Welfare Effects of Air Pollution

Monday, February 11, 2008ENV 4101/5105

Godish Chapter 6

For extra reference: EPA http://www.epa.gov/air/urbanair/

Introduction Criteria Air Pollutants:

Review: NAAQS from CAA Primary standards Secondary standards

Hazardous Air Pollutants: Hg, dioxins, etc Regulated under 1990 CAA Amendments

Some other important welfare aspects Bioaerosols, Fluorides May not have specific regulations

What are welfare effects?

Criteria Air Pollutants: Ozone Cause: ______________________ Source: ______________________ “Good O3” vs. “Bad O3” Primary component of photochemical smog Sunlight and hot weather

Summertime pollutantMostly local impact

Los Angeles, Wikipeida, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Los_Angeles_(CA)

Criteria Air Pollutants: Ozone

Unpleasant appearance in urban cities photochemical smog

Deterioration of synthetic rubber, textiles, paints

Gates Corporationhttp://www.gates.com/brochure.cfm?brochure=2833&location_id=3369

US EPA in How Stuff Works Website, http://science.howstuffworks.com/ozone-pollution.htm

Criteria Air Pollutants: Ozone

Leaf damage Chlorophyll damage: “flecks” Discoloration

Reducing crop yields and forest growth

US damage to crops est. as 1 billion dollars annually (1985)

25% reduction: +$1.7 billion 40% reduction: +$2.5 billion Loss of forest in US and Europe

Tobacco leaf which has sustained ozone damage http://www.lambtonwildlife.com/nature_notes_98/tobac.fld/tobacp.htm

Ozone damage on white pine (Photograph courtesy of A. Heagle) NC State, http://www.ces.ncsu.edu/depts/pp/notes/Ornamental/odin19/od19.htm

Ponderosa Pine (left: undamaged; right: damaged)Image from Miller et al (1996) USFS PSW-GTR-155http://www.cbesurvey.org/aplv/panek/research.htm

Criteria Air Pollutants: NOx Cause: Source: Regional impacts

Acid precursor (covered later) Ozone precursor

Absorbs blue-green Plant damage

Necrosis at 2-10 ppm Growth retardation at 0.5 ppm

Ecosystem Eutrophication Nitrophilous

Brown haze over Fort Collins, Photo by M. Oseckyhttp://ccc.atmos.colostate.edu/~hail/cool/polution/pages/ftc_12-19-2003.htm

Criteria Air Pollutants: SOx Cause: Source: Regional impacts Acid precursor (covered later) Damage to plants

Chlorosis:

Necrosis:

Plasmolysis:

Damage to animals Similar to health effects in humans

Paper: converted to H2SO4, brittling paper

Leather: initiates cracking

Lettuce with discoloration due to chlorosisUC IPM, photo by Jack Kelly Clark

http://www.ipm.ucdavis.edu/PMG/L/D-CC-LIYV-FS.006.html

http://www.dias.kvl.dk/Plantvirology/esymptoms/symp-color.html

Criteria Air Pollutants: NOx and SOx

Acid precipitation Non-localized pollution Normal precip: pH ~ 5 to

5.6 Acid precip: pH ~ 3 to 4.5

HNO3 and H2SO4 Form acids in atmosphere

Wet deposition Dry deposition

60%- sulfur based; 35%- nitrogen based

Corrosion and deterioration of structures

Original limestone sculpture in Krakow, Poland, severely damaged after years of exposure to acid rain

Replicate made to replace original

Photo: Sebastian Wypych; http://www.atmosphere.mpg.de/enid/Nr_6_Feb__2__6_acid_rain/C__Formation_of_acids_5i8.h

tml

Criteria Air Pollutants: NOx and SOx

Decrease water/soil pH Episodic acidification

Water Body acidification Release of aluminum Reduce fish populations

Lakes becoming fishless Affect biodiversity

Little Echo Pond, Franklin, NY pH = 4.2

Harmful to Trees Dissolves nutrients and minerals

from soil Necrosis Growth abnormalities

US EPA, http://www.epa.gov/acidrain/effects/surface_water.html

Effects of acid rain on forest in Jizera Mountains of Czech Republic; http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acid_rain

Criteria Air Pollutants: NOx and SOx

Let’s tie together different areas of env. eng…

What are the components of the carbonate system?

Carbonic Acid (H2CO3) Bicarbonate (HCO3

-) Carbonate (CO3

2-) CO2 (aq) + H2O H2CO3

HCO3- + H+ CO3

2- + H+

How is acid buffered? Alkalinity

How is it defined? Alk (eq/m3) = [HCO3

-] + 2[CO3

-2] + [OH-] What water bodies/soils

have natural buffering? What type does not?

Natural buffering: limestone (CaCO3)

Minimal natural buffering: granite (frequently silica/quartz based)

Notes to be posted following lecture

Criteria Air Pollutants: NOx and SOx

200+ now-fishless lakes in Adirondacks

Little Echo Pond, Franklin, NY pH = 4.2

Thousands of lakes in Canada (Ontario, Quebec, New Brunswick) now-fishless

http://www.elmhurst.edu/~chm/vchembook/194acidraineffects.html

Criteria Air Pollutants: Particulate Matter Review from 1/24 lecture Very small solids/liquids that remain suspended Anthropogenic causes: materials handling, combustion

processes, gas conversion reactions Main sources: industrial processes, coal and oil burning,

vehiclesPollutant Primary Stds. Averaging

TimesSecondary Stds.

Particulate Matter (PM10)

Revoked(2) Annual(2) (Arith. Mean)

 

150 µg/m3 24-hour(3)  Particulate Matter (PM2.5)

15.0 µg/m3 Annual(4) (Arith. Mean)

Same as Primary

35 µg/m3 24-hour(5)  

Criteria Air Pollutants: Particulate Matter

Visibility Reduction PM2.5 haze (review from 1/28

lecture) Eastern parks’ avg. visual range

reduced from 90 to 15-25 mi. Western parks’ avg. visual range

reduced from 140 to 35-90 mi. http://www2.nature.nps.gov/air/

Permits/ARIS/index.cfm for more national parks air quality info

Wildfires Weather Patterns

Serve as condensation nuclei Effect on fog and precipitation Great Smokey Mountains National

Park,US EPA, http://www.epa.gov/visibility/

Criteria Air Pollutants: Particulate Matter

PM derivatives of SO2 and NOx (sulfates and nitrates) Intensifier Refer to SOx and NOx section

Environmental Damage Lake/stream acidification Nutrient depletion in soils Plant damage Ecosystem diversity upset

Aesthetics Damage Stain and damage stone

structures

New York City building façade after century of dirt (PM) accumulation http://www.nycjpg.com/2003/pages/0802.html

Criteria Air Pollutants: Carbon Monoxide

Review… Cause: incomplete combustion Source: transportation sector, energy production, residential

heating units, some industrial processes Ambient concerns addressed by NAAQS OSHA (50 ppm avg over 8-hour period) CO contributes to the formation of ground-level ozone (refer to

ozone section) photochemical smog Otherwise, largely inert to plants and materials

Pollutant Primary Stds.

Averaging Times

Secondary Stds.

Carbon Monoxide

9 ppm 8-hour(1) None(10 mg/m3)35 ppm 1-hour(1) None(40 mg/m3)

Criteria Air Pollutants: Lead (Pb)

Health effects in animals Domestic and wild Similar to humans

What would these include?

Slow vegetation growth Crop damage

http://www.eaglevalleyraptorcenter.org/rehabilitation.asp

http://www.unbc.ca/nlui/wildlife_diseases_bc/lead_poisoning.htm

Other Heavy Metals Source: metal

smelters Copper, zinc,

nickel Severe

vegetation destruction Including crops

Rock left barren by Nickel smelter emissions in the Sudbury area; Natural Resrouces Canadahttp://ess.nrcan.gc.ca/2002_2006/sdki/mine/geospatial_e.php

Area of forest where vegetation cover has colonized as a result of reduced emissions; Natural Resrouces Canadahttp://ess.nrcan.gc.ca/2002_2006/sdki/mine/geospatial_e.php

HAPs: Mercury Elemental Hg inhaled as a

vapor, absorbed by lungs Cause: vaporized mercury Sources: coal combustion,

accidental spill, mining Deposition in lakes, streams,

estuaries Biologically turned into

methylmercury Accumulation in fatty tissue Effects:

Progresses up food chain

http://www.friendsforourriverfront.org/2005/02/information-for-press-and-media.html

Some Florida Fish Advisories:Lake Alto (Alachua Co.): Children & Women of Childbearing Age should NOT eat Large Mouth Bass, Bowfin, or GarLake Disston (Flagler Co.): No one should eat Large Mouth Bass, Bowfin, or GarFrom coastal waters: No one should eat: Shark larger than 43 in.; King mackerel larger than 31 in.http://www.doh.state.fl.us/floridafishadvice/Fish_consumption_guide.pdf

HAPs: Dioxins Generic term for several

chemicals that are highly persistent in the environment

chlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins (CDDs)

chlorinated dibenzofurans (CDFs) certain polychlorinated biphenyls

(PCBs) Cause: burning chlorine-based

compounds with hydrocarbons Sources: waste incinerator

2,3,7,8-Tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin

2,3,7,8-Tetrachlorodibenzofuran

3,3',4,4',5,5'-Hexachlorobiphenyl

HAPs: Dioxins Airborne dioxins

deposit in environment Slowly decompose Taken up by animals

(domestic or wild) Accumulate in fat 95% of human dioxin

exposure through dietary intake of animal fats

Fish Consumption Advisory for Dioxins in Florida:

Do NOT Eat Checker Puffer Fish or Striped Mojarra from Wagner Creek in Miami-Dade County

http://www.doh.state.fl.us/floridafishadvice/Fish_consumption_guide.pdf

http://www.southfloridasportfishing.com/species2.cfm?c=v&n=91&ct=5&l=S

Fluoride Source: metal and stone processing,

fertilizer manufacturing Livestock damage

Used to cause most domestic animal damage of all air pollutants

Still a concern in developing countries Intake from contaminated forage Fluorosis Chronic: dental and skeletal changes

Plant damage Uptake of gaseous HF through leaves Uptake of soluble particulates through

leaves/roots Accumulate in leaf margins and tips

Tip necrosis Glass etching

Fluorine damage in Dracina leaf; http://www.plantpath.wisc.edu/PDDCEducation/MasterGardener/General/Slide57.htm

Other Aerosols: Bioaerosols

Aerosols with organic origin Non-viable: pollen, dander,

insect excreta, sea salt Viable: microorganisms

Cause: aerosolization of organic material

Sources: Human: sneezing, coughing,

agriculture Non-human: wind, waves,

WWTP Welfare Effects: crop,

livestock damage, GEM, tourism

Mechanical aeration in oxidation ditch at UF WWTP

Other Aerosols: Bioaerosols

Crop Damage Fungi Irish Potato Famine

Fungi phytophthora infestans 500,000-1,000,000 people killed

between 1849-1846 2,000,000 refugees to England, US, etc

Livestock Damage Close quarters Bovine Respiratory Disease

1999 Deaths: ~60% 1991 BRD deaths: $624 million

Genetically Engineered Crops Cross-pollination w/ non-GE crops Reduction of genetic diversity

allows for susceptibilityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_Potato_Famine_%281845%E2%80%931849%29

Other Aerosols: Bioaerosols

Red tide Dinoflagellate produces toxin Broken in waves Toxin released Irritating

Woods Hole Oceanological Institutionhttp://www.whoi.edu/redtide/page.do?pid=9257

Tourism

Image courtesy of P. Schmidt, Charlotte (FL) Sun

Odors Largely nuisance Common sources:

WWTP, pulp and paper mills, feedlots/livestock, rendering plants

Amines, sulfur gasses (H2S, mercaptans), phenol, NH3, aldehydes, fatty acidsPhoto by Kurt Hegre, the Fresno Bee, 2000

Ecosystem Destruction Effects rarely isolated Everything connected Forest destruction

Habitat Animal death or

bioaccumulation Food chain

USGS South Florida Information Accesshttp://sofia.usgs.gov/publications/fs/166-96/fig1.html

Economic Losses In light of the many welfare effects, in what ways could

these have an economic impact? Crop damage Livestock damage Property value

Odors, visibility, vegetation damage Structural and metal damage

Increased maintenance Cultural importance

Tourism National parks Cultural monuments

Losses due to illnesses (welfare effects from health effects) No work Medical visit

And likely many more! Note: slide posted following lecture

Case Study: San Joaquin Valley

San Joaquin Valley… Nation’s “Salad Bowl” Major transportation sector Western border: Coastal Range Eastern border: southern Sierra

Nevadas Yosemite, Kings Canyon, Seqouia

National Parks Winds enter through Bay Area Hot summers A few large cities: Bakersfield,

Fresno, Stockton, Modesto, Visalia

All cities <500,000 population Population growth: +20% from

’90 to ’00 Daily VMT: +25% from ’90 to ‘00

Case Study: San Joaquin Valley

American Lung Association 2006 State of the Air Best and Worst Cities http://lungaction.org/reports/sota06_cities.html

25 Most Ozone-Polluted Cities

2006 Rank1 Metropolitan Areas

11 Bakersfield,CA Bakersfield,CA 2 Los Angeles-Long Beach-

Riverside,CA 33 Visalia-Porterville,CA Visalia-Porterville,CA 44 Fresno-Madera,CA Fresno-Madera,CA 55 Merced,CA Merced,CA 6 Houston-Baytown-Huntsville,TX 7 Sacramento-Arden-Arcade-

Truckee,CA-NV 8 Dallas-Fort Worth, TX 9 New York-Newark-Bridgeport, NY-

NJ-CT-PA 10 Philadelphia-Camden-Vineland,

PA-NJ-DE-MD

Metropolitan Areas Most Polluted by Year-Round Particle Pollution (Annual PM2.5)

2006 Rank1 Metropolitan Areas

1 Los Angeles-Long Beach-Rivereside, CA

22 Bakersfield, CA Bakersfield, CA 3 Pittsburgh-New Castle, PA

44 Visalia-Porterville, CA Visalia-Porterville, CA

55 Fresno-Madera, CA Fresno-Madera, CA

6 Detroit-Warren-Flint, MI

77 Hanford-Corcoran, CA Hanford-Corcoran, CA

8 Cleveland-Akron-Elyria, OH 9 Birmingham-Hoover-Cullman,

AL 9 Atlanta-Sandy Springs-

Gainesville, GA-AL

Case Study: San Joaquin Valley

Some of the nation’s most polluted air Non-attainment for state or federal ozone and PM2.5

35-40 days exceeding federal ozone >100 days over CA ozone ~5 days exceeding federal PM2.5 90-100 days exceeding CA PM2.5

Largely rural ~3.5 million in entire valley (250 miles long by ~75 miles

wide) Compared to Miami-Dade/Broward/Palm Beach Counties: 5.4

million in area 110 miles long by 5-20 miles wide Why the San Joaquin Valley?

Case Study: San Joaquin Valley

Group Activity… What are the likely sources

of pollutants in this valley? Why is it so bad in this

area? What are the likely health

effects of these pollutants? What are the likely welfare

effects of these pollutants?

Case Study: San Joaquin Valley

What are the likely sources of pollutants in this valley?

Agriculture Fields - PM Burning – PM, NOx (O3), SOx, Airborne pesticide – PM, VOC

Transportation sector – PM, NOx (O3), SOx Interstate 5 and Highway 99 Increased commutes from Bay Area

Energy production/petroleum Note: slide posted following lecture

Far Top: www.thealpacastore.com/grapevinecam/ Top and Right: Photos by Tom Myershttp://www.tommyersphotography.com/detail.asp?PhotoID=2361http://www.tommyersphotography.com/detail.asp?PhotoID=2245http://www.tommyersphotography.com/detail.asp?PhotoID=2365&CtgryID=33&Child=

Oil Rigs near Bakersfield; http://www.ems.psu.edu/~elsworth/courses/cause2000/SemesterReports/NWmacrofinal/ff_petroleum.htm

Case Study: San Joaquin Valley

Why is it so bad in this area? Geography

Winds Mountains

Bay Area and Sacramento sources

27% in north SJ Valley 7% in South SJ Valley

Hot, stagnant summers Normal high >95oF in

July/Aug Ozone formation

Note: slide posted following lecture

USDA 1972 at http://www.cbesurvey.org/aplv/panek/ozone.htm

Case Study: San Joaquin Valley

What are the likely health effects of these pollutants?

San Joaquin County: 23.1% of children had lifetime asthma prevalence

Fresno County: highest childhood asthma rate in state

No. 1 reason for missing school 2006 Summer: 23 Spare the Air

Days Health Advisories common in

Valley 2002: 11+ 1998: 14

Note: slide posted following lectureCourtesy NASA

Case Study: San Joaquin Valley

What are the likely welfare effects of these pollutants?

Decreased visibility National parks

Sequoia one of worst polluted parks Decline of CA pines from O3 Pesticides Water acidification/eutrophication

Crop and livestock damage CARB estimates 10-20% crop

reduction for grapes, cotton, tomatoes, oranges, alfalfa

CARB estimates by reducing avg O3 to 0.025 ppm from current avg. of ~0.05 ppm, increase in up to 70% of yield for some crops with $1.5 billion in direct benefits

Note: Slide posted following lectureVisibility Impairment at El Capitan in Yosemite with Half Domein the background; http://epa.gov/air/visibility/parks/yosemite.html

Case Study: San Joaquin Valley

What are the likely welfare effects of these pollutants?

Medical care Missed work Less enjoyable lifestyle Note: slide posted

following lecture

Review of Lecture Welfare Effects

Criteria pollutants Purpose of primary standards Wide range of welfare effects

Crop/vegetation damage Livestock damage Building and material damage

HAPs Other aerosols Trickle effect of welfare effects

Ecosystem destruction Economic associations

Connections: Air is pervasive Effects are felt throughout world