when PPs seem to be freely reorderable— when they are adjuncts.they are adjuncts. I ate lunch on Tuesday at Taco Bell with PatI ate lunch on Tuesday at Taco Bell with Pat I ate lunch on Tuesday with Pat at Taco BellI ate lunch on Tuesday with Pat at Taco Bell I ate lunch with Pat on Tuesday at Taco BellI ate lunch with Pat on Tuesday at Taco Bell I ate lunch on Tuesday with Pat at Taco Bell I ate lunch on Tuesday with Pat at Taco Bell etc…etc…

But consider But consider glance at Chrisglance at Chris.. I glanced at Chris on TuesdayI glanced at Chris on Tuesday *I glanced on Tuesday at Chris*I glanced on Tuesday at Chris

Ok: Why?Ok: Why?