welfare of pigs in the european union

WELFARE OF PIGS INTHE EUROPEAN UNIONThe urgent need for reform of existinglegislation and effective enforcement

CONTENTS

03 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

06 1. INTRODUCTION

07 2. THE NATURAL BEHAVIOUR OF PIGS

08 3. WELFARE OF PIGS REARED FOR MEAT

08 3.1 Housing of pigs reared for meat

08 3.1.1 The importance of environmental enrichment and solid flooring for the welfare of pigs

09 3.1.2 The type, quantity and presentation of enrichment material necessary to meet the behavioural needs of pigs

11 3.1.3 Current housing systems in the EU and enforcement of EU legislation on enrichment

12 3.1.4 Space allowance

14 3.1.5 Conclusions and recommendations on the housing of pigs reared for meat

15 3.2 Mutilations

15 3.2.1 Tail docking and tooth clipping or grinding

17 3.2.2 Castration

22 3.2.3 Conclusions and recommendations on mutilations

23 4. WELFARE OF BREEDING SOWS

23 4.1 Housing of pregnant sows

23 4.1.1 The impact of confinement in stalls on the welfare of sows

23 4.1.2 The impact of stress on reproductive performance of sows and design and management of group housing systems to minimise stress

26 4.1.3 Conclusions and recommendations on the housing of pregnant sows

27 4.2 Housing of farrowing and lactating sows

27 4.2.1 The importance of nesting material for farrowing sows

27 4.2.2 Welfare in farrowing crates and free-farrowing systems

28 4.2.3 Piglet mortality in farrowing crates and free-farrowing systems

29 4.2.4 Conclusions and recommendations on the housing of farrowing and lactating sows

30 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

32 REFERENCES

2 WELFARE OF PIGS IN THE EU Compassion in World Farming

3Compassion in World Farming WELFARE OF PIGS IN THE EU

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

The urgent need for reform of existing legislation and effective enforcement.

There are around 15 million sows in theEuropean Union (EU27) and around 250 millionpigs are reared for slaughter in the EU27 eachyear. In 1997, the EU adopted a legally bindingProtocol annexed to the Treaty of Amsterdam,which recognises animals as sentient beings.The Protocol requires the EU and its MemberStates, in formulating and implementing EUpolicies on agriculture, to pay full regard to thewelfare requirements of animals. With this inmind, this report examines the welfare of pigsin the EU in relation to current legislation andenforcement and identifies necessaryimprovements to protect the welfare ofbreeding sows and pigs reared for meat.

Welfare can be poor in any farming system ifstockmanship is poor. However, systems vary intheir potential to provide good welfare. Ahusbandry system that provides for behaviouralfreedom without compromising health can bedescribed as having high welfare potential. Majorconcerns for animal welfare arise fromproduction systems with low welfare potential,i.e. those that fail to meet the behavioural andphysical needs of the animal and are thereforelikely to cause suffering. The ability of a system toprovide good welfare is determined by factorsthat are built into the system. The building blocksof a good system include the provision of enoughliving space and access to resources to meet theneeds of the animals. Systems with low welfarepotential should be prohibited by legislation.Whilst it is essential to set high standards toensure livestock production systems have highwelfare potential, it is also important to monitorwelfare outcomes to assess the extent to whichthat potential is realised.

Domestic pigs retain many behavioural andphysiological characteristics of the Europeanwild boar, from which they are descended. Pigsare highly social animals with a high level ofcuriosity and well-developed exploratorybehaviour. Under natural conditions they live infamily groups typically consisting of several sowsand their young. They spend much of their timerooting, grazing and exploring theirenvironment and pregnant sows construct anelaborate nest before giving birth.

Housing of pigs reared for meatIdeally, pigs should have access to pasture toprovide a complex and stimulating environment.When housed indoors, adequate space andenvironmental enrichment are essential for goodwelfare of pigs. In the absence of appropriatesubstrate to explore, pigs redirect theirexploratory behaviour towards pen structuresand other pigs, which can lead to damagingbehaviours such as ear and tail biting. Provisionof adequate enrichment is facilitated by the useof solid flooring.

Since 2003, EU legislation requires that pigsmust have permanent access to a sufficientquantity of material to enable properinvestigation and manipulation activities, such asstraw, hay, wood, sawdust, mushroom compost,peat or a mixture of such. However, thisrequirement is often ignored or inappropriatematerials such as chains, ropes and rubber orplastic toys are provided, which are not able tomeet the behavioural needs of pigs.

Currently permitted space allowances are muchtoo low and should be significantly increased.The minimum area of solid floor provided shouldbe sufficient for all pigs to lie simultaneously in afully-recumbent position without contactingother pigs. This solid floor area should be mostlycovered with a thick layer of enrichment

WHEN GIVEN THE OPPORTUNITY, PIGSSPEND A LARGE PROPORTION OF THEIRTIME ENGAGED IN ROOTING, FORAGINGAND EXPLORING THEIR ENVIRONMENT

material, sufficient to act as bedding, and freshmaterial should be added regularly. Thewording of the Directive should bestrengthened to ensure that complex naturalmaterial, which is ingestible or contains edibleparts, is required for enrichment, such asunchopped straw, compost, earth or a mixtureof these. Only housing systems which arecapable of meeting the requirements forenrichment should be permitted. For thisreason, the use of fully-slatted floors should beprohibited. Any slatted floor area provided fordunging and/or showering should be inaddition to the minimum solid and beddedfloor areas.

Mutilations

The majority of piglets in the EU are routinelysubjected to a number of mutilations, usuallywithout any anaesthesia or analgesia, includingtail docking and tooth clipping or grinding. Thesemutilations are performed in an attempt to reduceinjuries from tail biting and injuries to sows teatsand other piglets. Despite a ban on routine taildocking and tooth clipping or grinding in the EUsince 2003, these procedures continue to beperformed routinely in most EU countries.

Tail docking and tooth clipping or grinding arepainful and are unnecessary if pigs are kept inappropriate conditions. The wording of theDirective should be strengthened to completelyprohibit tail docking and tooth clipping orgrinding for non-therapeutic reasons. Tail bitingand injuries to sows teats and other pigletsshould be minimised by providing adequatespace and enrichment and avoiding the use offully-slatted floors in both the rearing and

farrowing environments and by limiting litter sizeto that which can be fully sustained by the sow.

The quality of meat from some entire male pigscan be affected by boar taint, an odour and/ortaste that some consumers find unpleasant.Surgical castration is commonly performed inmost EU countries to reduce the incidence ofboar taint.

Surgical castration results in significant pain andstress and should be prohibited. Entire malepigs could be reared to lighter slaughterweights to minimise boar taint in carcasses, as isalready the case in several EU countries. Wherepigs continue to be reared to higher slaughterweights, the use of immunocastration ispreferable to surgical castration, at least as aninterim measure until methods of rearing entiremale pigs to higher slaughter weights withoutunacceptable levels of taint have beendeveloped. Consideration could also be given toslaughtering males earlier and rearing onlyfemales to higher slaughter weights.

At the very least, as an interim measure for anypiglets undergoing surgical castration, methodsof anaesthesia that have been demonstrated tobe effective in reducing pain and stressresponses, in combination with prolongedanalgesia, should be required for all piglets.

Housing of breeding sowsIt is well established that the keeping ofpregnant sows in stalls, which are so narrow thatthey are unable even to turn around, causessuffering. The use of individual stalls for thehousing of pregnant sows will be prohibited inthe EU from 1 January 2013. However, the periodfrom weaning to four weeks after service isexcluded from this prohibition.

The rationale for the exclusion of the periodfrom weaning to four weeks after service fromthe requirement for group housing is concernthat stress caused by mixing sows during thisperiod may be detrimental to oestrusexpression, pregnancy rate and embryodevelopment and survival. However, a numberof recent studies have found no adverse effectsof mixing on reproductive performance.

Confining sows in individual stalls fromweaning until four weeks after service causesstress and frustration. Housing sows in groupsfrom weaning improves welfare and need notadversely affect reproductive performance.There is therefore no justification for thecurrent exemption from the requirement forgroup housing of sows for the period from

THE MAJORITY OF PIGS REARED FORMEAT IN THE EU ARE KEPT IN BARRENOVERCROWDED CONDITIONS


weaning to four weeks after service and thisexemption should be removed.

Stress should be minimised in group housingsystems through design and management tominimise aggression and competition for feedand to meet the sows needs for foraging andexploration, and through appropriate feedingto avoid chronic hunger. The wording of theDirective should be strengthened to ensure thatsows have permanent access to roughage andthat complex natural enrichment material,which is ingestible or contains edible parts, suchas unchopped straw, compost, earth or amixture of these, is provided in a thick layer,sufficient to act as bedding, covering themajority of the floor area of the pen, with freshmaterial added regularly.

Most breeding sows in the EU are confined incrates during farrowing and lactation.Confining sows in farrowing crates causessuffering and also negatively affects the welfareof piglets. Sows in crates are unable to fulfiltheir strong motivation to build a nest due toinadequate space and lack of nesting materialand are unable to interact properly with, ormove away from, their piglets.

The rationale for confinement of sows infarrowing crates is the assumption that pigletmortality is higher in pens that allow the sow

freedom of movement because of accidentalcrushing of piglets. However, research showsthat piglet mortality is no higher in well-designed farrowing pens which provideadequate space and enrichment, improving thewelfare of both sows and piglets. Farrowingcrates should therefore be phased out. TheDirective should also be strengthened to phaseout the use of systems that are incompatiblewith the requirement to provide nestingmaterial to farrowing sows.

FARROWING CRATES SEVERELY RESTRICTTHE MOVEMENT OF THE SOW

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Current EU legislation on the welfare of pigs is inadequate to protect welfare and is poorly enforced. Immediate action isneeded to improve the welfare of pigs in the EU, including:

Significantly increased space allowances for pigs reared for meat;

Strengthening of the wording on provision of environmental enrichment to ensure that complex natural material, which is ingestible or contains edible parts, is required and is provided in a thick layer, sufficient to act as bedding, covering the majority of the pen floor, with fresh material added regularly;

Prohibition of the use of fully-slatted floors for pigs reared for meat;

Strengthening of the wording on the prohibition of routine tail docking and tooth clipping or grinding to completely prohibit tail docking and tooth

clipping or grinding for non-therapeutic reasons;

Prohibition of surgical castration of piglets and at the very least, if there is a phase-out period for surgical castration, then removal of the exemption from the requirement to use anaesthesia and prolonged analgesia for piglets up to seven days of age;

Removal of the exemption that allows the use of sow stalls for the period from weaning until four weeks after service;

Strengthening of the wording on provision of high fibre food for sows to require that sows have permanent access to roughage;

Phasing out of farrowing crates;

Strengthening of the wording on the requirement to provide nesting material for farrowing sows to phase out the use of systems that are incompatible with this requirement.

Compassion in World Farming WELFARE OF PIGS IN THE EU

1. INTRODUCTION

In 1997, the EU adopted a legally bindingProtocol annexed to the Treaty of Amsterdam,which recognises animals as sentient beings.The Protocol requires the EU and its MemberStates, in formulating and implementing EUpolicies on agriculture, to pay full regard tothe welfare requirements of animals (Protocolon protection and welfare of animals, 1997).With this in mind, this report will examine thewelfare of pigs in the EU in relation to currentlegislation and enforcement and identifynecessary improvements to protect the welfareof breeding sows and pigs reared for meat.

Animal welfare is about ensuring the well-being of the individual animal. It includesanimal health and encompasses both thephysical and psychological state of the animal.The welfare of an animal can be described asgood or high if the individual is fit, healthyand has a good quality of life, whichencompasses both freedom from suffering andthe opportunity to experience positive feelingsof well-being.

Welfare can be poor in any farming system ifstockmanship is poor. However, systems vary intheir potential to provide good welfare. Even ifstockmanship is good, welfare is likely to bepoor in confinement systems which severelyrestrict freedom of movement or in barrenovercrowded conditions which limitbehavioural expression.

A production system that provides forbehavioural freedom without compromisinghealth can be described as having high welfarepotential. Major concerns for animal welfarearise from systems with low welfare potential,i.e. those that fail to meet the behavioural andphysical needs of the animal and are thereforelikely to cause suffering. The ability of a systemto provide good welfare is determined by

factors that are built into the system. Buildingblocks of a good system include the provisionof enough living space and access to resourcesto meet the needs of the animals. Systems withlow welfare potential should be prohibited by legislation.

Whilst it is essential to set high standards toensure livestock production systems have highwelfare potential, it is also important tomonitor welfare outcomes to assess the extentto which that potential is realised. Examples ofwelfare outcomes include levels of mortality,lameness, injuries and abnormal behaviourssuch as stereotypies (repetitive behaviours with no apparent function which areconsidered to indicate poor welfare), as well aspositive measures such as the occurrence ofplay behaviour.

Welfare outcomes reflect the overallperformance of the system, which will beinfluenced both by the welfare potential of thesystem and by the level of human managementskill applied to it.


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2. THE NATURAL BEHAVIOUR OF PIGS

Domestic pigs retain many behavioural andphysiological characteristics of the Europeanwild boar, from which they are descended. Pigsare highly social animals and under naturalconditions they live in family groups typicallyconsisting of several sows and their young(Graves, 1984). Piglets stand within minutes ofbirth and begin to form social dominancerelationships with littermates within hours(Ibid.). Aggression within the group is generallymild and infrequent once a stable hierarchy isformed, with dominance relationships playing amajor role in settling disputes over access tofood and other resources (Ibid.). Boars maycongregate in bachelor groups but aregenerally solitary except during the breedingseason (Ibid.).

A pregnant sow will naturally move away fromthe rest of the group one or two days beforegiving birth (farrowing) to seek a secluded nestsite. She makes a hollow and gathers tufts ofgrass and branches to construct an elaboratenest in which to give birth (Jensen, 1986).Domesticated sows show the same motivationto perform nest-building as wild-type sows andthe pattern of nest-building behaviour andearly maternal and nursing behaviours arelargely unaffected by domestication (Gustafssonet al., 1999). After farrowing, the sow and litterremain in or near the nest for around eight toten days before rejoining the group and theyoung continue to suckle until they aregradually weaned at around 14 to 17 weeks ofage (Jensen, 1986). Interactions between pigletsfrom different litters thus begin very early inlife and early associations often persist intoadulthood, especially in females (Graves, 1984).

Sows may share babysitting duties whilst othersows in the group leave their young in order to forage (Ibid.).

Pigs are highly intelligent animals with a highlevel of curiosity and well-developedexploratory behaviour. Stolba and Wood-Gush(1989) studied the behaviour of domestic pigsin a large semi-natural enclosure and foundthat during daylight hours they spent aroundthree quarters of their time engaged inexploratory and foraging behaviour, includingrooting, grazing, walking over the enclosure,orienting to stimuli, nosing and manipulatingobjects. The pigs built large communal sleepingnests from tufts of grass and branches. Theyused different parts of the enclosure fornesting, defecating and feeding, and movedmany metres from the nest site in a morningbefore defecating.

Pigs are unable to lose heat effectively throughsweating and rely largely on behaviouralmechanisms for temperature control. Theypant, seek shade, wallow in water or mud andavoid body contact with other pigs to keep cool and seek shelter or huddle to keep warm.Domesticated pigs may struggle to keep cool at higher temperatures because the evaporativesurface in the snout and the area of skinsurface relative to body weight areconsiderably smaller than in the wild boar (vanPutten, 1988).

WALLOWING IS IMPORTANT FORTEMPERATURE REGULATION AND SKIN CARE

DOMESTIC PIGS RETAIN MANYBEHAVIOURAL AND PHYSIOLOGICALCHARACTERISTICS OF THE WILD BOAR

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3. WELFARE OF PIGS REARED FOR MEAT

3.1 Housing of pigs reared for meat

3.1.1 The importance of environmentalenrichment and solid flooring for the welfareof pigs

Ideally, pigs should have access to pasture toprovide a complex and stimulatingenvironment. When housed indoors,environmental enrichment is essential for goodpig welfare. In the absence of appropriatesubstrate to explore, pigs redirect theirexploratory behaviour towards pen structuresand other pigs which can lead to damagingbehaviours such as ear and tail biting. Theseabnormal and damaging behaviours, which canlead to pain and injury, are a sign that theneeds of pigs to show certain behaviours arenot met (AHAW, 2007a). Thus tail biting is anindication of an inadequate environment andindicates that welfare is poor in the pigperforming the biting as well as in the pig thatis bitten (SVC, 1997). The need to performexploration and foraging behaviour isconsidered to be a major underlying motivationin tail biting (AHAW, 2007b). In unbeddedsystems, a higher proportion of slatted flooringfurther increases the risk of tail biting (AHAW,2007b). Guy et al. (2002a) found that theincidence of tail biting was significantly greaterand pigs spent more time inactive when housedon fully-slatted floors at a space allowance of

0.55m2 per pig compared with pigs housed ondeep straw with a space allowance of 1.63m2

per pig.

Lack of appropriate enrichment can also lead toincreased aggression (OConnell and Beattie,1999). Beattie et al. (2000) found that pigsreared in enriched environments from birth toslaughter (more space and provision of strawbedding in the farrowing/weaning pen; morespace and provision of peat and straw in thegrowing and finishing pens) spent less timeinactive and involved in harmful social andaggressive behaviour and more time engagedin exploratory behaviour compared with pigsreared in a barren environment (slatted floorsand minimum recommended space allowances).

Lack of environmental enrichment can impairlearning ability (Sneddon et al., 2000), memory(de Jong et al., 2000a) and immune response(Kelly et al., 2000a) in pigs. Sneddon et al.(2000) conclude that cognitive development ofpigs may be impaired in intensive housingsystems, whilst de Jong et al. (2000a) suggestthat the blunted circadian rhythm in cortisolconcentrations in barren-housed pigs mayreflect chronic stress and decreased welfare.Kelly et al. (2000a) found that weaned pigshoused in barren flatdecks showed a reducedantibody response to an immune challengecompared with pigs in straw pens, which theauthors interpreted as stress-induced immunesuppression in the barren-housed pigs. Barrenhousing may also affect the ability of pigs tocope with stressful situations. For example, deJong et al. (2000b) found that pigs reared in abarren environment showed a tendency forincreased manipulation of pen mates andfighting, and significant increases in salivarycortisol in response to mixing at transport andbeing in lairage, compared with pigs reared inan enriched environment (larger pens withstraw bedding). The authors conclude that pigsreared in a barren environment are likely toexperience more stress during commonpreslaughter procedures than pigs reared in anenriched environment.

Enrichment and flooring are important factorsaffecting the incidence of injuries and stomachulcers in pigs. Kelly et al. (2000a) found that

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WHEN PIGS ARE HOUSED INDOORS,ENRICHMENT OF THE ENVIRONMENT WITHSTRAW OR OTHER COMPLEX NATURALMATERIAL IS ESSENTIAL FOR GOOD WELFARE

WELFARE OF PIGS IN THE EU Compassion in World Farming

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pigs with foot injuries at weaning recoveredquickly when housed on deep straw but thatinjuries increased after weaning in pigs housedin barren flatdecks. Housing in a Straw-Flowsystem (supplied with 1kg straw daily) had anintermediate effect on injuries. Housing ondeep straw prevented adventitious bursitis ofthe hock. Similarly, Ramis et al. (2005) foundthat the prevalence of limb lesions was muchgreater in barren-housed pigs (24% ofobservations) compared with pigs housed insawdust-bedded barns (1% of observations).Mouttotou et al. (1999) found that theprovision of bedding material was the mostimportant factor in reducing the risk of bursitisin growing and finishing pigs. Guy et al. (2002b)found that pigs housed on deep straw with aspace allowance of 1.63m2 per pig hadsignificantly less adventitious bursitis, injuries,stomach ulceration, lung damage and morbidityand mortality compared to pigs housed onfully-slatted floors at a space allowance of0.55m2 per pig.

Gastric ulcers are common in finishing pigs andare related to diet and stress (Amory et al.,2006; Bolhuis et al., 2007). The incidence ofulcers increased dramatically with theintensification of pig production and associatedchanges in diet and housing. The condition isnow reported in most countries of the worldwhere pigs are kept intensively (Amory et al.,2006). Bolhuis et al. (2007) found that strawbedding reduced the incidence of stomachulcers to a very low level compared with pigs inbarren partly-slatted pens, which the authorsattributed to the lower levels of stress whenprovided with straw bedding and/or a positiveeffect of straw intake on stomach contentfirmness. Amory et al. (2006) found thatfinishing pigs housed on slatted floors had asignificantly higher mean ulcer severity scorethan pigs housed on solid concrete floors, whichhad a significantly higher score than pigshoused on straw bedding.

Housing can also affect growth rate and meatquality. Beattie et al. (2000) found that pigsprovided with more space and enrichment (peatand straw) showed higher growth rates duringthe finishing period and produced pork withincreased tenderness and lower cooking lossescompared with pigs reared in a barrenenvironment (slatted floors and minimumrecommended space allowances). Similarly,Klont et al. (2001) found that housing pigs in anenriched environment (more space and straw)improved the water-holding capacity of pork

compared with pigs housed in a barrenenvironment (slatted floors and minimumrecommended space allowances). Maw et al.(2001) found that pigs kept in straw-beddedhousing produced bacon of superior eatingquality compared with pigs in barrenhousing systems.

The EU Scientific Panel on Animal Health andWelfare (AHAW) recommends that anappropriate environment, including provisionof manipulable, destructible materials, shouldbe provided so that the negativeconsequences of poor welfare such as injuriousbehaviours, physiological problems andimmunosuppression, caused in barrenenvironments, are avoided (AHAW, 2007c).

3.1.2 The type, quantity and presentation ofenrichment material necessary to meet thebehavioural needs of pigs

Only natural materials are capable of meetingall of the criteria necessary to provide for thebehavioural needs of pigs. The value ofenrichment materials for pigs is greater if thematerials are complex and compound (Jensenand Pedersen, 2007) and include one or moreattractive food components (Olsen et al., 2000).Studnitz et al. (2007) conclude that exploratorybehaviour of pigs is best stimulated by materialsthat are complex, changeable, destructible,manipulable and contain sparsely distributededible parts. The authors comment thatexploratory behaviour is stimulated if thematerial has novelty value and that a materialthat is complex, changeable and destructiblemeans that it is constantly changing and thusthe novelty value will be maintained and willcontinue to stimulate exploration. If thematerial contains edible parts, foragingbehaviour as well as the curiosity of the pigswill be stimulated. Suitable enrichmentmaterials capable of meeting these criteriainclude straw, which is ingestible, and compostor earth, especially where these contain ediblematerial such as plant roots. Straw should beunchopped (Day et al., 2008).

Objects such as chains, ropes and rubber orplastic toys are not able to meet all of thesecriteria and are not suitable enrichmentmaterials for pigs. Scott et al., (2007) found thatpigs spent less than 2% of time manipulating ahanging toy (a helicopter-like object withchewable arms) in either straw-bedded or fully-slatted pens, compared with 21% of timeengaged in manipulation of straw in the straw-bedded system. The authors conclude that the


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low level of occupation with the toy was notrelated to spatial restriction of access becausethe level of toy manipulation was not affectedby the number of toys provided (one vs. four).Van de Weerd et al. (2005) found that strawbedding prevented the development of tailbiting but that the addition of a simpleenrichment device (a bite rite tail chew) couldnot compensate for the deficiencies in a barrenenvironment. Similarly, Zonderland et al. (2008)found that provision of a chain or rubber hosewas ineffective in preventing tail biting. AHAW(2007b) conclude that there is little evidencethat provision of toys such as chains, chewingsticks and balls can reduce the risk of tail biting.

On the basis of expert opinion, Bracke (2006)concludes that the main material propertiesrequired for enrichment of pig pens are abilityto provide occupation, exploration andmaintain interest without habituation,rootable, manipulable and chewable. Otherimportant properties that were mentioned by asignificant number of experts includevariable/unpredictable, destructible, thicklayer, sufficient/plenty, changeable, at leastpartially digestible/nutritional andnovelty/frequently refreshed. A majority (84%)of the experts considered that provision ofstraw could be sufficient (some expertsanswered with qualifications, e.g. provided asufficient quantity is provided), whilst only 3%of experts considered that providing a chaincould be sufficient.

The EU Scientific Panel on Animal Health andWelfare recommends: Since indestructibleobjects such as chains or tyres are not sufficientto provide for the manipulatory needs of pigs,they may be used as a supplement todestructible and rooting materials but not as asubstitute for them (AHAW, 2007c).

The quantity of enrichment provided isimportant. Day et al. (2002) investigated thebehaviour of pigs with different levels of strawprovision (none, minimal, substantial and deep).The authors reported that the quantity ofstraw-directed behaviour was proportional tothe amount of straw provided and that anincreasing amount of straw resulted in anincrease in rooting and ploughing behaviourand a concomitant decrease in harmfulbehaviours including aggression, biting of otherpigs, ear chewing, belly nosing and tail biting.Zonderland et al. (2008) found that a smallamount of straw provided twice daily on thepen floor significantly reduced, but did not

eliminate, the occurrence of bite marks and tailwounds, and that provision of straw in a rackhad a lesser effect.

Kelly et al. (2000b) found that a Straw-Flowsystem (supplied with 1kg straw daily) hadadvantages over barren flatdecks for thehousing of weaned pigs in terms of a reductionin potentially damaging behaviours. However,the authors conclude that differences in playand other behaviours suggest that a deep strawsystem (with more than four times the quantityof straw) provides welfare benefits over andabove those of Straw-Flow.

Enrichment should be provided on the floor ofthe pen because, as a ground-feeding species,foraging from a rack is an abnormal posture forpigs (Buchholtz et al., 2000). Van de Weerd et al.(2006) found that enrichment use wassignificantly higher in a straw-bedded systemcompared with provision of straw from a rack orvarious enrichment objects (flavoured feeddispenser, flavoured liquid dispenser or bite ritetail chew). Consequently, one or more pigs hadto be removed as a result of tail biting in alltreatments except the straw-bedded system. Theauthors note that straw could be manipulatedfrom different postures in the straw-beddedsystem and this was reflected in the fact that asignificant proportion of time engaged inenrichment use in the straw-bedded system waswhilst lying down. Similarly, Scott et al. (2006)found that the proportion of time pigs spentinteracting with sugar beet pulp shreds in ahopper or a hanging bite rite enrichmentdevice in a fully-slatted system was very lowcompared with the time spent interacting with

COMPLEX NATURAL ENRICHMENT SHOULDBE PROVIDED IN A THICK LAYER ON THEFLOOR OF THE PEN TO ALLOW ALL PIGS TOENGAGE IN ROOTING, FORAGING ANDEXPLORATORY BEHAVIOUR

WELFARE OF PIGS IN THE EU Compassion in World Farming

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straw in a straw-bedded system. AHAW (2007b)recommends provision of straw bedding tominimise the risk of tail biting.

Appropriate enrichment should therefore beprovided in a thick layer, sufficient to act asbedding, on the floor of the pen. Thisnecessitates the use of solid flooring. Scott et al. (2006) conclude that at present no formof enrichment suitable for use in slatted systemsprovides the same level of occupation as seenwith straw.

The EU Scientific Panel on Animal Health andWelfare states: only lower quality enrichmentmaterials are provided [in fully-slatted systems]like hanging toys, indicating a risk for pigwelfare as the need for exploration will not bemet in these systems. Solid floors facilitateprovision of adequate enrichment materials(AHAW, 2007a).

Bedding should be provided across the majorityof the pen floor to allow all pigs to engage inexploratory and foraging behaviour throughoutthe day and to provide a comfortable lyingsurface. However, at higher temperatures, anarea of unbedded solid floor may also bebeneficial to aid in thermoregulation (Fraser, 1985).

3.1.3 Current housing systems for pigs in theEU and enforcement of existing EU legislationon enrichment

Since 2003, provision of enrichment material forpigs is a legal requirement in the EU.Commission Directive 2001/93/EC states: pigsmust have permanent access to a sufficientquantity of material to enable properinvestigation and manipulation activities, suchas straw, hay, wood, sawdust, mushroomcompost, peat or a mixture of such, which doesnot compromise the health of the animals. The current wording of the Directive leaves toomuch room for interpretation (Bracke, 2006).Although only natural materials are listed in theDirective, the wording is not explicit that itemslike metal chains, ropes and rubber or plastictoys are insufficient to meet the behaviouralrequirements of pigs. The wording of theDirective should be strengthened to ensure thatcomplex natural material is required forenrichment such as unchopped straw, compost,earth or a mixture of these.

The legislation on provision of manipulablematerials is poorly enforced. Food andVeterinary Office (FVO) inspection reportsreveal that in many countries the provision ofmanipulable materials is not strictly monitoredor unsuitable materials such as chains areaccepted as suitable enrichment (FVO, 2005a-f,2006a-e, 2007a-e) and in some cases thetransposition of the relevant requirements intonational legislation has been significantlydelayed (FVO, 2005g, 2006f) or is incomplete(FVO, 2005h). An investigation of 60 pig farmsin Germany, Spain, The Netherlands, Hungary

In order to meet the needs of pigs toexpress exploratory and foragingbehaviour, environmental enrichmentshould be:

Manipulable;

Rootable;

Chewable;

Complex/compound;

Changeable/destructible (as a result of the pigs activities);

Ingestible/contain edible parts;

Safe and non-toxic;

Provided at floor level;

Provided in a thick layer covering the majority of the floor area of the pen to ensure all pigs can engage in exploratory and foraging behaviour throughout the day;

Regularly refreshed.

EU LEGISLATION ON THE PROVISION OFENVIRONMENTAL ENRICHMENT IS POORLYENFORCED AND MANY PIGS ARE REARED INBARREN PENS ON SLATTED FLOORS


and the UK, carried out by Compassion in WorldFarming, found no or inadequateenvironmental enrichment on over one third offarms visited in the UK and between 70 and100% of farms visited in the other countries(Compassion in World Farming, 2008).

A survey of housing systems for pigs in Europein the late 1990s indicated that the majority ofweaned piglets (over 80%) andgrowing/finishing pigs (over 90%) in thecountries surveyed were housed in partially- orfully-slatted systems with no or restricted straw(Hendriks and van de Weerdhof, 1999). Of thecountries surveyed, only the UK had asignificant proportion of both weaned pigs(40%) and growing/finishing pigs (35%) housedin systems with straw. Although there is noindependently verified information available onthe current level of straw provision for pigs inthe UK, the British Pig Executive estimates that65% of finishing pigs in the UK are now rearedin systems with some degree of straw providedon the pen floor (BPEX, reported in FAWC,2008). Bedding is required by legislation for allpigs in Sweden.

The prohibition of fully-slatted floors for thehousing of pigs in the EU is essential to ensurethat proper environmental enrichment can beprovided. The use of fully-slatted floors for pigs reared for meat is prohibited in Swedenand Norway and is being phased out bylegislation in Denmark (by 2015) andSwitzerland (by 2018).

3.1.4 Space allowance

Inadequate space allowance also contributes tostress and increased levels of aggression andharmful social behaviours. High stockingdensity, especially when associated with lack ofenrichment and fully-slatted floors, increasesthe risk of tail biting (AHAW, 2007b).

The relationship between body size andphysical space occupied is not linear but can bedescribed by the equation A = kW2/3 where A isthe floor area in m2, W is the body weight inkg, and k is a numeric constant which variesaccording to the body posture of the animal (Petherick, 1983).

Space allowances currently permitted in the EUare so low that they are likely to adverselyaffect the performance of pigs. Gonyou et al.(2006) investigated floor space requirements ofnursery and grower-finisher pigs in partially-and fully-slatted systems and found that thecritical k value, below which average dailyweight gain started to decrease was 0.0348.Current legal minimum space allowances in theEU commonly fall below this value of k (Table3.1). Even these inadequate space allowancesare often poorly enforced. FVO inspectionreports reveal that in many countries accuratemeasurements are not taken during checks, orobstructions such as feeding troughs are

PIGS ARE OFTEN REARED IN SEVERELYOVERCROWDED CONDITIONS - CURRENTLYPERMITTED SPACE ALLOWANCES FOR PIGSREARED FOR MEAT IN THE EU ARE MUCHTOO LOW

Minimum space allowances for pigsshould be adequate to allow for:

Separation of lying and dunging areas adequate space is necessary to minimise lying in the dunging area and fouling of the lying area, which is important in maintaining good hygiene and minimising the risk of disease;

Comfort and thermoregulation, e.g. by adopting a fully-recumbent lying position (lateral lying) avoiding contact with other pigs;

A range of activities including standing, lying in various positions, walking to resources even at times when all other pigs are lying down, exploratory behaviour, and social interaction including escaping from aggression.


Petherick and Baxter (1981) calculated that thespace required for pigs to lie laterallyrecumbent is equivalent to k = 0.047. Spaceallowances currently permitted in the EU aresignificantly lower than this (equivalent to a k value of between 0.027 and less than 0.043 see Table 3.1) and therefore do not providesufficient space for all pigs to lie fully-recumbent simultaneously. The EU Scientific

Veterinary Committee recommended thatminimum space allowances for pigs should becalculated according to k = 0.047 (SVC, 1997)and the EU Scientific Panel on Animal Healthand Welfare recommends that minimum spaceallowances based on k = 0.047 are necessaryfor pigs to be able to thermoregulateadequately at temperatures that may exceed25oC (AHAW, 2005).

Table 3.1 Space allowances per animal for weaner and rearing pigs: Comparison of spaceallowances required by EU legislation (under Council Directive 91/630/EEC) and calculatedaccording to a k value of 0.047 (necessary for all animals to be able to lie fully-recumbentsimultaneously see text for explanation).

At space allowances equivalent to k values below 0.047, all animals are not able to lie fully-recumbent simultaneously. For comparison, k values at legal minimum space allowances arepresented.

Up to 10 0.15 0.22 0.032

Over 10 up to 20 0.20 0.35 0.027

Over 20 up to 30 0.30 0.46 0.031

Over 30 up to 50 0.40 0.65 0.029

Over 50 up to 85 0.55 0.92 0.028

Over 85 up to 110 0.65 1.10 0.028

More than 110 1.00 >1.10 < 0.043

e.g. 120 1.00 1.16 0.040

e.g. 130 1.00 1.23 0.038

e.g. 140 1.00 1.29 0.036

included in the measurements (FVO, 2005b,2005e, 2005g, 2005h, 2006a, 2006b, 2006c,2006e, 2006g, 2006h, 2007e, 2007f). A numberof European countries, including Sweden,Germany, Norway and Switzerland, have setgreater minimum space allowances than thoserequired under EU legislation for most weightclasses of pigs reared for meat.

It is likely that the welfare of pigs will beadversely affected by a lesser degree ofcrowding than that necessary to adversely affecttheir performance. Meunier-Salan et al. (1987)investigated the performance, behaviour andphysiology of growing-finishing pigs housed at0.34m2, 0.68m2 and 1.01m2 per pig. The authorssuggest that their results could be interpreted asindicating chronic stress in pigs housed at thelowest space allowance and that their findings

demonstrate that behavioural and physiologicalresponses are earlier and more sensitiveindicators of adaptation to the environmentthan productivity.

Beattie et al. (1996) investigated the effects ofspace allowance and enrichment on thebehaviour of pigs between 6 and 12 weeks ofage. They found that a space allowance of 0.5m2

per pig reduced exploratory behaviour andincreased time spent standing inactive comparedwith a space allowance of 1.1m2 or more per pigin pens enriched with peat and straw. Theauthors reported that pigs kept in an enrichedenvironment with a space allowance of 0.5m2

per pig were greatly restricted in their use ofthe substrates and therefore their behaviourwas more similar to the behaviour of pigs in abarren environment.


Live weight (kg) Space (m2) k value at legal min. space allowance

Legal min. k = 0.047

In practice, most pigs are currently housed at atemperature close to the upper limit of theircomfort zone and, particularly during thesummer months, are at risk of being kept attemperatures above their range of comfort andthermoneutrality (Webster, 1995). It is thereforeimportant that all pigs are provided withsufficient space to allow all animals to lie fully-recumbent avoiding contact with other pigs.

The opportunity to wet the skin through theprovision of wallows or showers is also importantto allow pigs to thermoregulate adequately athigher temperatures, especially for heavier pigs(AHAW, 2007a). AHAW (2007c) recommends thatpigs should be provided with wallows. InDenmark, showering facilities are compulsory forall pigs above 20kg.

Since a space allowance calculated according to k = 0.047 is based on the space required for allpigs to lie fully-recumbent simultaneously, thisminimum space requirement should apply to thelying area of the pen, which should be entirelycomposed of solid flooring, and additional spaceshould be provided for feeding, dunging,wallowing/showering and other activities.

Indeed, some studies suggest that welfare maystill be compromised at space allowancescalculated according to k = 0.047 and thatwelfare can be improved at higher spaceallowances. For example, Turner et al. (2000)investigated the effects of stocking density onaggression and immune competence of growingpigs housed on deep straw at two differentgroup sizes. The pigs grew from around 30kgbody weight at the start of the experiment toaround 60kg at the end of the experiment sixweeks later. The authors compared stockingdensities of 50kg/m2 (equivalent to around 0.6m2

per pig or a k value of 0.061 at 30kg and 1.2m2

per pig or a k value of 0.077 at 60kg) and32kg/m2 (equivalent to around 0.9m2 per pig or ak value of 0.092 at 30kg and 1.9m2 per pig or a kvalue of 0.122 at 60kg). For comparison, a kvalue of 0.047 is equivalent to 0.46m2 per pig at30kg and 0.73m2 per pig at 60kg. Thus both ofthe stocking densities considered in this studyoffered more space than that provided by a kvalue of 0.047 (and considerably more space thanthe current legal minimum). Independent ofgroup size, the authors found higher lesionscores and suppressed immune response in pigsprovided with the lower space allowance,suggesting that the smaller space allowanceincreased stress and aggression, possibly becauseof the difficulty in escaping from the immediatevicinity of an aggressor or interference leading toinconclusive results of a fight and the need forfuture aggression.

The EU Scientific Panel on Animal Health andWelfare states: For pigs of up to 110kg,aggression, skin lesions, tail-biting and responsesto adrenal challenge tests, all increased withdecreasing space allowance in the rangeequivalent to k = 0.024 to 0.060, in particular upto 0.048 (AHAW, 2005).

From the evidence presented above, it is clearthat currently permitted minimum spaceallowances under EU legislation are much toolow. The minimum solid-floored lying area shouldbe sufficient to allow all pigs to lie fully-recumbent without contacting other pigs.Evidence presented in sections 3.1.1 and 3.1.2indicates that, in order to meet the behaviouralneeds of pigs, the majority of this lying areashould be covered with a thick layer of complexnatural enrichment material, sufficient to act asbedding. This minimum bedded area should alsobe defined by the Directive. Any slatted areaprovided for dunging and/or showering shouldbe in addition to the minimum solid and beddedfloor areas.


3.1.5 Conclusions and recommendations on the housing of pigs reared for meat

Current EU legislation regarding environmental enrichment, flooring and space allowances is inadequate to protect the welfare of pigs and is poorly enforced;

Currently permitted space allowances are much too low and should be significantly increased. The minimum area of solid floor provided should be sufficient for all pigs to lie simultaneously in a fully-recumbent position without contacting other pigs;

This solid floor area should be mostly covered with a thick layer of enrichment material, sufficient to act as bedding, and fresh material should be added regularly. The wording of the Directive should be strengthened to ensure that complex natural material, which is ingestible or contains edible parts, is required for enrichment, such as unchopped straw, compost, earth or a mixture of these;

Pigs should have access to wallows or showers;

Only housing systems which are capable of meeting the requirements for enrichment should be permitted. For this reason, the use of fully-slatted floors should be prohibited. Any slatted floor area provided for dunging and/or showering should be in addition to the minimum solid and bedded floor areas.

3.2 Mutilations

3.2.1 Tail docking and tooth clipping or grinding

The majority of piglets in the EU are routinelysubjected to a number of mutilations, usuallywithout any anaesthesia or analgesia,including tail docking and tooth clipping orgrinding, which are known to cause pain inpiglets (AHAW, 2007d). Piglets showbehavioural changes indicative of painfollowing tail docking, including tail wagging(flicking the tail from side to side or up anddown), tail jamming (clamping of the tailstump between the hind limbs) andvocalisation (Noonan et al., 1994; Sutherlandet al., 2008). In addition to acute pain, dockedpigs may suffer from long-term painassociated with neuroma formation (AHAW, 2007e).

The practice of tail docking has increased as aresult of increased problems with tail bitingfollowing intensification of pig productionand the adoption of slatted flooring (AHAW,2007e). From the evidence presented insection 3.1, it is clear that tail biting can beaddressed by ensuring that pigs are providedwith an appropriate environment. The resultsof numerous studies indicate that when pigswith intact tails are fed an adequate diet,provided with sufficient water, provided withstraw or other manipulable materials, or earthfor rooting, and kept at a stocking densitywhich is not too high, tail biting is seldomserious (AHAW, 2007e). There is also evidence

that early housing conditions may affect levelsof tail biting later in life (Ibid.). For example,Moinard et al. (2003) found that tail bitingwas less likely on farms where straw wasprovided in the farrowing environment.

The teeth of young piglets are innervated andclipping the teeth without anaesthesia causesacute pain (SVC, 1997; AHAW, 2007d). Pigletsshow behavioural responses to tooth clipping,which are indicative of pain and distress.These responses include vocalisation duringthe procedure and teeth champing (frequentopening and closing of the mouth) in theminutes following the procedure (Noonan etal. 1994; Rand et al. 2002).

There is also evidence for long-term painfollowing tooth clipping. Hay et al. (2004)found that tooth clipping leads to pulp cavityopening, fracture, haemorrhage, infiltrationor abscess, and osteodentine formation. Theauthors conclude that most of the observedalterations are known to cause severe pain inhumans and it is therefore likely that toothclipping induces severe pain in piglets. Theyalso note that opening of the pulp cavitycreates an opening for bacterial entry, whichmay lead to further health disorders, andrecommend that the rationale of this practiceshould be re-evaluated.

Similarly, Prunier et al. (2002) conclude that inaddition to short-term pain, pigs are likely toexperience long-term pain from the toothabnormalities that occur following clippingand that this pain is likely to last until the

In order to avoid problems with tailbiting:

Complex natural enrichment material, such as straw, compost, earth or a mixture of these, should be provided in a thick layer across the majority of the floor area of the pen to ensure all pigs can engage in exploratory and foraging behaviour throughout the day;

Pigs should be provided with adequate space;

Fully-slatted floors should not be used;

Enrichment should be provided in the farrowing environment.

THE PRACTICE OF TAIL DOCKING HASINCREASED AS A RESULT OF INCREASEDPROBLEMS WITH TAIL BITING FOLLOWINGTHE INTENSIFICATION OF PIG PRODUCTIONAND THE ADOPTION OF SLATTED FLOORING


milk teeth are lost and replaced withpermanent teeth, a period of 50 to 120 days.This means that many pigs reared for meat mayexperience pain as a result of tooth clippingthroughout their entire life.

Tooth grinding may be used to remove thesharp tip of the teeth as an alternative to toothclipping. Tooth grinding still constitutes asignificant mutilation. Hay et al. (2004) reportthat all of the histological alterations associatedwith pain that occur following tooth clippingalso occur following grinding, although most ofthe effects appeared sooner and were ofgreater magnitude after clipping than aftergrinding. Prunier et al. (2002) also report thatgrinding, as well as clipping, results in manytooth abnormalities.

Tooth clipping or grinding is performed in anattempt to reduce injuries to sows teats and toother piglets. However, AHAW (2007d) notesthat the incidence of injuries to sows teats issimilar whether piglets teeth are shortened orleft intact. Gallois et al. (2005) conclude thatoverall, tooth clipping or grinding has very little effect on sow mammary injuries and litter performance.

A piglets sharp canine and incisor teeth aredesigned, from birth, to enable them tocompete for the best teats (Fraser andThompson, 1991). Competition for access toteats is increased in larger litters (AHAW,2007d). Limiting litter size to that which can befully sustained by the sow is thereforeimportant to minimise competition betweenpiglets and hence the risk of injuries. AHAW(2007f) recommends that genetic selectionshould not aim at exceeding an average of 12piglets born alive per litter.

Competition at the udder is also affected bysow health and milk production (AHAW,2007d). Providing enrichment and adequatespace in the farrowing environment has abeneficial effect on sow health and welfare andconsequently on milk production. Algers et al.(1990) found that sows provided with strawperformed more rapid suckling grunts duringnursing, which are associated with oxytocinrelease and milk let down. Milk production islikely to be increased in farrowing systems thatallow the sow freedom of movement, both as ageneral consequence of improved welfare andcomfort leading to higher feed intake (Dunn,2005) and from a reduction in the incidence ofspecific conditions affecting lactation. For

example, mastitis-metritis-agalactia (MMA) is acommon lactation failure syndrome in sows.MMA is rare in pasture-based systems and theincidence of MMA in indoor systems issignificantly higher in sows confined infarrowing crates compared with loose-farrowing systems (AHAW, 2007d).

Provision of enrichment and adequate space inthe farrowing environment also directlyinfluences piglet behaviour. Lewis et al. (2006)found that enrichment of the farrowingenvironment with shredded paper tended to reduce both teat lesions and piglet faciallesions. Piglets with paper spent less timeinactive or manipulating pen fittings and moretime interacting with the enrichment. Hvozdiket al. (2002) found that piglets housed in smallpens (3.6m

2or 6.8m

2, where the sow could not

move freely) showed abnormal development of agonistic behaviour compared with piglets in larger pens (29m

2, allowing free movement

of sow). Piglets in the small pens showedincreased levels of aggression, including bitingof other piglets.

Verhovsek et al. (2007) found that sows infarrowing crates had more severe injuries to theudder compared with sows in farrowing pens,and that the high level of severe lesions towardthe rear of the udder was caused by abrasionsfrom the sows hind limbs as a result ofrestriction when getting up and lying down, incombination with slatted flooring. A number ofstudies indicate that tooth clipping is notnecessary in outdoor farrowing systems (Brownet al., 1996; Delbor, 2000).

Considering the severe pain and other negativeimpacts on the welfare of piglets caused bytooth clipping or grinding, together with thepoor welfare of sows confined in farrowingcrates (see section 4.2), tooth clipping andgrinding should be prohibited and injuries tosows teats and other piglets should instead beminimised by providing adequate space andenrichment in the farrowing environment andby limiting litter size to that which can be fullysustained by the sow.

Since 2003, routine tail docking and toothclipping or grinding are prohibited in the EU.Commission Directive 2001/93/EC states:Neither tail docking nor reduction of cornerteeth must be carried out routinely but onlywhere there is evidence that injuries to sowsteats or to other pigs ears or tails haveoccurred. Before carrying out these procedures,


other measures shall be taken to prevent tailbiting and other vices taking into accountenvironment and stocking densities. For thisreason inadequate environmental conditions ormanagement systems must be changed.

However, survey data from 19 EU countriessuggest that over 90% of pigs in the EU are tail-docked (AHAW, 2007e). Tail docking isprohibited in Sweden, Finland, Norway andSwitzerland. Tooth clipping is also performedon the majority of piglets in most EU countries(PIGCAS, 2008). Tooth clipping is not performedon a significant proportion of piglets inSweden, Finland and Italy (Ibid). Tooth clippingis prohibited in Denmark, Germany, Norway andSwitzerland, although tooth grinding is stillpermitted in these countries.

It is clear that both tail docking and toothclipping or grinding continue to be performedroutinely in the majority of EU countries. It isalso clear that steps to improve theenvironment by providing adequate space andenrichment are often not taken (see sections3.1.3 and 4.2). Current legislation on taildocking and tooth clipping or grinding is widelyignored and must be strengthened tocompletely prohibit these operations for non-therapeutic reasons.

3.2.2 Castration

The quality of meat from some entire male pigscan be affected by boar taint, an odour and/ortaste that some consumers find unpleasant. Anumber of compounds are though to beinvolved in the development of boar taint,primarily androstenone and skatole.Androstenone is a male sex pheromoneproduced by the testes in sexually mature malepigs. Skatole is produced in the hind-gut ofboth male and female pigs. Skatole levelsincrease at puberty and tend to be higher inentire males; levels can also be increased if pigswallow in excreta (AHAW, 2004a). In theabsence of normally functioning testes, boartaint is rarely a problem unless pigs are kept inconditions heavily fouled with their urine andfaeces or if they are fed certain foods such asyeast from breweries (Ibid.).

Surgical castration is commonly performed toreduce the incidence of boar taint. The vastmajority of male pigs are castrated in mostEuropean countries. 90 to 100% of male pigsare castrated in Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria,

Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Finland,France, Germany, Hungary, Italy, Latvia,Lithuania, Luxembourg, Malta, TheNetherlands, Slovakia, Slovenia and Sweden.Based on data for 26 EU countries, around 100million male pigs are castrated in the EU27 eachyear, representing around 80% of male pigsproduced in the EU (Table 3.2).

The risk of boar taint is greater when pigs arereared to higher slaughter weights. In severalcountries it is common for castration to beavoided by rearing entire males to lowerslaughter weights. Around a fifth of male pigsin Poland, around a quarter in Greece, themajority in Portugal, Spain and Cyprus, andalmost all in the UK and Ireland, are notcastrated (Table 3.2).

THE MAJORITY OF MALE PIGLETS ARECASTRATED IN MOST EU COUNTRIES,USUALLY WITHOUT ANY ANAESTHETICOR PAIN RELIEF


Table 3.2 Prevalence of castration of male pigs in the EU.

Numbers of male pigs are assumed to be 50% of total pig slaughterings from Eurostat (accessed30/12/08). Mean carcass weights are calculated from Eurostat (accessed 30/12/08). Proportionscastrated are taken from the survey reported in PIGCAS (2008) except where stated otherwise.Proportion castrated in the EU27 is estimated based on data for 26 countries (which represent over97% of EU pig production).

Country Mean carcass Estimated male Estimated % Estimated number weight (2007) pigs slaughtered males castrated of pigs castrated 2007 (head)

Austria 94.8 2 799 580 100 2 799 580

Belgium 94.7 5 611 513 98 5 499 283

Bulgaria 68.9 299 343 *92 275 396

Cyprus 81.0 339 39 39 132 366

Czech Republic 88.6 2 033 048 100 2 033 048

Denmark 84.3 10 692 302 95 10 157 687

Estonia 79.3 238 173 100 238 173

Finland 87.2 1 223 166 98 1 198 703

France 88.7 12 865 190 98 12 607 886

Germany 93.5 26 655 422 100 26 655 422

Greece 62.5 972 604 76 739 179

Hungary 92.8 2 690 801 97 2 610 077

Ireland 78.5 1 307 500 0 0

Italy 117.9 6 797 803 100 6 797 803

Latvia 76.8 263 265 100 263 265

Lithuania 78.7 631 085 91 574 287

Luxembourg 67.5 73 496 100 73 496

Malta 85.0 47 145 **100 47 145

Netherlands 90.9 7 093 500 98 6 951 630

Poland 84.5 12 372 146 82 10 145 160

Portugal 63.0 2 888 858 11 317 774

Slovakia 94.6 601 423 92 553 309

Slovenia 81.9 202 656 96 194 550

Spain 82.9 20 744 272 33 6 845 610

Sweden 88.2 1 502 058 95 1 426 955

UK 77.9 4 741 866 2 94 837

Total (26 countries) - 125 687 614 79 99 232 621

EU27 88.5 128 654 110 79 101 636 747

* Data from Causeur et al. (2003)** Assumption from AHAW (2004a)


Surgical castration represents a serious welfareinsult and should be prohibited. Researchconfirms that castration is painful. Most pigletsvocalise when restrained but piglets who arecastrated emit more high frequency calls andthese calls are of higher intensity and of longerduration than in sham-castrated piglets (Wearyet al., 1998; Taylor and Weary, 2000; Marx et al.,2003; Puppe et al., 2005). Puppe et al. (2005)conclude that the observed changes ofacoustical parameters during surgical castrationcan be interpreted as vocal indicators forexperienced pain and suffering.

Following castration, piglets also showbehavioural changes indicative of pain,including trembling, spasms, stiffness,prostration, huddling up, avoidance of certainpostures, tail wagging and scratching the rump,and some of these behaviours persist for severaldays following the procedure (Hay et al., 2003;Moya et al., 2008). These studies also foundthat castrated piglets tend to show reducedsocial cohesion. Castrated piglets were moreoften isolated and their behaviour more oftendesynchronised compared with their littermates(e.g. sleeping while other piglets are suckling).Hay et al. (2003) comment that isolation anddesynchronisation may result from theprostration induced by pain and/or may be aprotective reaction to avoid contact withlittermates that could potentially cause further pain.

Castration results in significant increases inadrenocorticotropin hormone (ACTH), lactateand cortisol, indicative of stress and tissuedamage (Prunier et al., 2005). There are alsosome indications that surgical castration maycompromise the long-term health of pigs(AHAW, 2004a). De Kruijf and Welling (1988)reported that pneumonia, chronic pleurisy andchronic pericarditis were found more frequentlyin castrates than in entire males and suggestedthat immunosuppression occurs in castrated males.

The pain caused by castration can be reducedby the use of anaesthesia and analgesia.Injection of local anaesthetic into the testis islikely to be associated with some pain.However, a number of studies indicate thatoverall pain response to castration issignificantly reduced by the use of localanaesthetic. Marx et al. (2003) found thatpiglets castrated without anaesthesia producedalmost double the number of screams as pigletscastrated using local anaesthesia with lidocaine

(intratesticular injection) or restrained withoutcastration. Horn et al. (1999) reported that localanaesthesia with lidocaine (intratesticularinjection or intratesticular injection combinedwith subcutaneous infiltration of theanaesthetic into the tissue around the spermaticcord) reduced resistance movements during thecastration procedure, including during thecutting of the spermatic cord, which isconsidered to be the most painful part of theprocedure (Taylor and Weary, 2000).

The EU Scientific Panel on Animal Health andWelfare recommends that local anaesthesiashould be used for castration of piglets andthat [a]nalgesia should be used to preventpain in piglets which are castrated (AHAW,2004b).

The Panel considered that it was not possibleto recommend a method of general anaesthesiafor pigs undergoing castration at the presenttime. However, further research on the use of general anaesthetics for piglet castration has been conducted since the publication of this opinion.

Walker et al. (2004) found that inhalationanaesthesia with isoflurane or isoflurane/nitrousoxide was effective in reducing reaction tocastration and provided a safe, short, reliablemethod of anaesthesia for piglets undergoingcastration. The authors report that inductionwas smooth without excitation, fear,hyperventilation or gasping. Similarly, Hodgson(2006) investigated the use of isofluranedelivered in a novel inhaler (consisting of amask, centre body with open-close valve,vaporisation chamber with wick and injectionport, and a re-breathing bag) and concludedthat this method has the potential to provideeconomical, safe, rapid anaesthetic inductionand safe, smooth recovery in piglets. In afurther study, Hodgson (2007) concluded thatboth isoflurane or sevoflurane, delivered in anovel inhaler, could provide economical, safe,rapid anaestheic induction and maintenancewith optimal conditions for castration andrapid, smooth recovery. Schultz et al. (2007)concluded that isoflurane anaesthesia waseffective in reducing the stress response (asmeasured by catecholamine concentrations)following castration. Axiak et al. (2007) foundthat a combination of ketamine, climazolamand azaperone administered by intramuscularinjection provided effective anaesthesia forpiglet castration, although the recovery time ismuch longer than with isoflurane.


In terms of animal welfare, it is preferable foranaesthetic to be administered by aveterinarian. Currently in the EU, the methodsof anaesthesia described above can only beused by a veterinarian. However, methods ofanaesthesia that can be used by farmers arelikely to be preferred by the industry. For thisreason, there is interest in some EU countries inthe adoption of systems for carbon dioxideanaesthesia of piglets during castration.Research in The Netherlands found that ingeneral piglets were effectively anaesthetisedusing a mixture of 70% CO2 and 30% oxygen,although some piglets did show a reactionduring castration (Kluivers-Poodt et al., 2008).Dutch companies have developedanaesthetising devices using this mixture, whichare considered to meet the necessary technicaland practical criteria for use on farm (Ibid.).However, CO2 is known to be aversive to pigs(Raj and Gregory, 1995). Kohler et al. (1998)report that violent struggling and vocalizationwere elicited by CO2 and that, although amixture of 80% CO2 and 20% O2 was effectivein producing profound surgical anaesthesia andeliminating behavioural reactions during thecastration procedure, the stress response(indicated by elevated ACTH and !-endorphinplasma concentrations) was significantly greaterfollowing castration with CO2 anaesthesia thanfollowing castration without anaesthesia. Theauthors conclude that it does not thereforeseem reasonable to advocate an anaestheticregimen for the castration of piglets which ismore stressful for the animals than castrationwithout anaesthesia.

In most EU countries, anaesthesia is not used oris very seldom used for castration of piglets(PIGCAS, 2008). In Lithuania, Hungary, Polandand Slovakia, anaesthesia is routinely used onsome farms. Where anaesthesia is used,different variants of local anaesthesia usinglidocaine are the most common methods.General anaesthesia by injection (ketamine,azaperone, methomidata, mopenthiumnatricum or pentobarbital) may also be used.Whichever method of anaesthesia is used,prolonged analgesia is essential to reduce painand discomfort in the days following castration.The use of analgesia following castration iseven less common in the EU than the use ofanaesthesia (PIGCAS, 2008).

Commission Directive 2001/93/EC permitscastration of male piglets only by methods that

do not involve tearing of tissues and requiresthat where castration is performed after theseventh day of life, it must be carried out by aveterinarian and must be performed underanaesthetic with additional prolonged analgesia.

The EU Scientific Panel on Animal Health andWelfare states: it is impossible to surgicallycastrate a male pig without tearing tissues... It is clear therefore, that on this point theDirective is being widely ignored AHAW(2004b).

It is also apparent from a questionnaire surveyof piglet castration practice in Europe that insome countries it is common for piglets to becastrated after seven days of age without theuse of anaesthesia or analgesia (PIGCAS, 2008).Castration of female pigs for non-therapeuticreasons is not permitted under EU law.However, a small number of producers in someEU countries routinely castrate female pigs andthis is generally performed without anaesthesiaor analgesia (PIGCAS, 2008).

Taylor et al. (2001) investigated the responses ofpiglets to castration at 3, 10 or 17 days of ageand concluded that the pain caused bycastration is not affected by age. AHAW (2004b)concludes that there are no clear datademonstrating that pain perception related tosurgical castration is lower in pigs younger thanseven days of age. There is therefore nojustification for the current situation where EUlegislation does not require anaesthesia andanalgesia for piglets castrated up to seven daysof age. Castration of piglets withoutanaesthesia at any age is prohibited in Norwayand will be prohibited in Switzerland from2010. In Norway, local anaesthetic is used andmust be administered by a veterinarian. InSwitzerland, farmers will be permitted to useisoflorane as a general anaesthetic.

Whilst appropriate anaesthesia and prolongedanalgesia are able to reduce the pain and stressassociated with castration, it is preferable toavoid surgical castration altogether. Boar taintis rarely a problem if entire male pigs areslaughtered earlier before they reach sexualmaturity. Methods of rearing entire male pigsto higher slaughter weights withoutunacceptable levels of boar taint could also bedeveloped. Boar taint in entire male pigs can bereduced by various feeding and managementpractices and by genetic selection. Skatole levels


can be reduced by modulating nutrition,feeding, rearing and management (includinghygienic) conditions, whereas genetic selectionis more efficient at lowering androstenonelevels, and both compounds can be reduced bymeasures that delay or suppress sexualdevelopment (AHAW, 2004a). There is evidencethat feeding high-fibre diets (which is also likelyto help in the prevention of gastric ulcers seesection 3.1.1) and the use of certain feedingredients can reduce boar taint (Ibid.).Provision of wallows or showers is alsoimportant to avoid pigs wallowing in excreta.

When entire males are reared in confinementsystems, aggression and mounting behaviour canbe a problem and hence the rearing of entiremales may require improved standards for space,floor quality, enrichment and pen layout (AHAW,2004a). Avoidance of mixing is also beneficial.Rearing entire males in sibling groups from birthto slaughter reduces aggression (Fredriksen etal., 2008) and boar taint (AHAW, 2004b). Rearingentire males requires careful management buthas advantages in terms of improved growthrate and feed conversion, increased leanness ofthe carcass and a reduction in waste (AHAW,2004a). Electronic methods of detecting boartaint in carcasses are being developed tofacilitate easy and rapid identification of taintedcarcasses. Further development of porkprocessing techniques to mask taint would alsobe beneficial.

An alternative to surgical castration isimmunization against gonadotropin-releasinghormone (GnRH), known as immunocastration.The vaccine is administered via two injectionsseveral weeks apart and can be applied duringthe latter stages of production. Immunocastrationis effective in reducing boar taint, whilst partiallyretaining the production advantages of entiremale pigs (Zeng et al., 2002; Cronin et al., 2003;Jaros et al., 2005; Zamaratskaia et al., 2008).Sexual behaviour and aggression are also reducedby immunocastration (Cronin et al., 2003).Zamaratskaia et al. (2008) conclude thatimmunocastration offers advantages over surgicalcastration through improved animal welfare andbetter carcass quality.

Immunocastration is commonly used inAustralia. It is licensed for use in Switzerlandand is expected to be licensed for use in the EUin 2009. Prunier et al. (2006) advise thatconsumers may be reluctant to accept

immunocastration. However, a survey in Swedenindicated that consumers would be willing topay more for pork from immunocastrated pigscompared with the present situation withsurgically castrated male pigs (Lagerkvist et al.,2006). The authors conclude: Immunocastrationprovides several potential public as well asagribusiness advantages over surgical castration,including animal welfare improvements,potential cost savings in procedures, and gainsfrom higher growth rates for pigs. Our findingssuggest that immunocastration is a sociallyviable alternative. Therefore, the abolition ofsurgical castration of pigs should be supported.

Taylor and Weary (2000) conclude that ratherthan focusing on pain control, welfare problemsassociated with castration may be betterreduced by using non-surgical approaches (e.g.immunocastration) or by eliminating the needfor castration by rearing entire males to lighterslaughter weights or selecting boars for slightlylater sexual maturity.

The use of lower slaughter weights orimmunocastration may not be 100% effective ineliminating boar taint. However, even amongsurgically castrated males, the proportion ofcarcases affected by boar taint is significant(AHAW, 2004a). Given the serious welfareimplications of surgical castration, the rearing ofentire males to lower slaughter weights wouldappear to be the best immediate solution toavoid surgical castration of piglets, as is alreadythe case in several EU countries.

Where pigs continue to be reared to higherslaughter weights, immunocastration could beadopted to replace surgical castration, at leastas an interim measure until methods of rearingentire male pigs to higher slaughter weightswithout unacceptable levels of boar taint havebeen developed. There are clear welfarebenefits from the use of immunocastration oversurgical castration, although it would beimportant to keep the welfare aspects ofimmunocastration under review. Considerationcould also be given to slaughtering males earlierand rearing only females to higher slaughterweights. In the longer term, genetic selection ofmales for reduced levels of boar taint and/orslightly later sexual maturity could offer apotential solution for pigs reared to higherslaughter weights. Sperm-sorting technologycould also be developed to allow the productionof predominantly female pigs.


Summary of short- and long-term solutions to improve the welfare of pigs in relation to castration:

Entire males should be reared to lower slaughter weights to minimise boar taint without the need for castration;

Steps should be taken to minimise boar taint and aggression in entire males, including rearing in litter groups, modifying feeding practices and providing adequate space, opportunities to wallow other than in excreta, and a thick layer of complex natural enrichment material, sufficient to act as bedding, covering the majority of the floor area of the pen;

Where pigs are reared to higher slaughter weights, immunocastration should be used in preference to surgical castration and consideration should be given to slaughtering males earlier and rearing only females to higher slaughter weights;

At the very least, as an interim measure for any pigs undergoing surgical castration, methods of anaesthesia which have been demonstrated to be effective in reducing pain and stress responses of piglets to castration should be adopted without delay, in combination with prolonged analgesia. The method of anaesthesia should be chosen on the basis that it, in itself, does not cause further welfare issues.

In the longer term:

Genetic selection of males for reduced levels of boar taint and/or slightly later sexual development could allow entire males to be reared to higher slaughter weights;

Further development of feeding strategies to reduce boar taint could also be useful in allowing entire males to be reared to higher slaughter weights;

Electronic methods of detecting boar taint in carcasses are being developed to facilitate easy and rapid identification of tainted carcasses;

Further development of pork processing techniques to mask taint would also be beneficial;

Development of sperm-sorting technology could allow the the use of sexed semen for the production of predominantly female pigs.

3.2.3 Conclusions and recommendations on mutilations

Current EU legislation regarding tail docking and tooth clipping or grinding is inadequate to protect welfare and is poorly enforced. Despite a ban on routine tail docking and tooth clipping or grinding in the EU since 2003, these procedures continue to be performed routinely in most EU countries;

Tail docking and tooth clipping or grinding are painful and are unnecessary if pigs are kept in appropriate conditions. The wording of the Directive should be strengthened to completely prohibit tail docking and tooth clipping or grinding for non-therapeutic reasons;

Tail biting and injuries to sows teats and other piglets should be minimised by providing adequate space and enrichment and avoiding the use of fully-slatted floors in both the rearing and farrowing environments, and by limiting litter size to that which can be fully sustained by the sow;

Current EU legislation regarding piglet castration is also inadequate to protect welfare and is poorly enforced;

Surgical castration results in significant pain and stress and should be prohibited;

Entire male pigs could be reared to lighter slaughter weights to minimise boar taint in carcasses, as is already the case in several EU countries;

Where pigs continue to be reared to higher slaughter weights, the use of immunocastration is preferable to surgical castration, at least as an interim measure until methods of rearing entire male pigs to higher slaughter weights without unacceptable levels of taint have been developed. Consideration could also be given to slaughtering males earlier and rearing only females to higher slaughter weights;

At the very least, as an interim measure for any piglets undergoing surgical castration, methods of anaesthesia that have been demonstrated to be effective in reducing pain and stress responses, in combination with prolonged analgesia, should be required for all piglets;


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4. WELFARE OF BREEDING SOWS

4.1 Housing of pregnant sows

4.1.1 The impact of confinement in stalls on thewelfare of sows

It is well established that keeping sows inindividual stalls causes suffering. Stalls severelyrestrict the movement of sows, to the extentthat they have difficulty lying down andstanding up (AHAW, 2007f). Confined sowsshow increased levels of stereotypies, urinarytract infections, unresolved aggression andinactivity associated with unresponsiveness(suggesting that sows may be depressed in theclinical sense), reduced muscular and bonestrength and cardiovascular fitness (SVC, 1997;AHAW, 2007d).

The extensive evidence that individual housingin stalls is detrimental to the physical andpsychological well-being of sows and the clearwelfare advantages of housing sows in groupsled to an EU Directive prohibiting individualstalls for the housing of pregnant sows from 1 January 2013. However, the period fromweaning to four weeks after service is excludedfrom this prohibition. Council Directive2001/88/EC states: Sows and gilts shall be keptin groups during a period starting from 4 weeksafter the service to 1 week before the expectedtime of farrowing.

The use of sow stalls is already limited orprohibited by legislation in several Europeancountries, including the UK, Sweden, Finland,Norway and Switzerland. However, in the EU asa whole, individual housing in stalls remains themost widely used housing system for sowsduring gestation (AHAW, 2007d).

Housing sows in stalls until four weeks afterservice exposes them to the same welfarehazards as confinement during the remaininggestation period, including frustration, stressand restricted movement (AHAW, 2007d). Sowsare highly active, restless and motivated forsocial contact during the pre-oestrus period(from around three to four days after weaningand the following four to five days), and duringthe two to three days of oestrus sows engage inhigh levels of social activity including sniffing,flank nosing and mounting other sows as wellas standing in front of the boar if he is present;aggression is hardly ever observed during thisperiod (Pedersen et al., 1993; Pedersen, 2007).This activity is part of the natural oestrusbehaviour of sows and when sows are confinedduring this period this strong motivation cannotbe expressed (AHAW, 2007d).

The EU Scientific Panel on Animal Health andWelfare concludes: Housing of sows inindividual stalls from weaning and until 4weeks after mating severely restricts theirfreedom of movements and causes stress.Further it does not allow sows to move andsocially interact during a period of thereproductive cycle where they are highlymotivated to do so (AHAW, 2007f) and onthe basis of established knowledge, grouphousing from weaning seems to imply anumber of welfare advantages (AHAW, 2007d).

4.1.2 The impact of stress on reproductiveperformance of sows and design andmanagement of group housing systems tominimise stress

The rationale for the exclusion of the periodfrom weaning to four weeks after service fromthe requirement for group housing is concernthat stress caused by mixing sows during thisperiod may be detrimental to oestrusexpression, pregnancy rate and embryodevelopment and survival.

IT IS WELL ESTABLISHED THATCONFINING SOWS IN INDIVIDUAL STALLSCAUSES SUFFERING


However, a number of recent studies have foundno adverse effects of mixing on reproductiveperformance. For example, van Wettere et al.(2008) found no adverse effects on ovulation andpregnancy rate or embryo development andsurvival when group-housed, mated gilts wereremixed on days 3/4 or 8/9 of gestationcompared with gilts kept in stable groups orhoused individually in stalls. The authorsconclude that individually housing giltsimmediately after insemination did not improveembryo survival and that remixing gilts duringthe first ten days of gestation had no adverseeffects on embryo development or survival.Similarly, Cassar et al. (2008) investigated effectson reproductive performance of groupingunfamiliar sows at 2, 7, 14, 21 and 28 days afterservice, compared with sows housed individuallyin stalls, and found no effect on farrowing rateor litter size of grouping per se or of day ofgestation when grouped. These results indicatethat there is no benefit from housing sowsindividually for four weeks after servicecompared with grouping sows earlier ingestation. There is therefore no justification forthe individual housing of sows in the periodfrom weaning to four weeks after service.

Indeed, aggression is likely to be minimised ifsows are returned to groups as soon as possibleafter any period of separation (e.g. duringfarrowing and lactation or for service). Hoy et al.(2005) investigated the frequency of aggressiveinteractions between sows grouped afterweaning and then separated for 7 or 28 daysand found that the number of aggressiveinteractions was significantly lower after reunionif sows were reintroduced after 7 days ofindividual housing in stalls compared with thosereintroduced after 28 days of individual housing.The authors conclude that the frequency ofaggressive interactions increases with increasingtime interval between separation and reunion. Inthe UK, where sow stalls have been completelyprohibited since 1999, sows may be housedindividually during service (although they muststill have room to turn around) and the welfarecode recommends returning sows to groups 30minutes after insemination (DEFRA, 2003).

Where sows are kept in large groups, aggressionat mixing can be reduced by pre-mixing smallgroups of sows prior to their introductiontogether to the larger group (Durrell et al.,2003). Group housing systems have also beendeveloped for sows during lactation. Thesesystems can avoid the need to regroup sowsafter weaning and may have welfare benefits forboth sows and piglets (see section 4.2).

A number of studies have also found no effect ofinduced stress (Razdan et al., 2002 and 2004) orrepeated acute stress from repeated regrouping(Soede et al., 2006) on reproductiveperformance. Turner et al. (1999, 2002 and 2005)conclude that acute stress or repeated acutestress, even during the critical period ofinduction of oestrus and ovulation, do not affectreproductive performance in pigs but that severestress can affect reproductive performance insome pigs if this continues for a substantialperiod. From these results and those discussedabove showing no adverse effects of mixingduring early pregnancy, it appears that sows areable to adapt to the transient stress of mixingand that repr

welfare of pigs in the european union

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