INSERE 03/07/16 DOSSIER ENLEVE 03/08/16

What a difference a flag makes

Why ship owners’ responsibility to ensure sustainable ship recycling needs to go beyond flag state jurisdiction (Part 1)

Key findings at a glance

Every year, more than 1000 large ocean-going vessels such as tankers, container,

cargo and passenger ships are sold for dismantling. More than 70% of end-of-life

vessels end up in a beaching yard in India, Bangladesh or Pakistan for hazardous

breaking operations. The remaining part is mainly dismantled in China and Turkey,

where proper infrastructure and procedures can allow for cleaner and safer practices

if applied correctly. However, only very few ship owners ensure fully clean and safe

operations and monitor their end-of-life fleets’ recycling.

EU ship owners control around 40% of the world’s merchant fleet. EU owners

account for around one third of the end-of-life tonnage beached in substandard

yards in South Asia. Thus, the EU is the single largest market sending end-of-life

ships for dirty and dangerous shipbreaking and has a particular responsibility to

regulate ship recycling.

Proposed regulatory measures both at the international and European Union level

mainly based on flag state jurisdiction, that is, law enforcement via the flag state,

will fail to improve current shipbreaking practices and will not ensure the polluter

pays principle as ship owners can simply flag out to a non-party or a non-compliant

flag to avoid these laws.

According to UNCTAD, almost 73% of the world fleet is flagged in a country other

than that of the vessels beneficial ownership. This means, there is a huge

discrepancy between the states in which the beneficial owners of a ship are based

and the flag states which exercise regulatory control over the world fleet.

Nearly 40% of all end-of-life ships beached in South Asia were imported under flags

of convenience which are grey- or black-listed by the Paris Memorandum of

Understanding, i.e. flags with a particularly weak record of enforcing international

law. The most popular flags used for substandard shipbreaking are St Kitts and

Nevis, Comoros and Tuvalu. These “end-of-life flags” are hardly used during the

operational life of a ship and offer special “discount rates” for last voyages and quick

and easy short-term registration without any nationality requirements.

Also European ship owners use grey- and black-listed end-of-life flags. The analysis

shows that while during operational life 22% of the global fleet uses a European

flag, less than 8% of the ships sold for breaking still fly a European flag – which

means European flag state jurisdiction only covers a very small amount of end-of-

life vessels.

Without legal, policy and financial instruments, which go beyond flag state

jurisdiction, it will be impossible to implement the polluter pays principle for ship

owners. FOCs, in particular endof-life flags with weak law enforcement offer legal

loopholes to ship owners and cash buyers.

Introduction

This briefing paper raises concerns regarding new legislation meant to regulate ship

recycling practices, in particular the International Maritime Organisation’s Hong Kong

Convention1 and the European Union Ship Recycling Regulation 2, and argues that

legislation mainly based on flag state jurisdiction will neither be able to solve the problems

of substandard shipbreaking nor enforce the polluter pays principle on ship owners. The

analysis of the link between flags of convenience (FOCs), in particular “end-of-life flags”

and substandard shipbreaking practices shows that FOCs are likely to undermine the

implementation of the polluter pays principle by making it easy for ship owners to

circumvent legislation by flagging-out to a non-party or a non-compliant flag. In

conclusion, the briefing paper asserts that solutions urgently needed to ensure sustainable

ship recycling must go beyond flag state jurisdiction in order to close the loopholes created

by the FOC system.

Currently, most ship owners circumvent existing legislation meant to protect in particular

developing countries from hazardous wastes present within the structure of end-of-life

vessels, and are therefore not held accountable for polluting and dangerous shipbreaking

practices. Only a small number of ship-owning companies have taken voluntary measures

to ensure the clean and safe recycling of their obsolete vessels. For the sake of higher

profits, most ship owners sell their end-oflife vessels with the help of a cash buyer to a

shipbreaking yard that lacks proper infrastructure and safe working conditions. It is a

choice of profits at the cost of people and the environment.

The European Union has a particular responsibility to provide solutions to the shipbreaking

problem as around 40% of the worlds’ commercial fleet is owned by European companies

and more than one third of the tonnage broken every year in substandard yards in South

Asia was sold by European companies. The EU is thus the single largest market sending

end-of-life ships for dirty and dangerous shipbreaking. Hazardous waste usually follows

the path of least resistance – and backed by noncompliant FOCs, ship owners will be able

to continue choosing profits at the cost of people and the environment unless other

incentives are introduced to promote clean and safe recycling.

Figure 1a shows that a

large proportion of the end-

of-life vessels beached in

substandard South Asian

shipbreaking yards are sold

by owners based in the EU,

in particular Greece and

Germany — 32% of all

beached vessels in 2014.

These vessels have a clear

link to the EU via their

beneficial ownership and

are currently not covered

by the European attempts

to regulate ship recycling

based on flag state

jurisdiction as most do not

sail under a European flag.

The figure takes into account Norwegian-owned vessels as Norway usually harmonises its

domestic law with European environmental law.

Figure 1b shows that

Greece and Germany

are amongst the

countries sending most

end-f-life vessels to

substandard

shipbreaking yards.

However, also the East

Asian shipping nations

China (with Hong Kong),

South Korea, Singapore

and Japan sell a lot of

end-of-life vessels and

these countries equally

need to find solutions to ensure that their ship owners demand clean and safe ship

recycling.

1 CURRENT PRACTICES & LAWS

1.1 The global shipbreaking crisis

Every year, around 1000 large ocean-going vessels such as oil tankers, cargo and container

ships are sold for dismantling. More than 70% of these end-of-life vessels are not recycled

properly but are run ashore on tidal beaches in South Asia' where they are scrapped by a

largely unprotected and unskilled workforce and ravage the coastal eco-system.4 Only a

small number of ship owners take full responsibility for the clean and safe recycling of their

end-of-life fleet by choosing modern yards such as those operating in the ELI, China and

Turkey, by ensuring third party certification and strict supervision of the recycling process.5

Shipbreaking in South Asia has been identified as one of the most dangerous jobs in the

world by the International Labour Organisation :6 workers do not only fall victim to severe

and fatal accidents, but are also exposed to hazardous materials such as asbestos and

toxic fumes. Their life expectancy is alarmingly low. Especially in Bangladesh, worst forms

of child labour in the shipbreaking yards remains a serious concern. 7 The beaching method

currently used in the South Asian yards does not allow for the full containment of pollutants

and coastal areas in India, Bangladesh and Pakistan are contaminated. Livelihoods of local

fishermen have been destroyed. Toxics from end-of-life vessels, one of the largest sources

of hazardous waste exported to developing countries,8 are not properly managed: in

Pakistan and Bangladesh the shipbreaking industry is void of any hazardous waste

management system and wastes are dumped carelessly or re-sold on the second-hand

market. In India, asbestos-containing materials can be re-sold without restriction, recent

satellite images show oil spills around beached vessels,9 and PCBs cannot be destroyed

properly due to the lack of an adequate waste destruction facility. Moreover, in Bangladesh

mangrove forests protecting the coast have been illegally cut in order to make space for

more shipbreaking yards.

The large majority of ship owners do not feel responsible for the end-of-life management

of their vessels and circumvent existing legislation regulating the trade of toxic end-of-life

vessels. Also recent legislation based on flag state jurisdiction will continue to offer easy

circumvention of the law.

1.2 How ship owners circumvent existing waste laws

The Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes

and Their Disposal entered into force in 1992. It seeks to control and reduce the

transboundary movement of hazardous wastes, in particular from developed to developing

countries. The Basel Ban Amendment fully prohibits the export of hazardous waste from

Annex VII countries (that is, OECD countries) to developing countries.10 End-of-life ships

which contain hazardous materials in their structure – such as asbestos, heavy metals,

PCBs, residue oils – are covered by the Basel Convention.11 Whenever a ship owner

intends to sell a ship for recycling and the ship contains hazardous materials (which is

almost always the case), the ship becomes waste under international environmental law.

The responsibility for the implementation of the Basel Convention is put on the “exporting

state”, the “transit state” and the “importing state”. Regardless of the ship’s flag and

ownership, the port state from where a ship destined for breaking departs is considered

the exporting state. Under the pretext of sustained operational use, ship owners keep

circumventing the Basel Convention by simply not revealing their intent to dispose their

ship to the authorities where their ship is in port. As a consequence, port states seldom

have the chance to enforce the Basel Convention, and illegal exports to substandard

breaking yards have remained without legal consequences for the ship owners. Similarly

at the European level – where the Basel Convention and the Ban Amendment are

incorporated into the European Union (EU) Waste Shipment Regulation (WSR)12 – EU

Member States have only in few cases been able to halt the illegal traffic of hazardous end-

of-life ships.13

No attempts to enforce the Basel Convention or EU WSR on end-of-life ships have been

made on the basis of a ship’s flag or ownership country: under current environmental

legislation, a German-flagged and German-owned end-of-life vessel which is sold for

breaking to a yard in a developing country will not be stopped on the basis of its German

flag or the fact that its owner is based in Germany – this despite that the export of

hazardous waste from Germany to a developing country is strictly prohibited.

When the Basel Convention State Parties started discussing alternative and more

appropriate interpretations of “exporting state” for ships – such as the flag state or the

state where the beneficial owner of the ship is located – the International Maritime

Organisation (IMO) decided to start working on a new legally binding convention

specifically on ship recycling to be based on enforcement by both the flag state and

recycling state. As closing the Basel Convention loopholes for ships took a sidestep to the

negotiations for a new convention at the IMO, so did the prospect of seeing beneficial

owners of ships held responsible for sustainable ship recycling.

The maritime industry has so far failed to accept that end-of-life vessels are hazardous

wastes whose handling needs special precautions in order not to harm workers, local

communities and the environment and in order not to externalise costs to countries with

poor law enforcement and inadequate infrastructure.

1.3 New legislation - new loopholes

The Hong Kong Convention

The IMO’s Hong Kong International Convention for the Safe and Environmentally Sound

Recycling of Ships (HKC) was adopted in 2009 and has not yet entered into force due to

the lack of ratification by both ship recycling states and flag states needed to fulfil the

entry-into-force criteria. The HKC is based on obligations for flag states, which enforce the

requirements on ship owners registered under their flag, and for recycling states, which

implement requirements for ship recycling facilities. Flag states are responsible for

ensuring that that ship owners compile an inventory of hazardous materials (IHM) present

within the structure of their ships and have a responsibility to ensure that a recycling plan

in line with the HKC’s requirements is prepared. Flag states need to further ensure that

the dismantling of its end-of-life ships is only conducted in recycling facilities that meet the

requirements of the HKC.

The EU Ship Recycling Regulation

Due to the lack of progress and slow ratification of the HKC at the international level and

the continuing problem of European ship owners selling their old vessels to substandard

yards, the EU adopted a new Regulation on Ship Recycling (SRR), which entered into force

in December 2013.14 The SRR requires EU Member States to make sure that end-of-life

vessels flying their flag will only be dismantled in ship recycling facilities compliant with

the SRR’s requirements. Ship recycling facilities outside the EU must be approved by the

European Commission and have to allow for independent audits. The SRR prescribes the

use of modern ship recycling facilities, its environmental and safety requirements are thus

difficult to meet by breaking facilities operating on tidal beaches as practiced in South Asia.

The standards set are higher than those set by the IMO’s convention. Contrary to the HKC,

the SRR does not stop at the gate of the recycling facility, but seeks to regulate waste

treatment and disposal outside the ship recycling facilities.

Easy circumvention: flagging out to avoid new laws

Whilst the NGO Shipbreaking Platform has criticised the HKC for setting low standards for

clean and safe ship recycling and thus risks rubberstamping current substandard

practices,15 it has welcomed that the SRR sets higher standards and also regulates the

downstream management of hazardous wastes generated by ship recycling activities.

However, both the HKC and the SRR are easy to circumvent by the use of FOCs. Already

extensively used during the operational life of a ship and disproportionately popular with

end-of-life ships, FOCs make it possible for ship owners to fall under the jurisdiction of a

flag state which has not ratified or is not effectively implementing international maritime

law. The requirements of the SRR can be circumvented by simply flagging out to a non-EU

flag – a completely legal and already widespread practice .16

Opponents of the SRR, in particular several ship owners’ associations, have argued that

regional legislation based on EU flag state jurisdiction cannot be effective as most European

ship owners do not use European flags. They have stated that only an international

instrument – the HKC – can provide a solution. However, in case the HKC entered into

force, the FOC system will equally allow ship owners to use non-party or non-compliant

flags: certain flag states will either not ratify the Convention and thereby offer a loophole

to ship owners and cash buyers, or they will not effectively implement the Convention,

which will be difficult to control as the IMO does not prescribe a mandatory audit for ship

registries. Moreover, the HKC does not provide an enforcement mechanism such as country

reviews and does not require independent third party certification for ship recycling

facilities. This means that its enforcement will depend on weak governance countries such

as Bangladesh, which are already unable to enforce a whole range of international

requirements, and FOC states, in particular the popular end-of-life flag states, which are

equally known for their weak enforcement of international maritime law.

The following chapters will give a closer look at the question why instruments based on

flag state responsibility will fail to alter current substandard shipbreaking practices and

hold ship owners responsible, and why FOCs pose a serious threat to the effective

implementation of the EU SRR. FOCs are a root cause for a number of negative impacts

caused by the shipping industry and the system will make it impossible to effectively

implement the polluter pays principle for end-of-life ships. Without further instruments that

go beyond flag state responsibility, ship owners will not have a strong incentive to choose

clean and safe recycling.

2 THE WEAKNESS OF FLAG STATE RESPONSIBILITY

The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) provides for the primary

responsibility for ships to rest with the flag state, in particular where a vessel is operating

on the high seas. Thus, every merchant vessel needs to be registered under the flag of a

particular state under whose regulatory control it consequently falls. The flag state is, for

instance, responsible for the inspection of the vessel and its seaworthiness, ensures safety

and pollution prevention, and certifies the crew. As rights and obligations under

international law are mainly imposed on to vessels via the flag states, they are a crucial

factor in determining the enforceability of international standards.

2.1 Flags of Convenience – the missing “genuine link”

A flag state is free to determine the conditions for the registration of vessels flying its flag,

and traditionally, flag states had strict nationality rules for the vessels registered under

their flag. Whilst merchant vessels have been using flags other than the country of their

origin at least since Roman times – especially during wars or to avoid trade restrictions

including slave trade prohibitions – today’s wide-spread use of open registries, so-called

“flags of convenience” (FOC),17 is a modern phenomenon which has increasingly grown

since the 1950s. The first FOCs as we know them today date back to 1915 when ship

owners based in the US started to use the flags of Honduras and Panama for their ships in

order to avoid new laws guaranteeing seafarers’ rights and to reduce raising labour

costs18, as well as allowing for the circumvention of prohibition laws.

The 1958 Geneva Convention on the High Seas requires a “genuine link” between a ship’s

owner19 and its flag state and demands that “the state must effectively exercise its

jurisdiction and control in administrative, technical and social matters over ships flying its

flag". Whilst traditional flag states have strict nationality rules for the vessels registered

under their flag, some states allow for the registration of a vessel under their flag without

strict criteria and provide for the establishment of a “genuine link” via one-ship post box

companies. These flags are called flags of convenience, or “open registries”, as referred to

by the shipping industry.

A FOC usually displays the following characteristics:

ownership and/or control of a ship registered under its flag accessible to non-

citizens,

unrestricted transfer from one registry to the other,

only low local taxes on income,

flag state economies often depend on registration and annual tonnage fees,

crewing by non-nationals permitted under the flag state’s more permissive labour

laws,

weak administrative power to effectively enforce international regulations or to

control the shipping companies, and

advice on the cheapest, quickest and most anonymous ways of incorporating in the

country by setting up a post box company or buying shell companies provided to

ship owners.

In an attempt to restrict the use of FOCs, the principle of a “genuine link” is repeated in

Article 91 of the 1982 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS). In

1986, the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) further sought

to solidify the definition of the “genuine link” with the United Nations Convention for

Registration of Ships. This Convention requires that a flag state must be linked to its ships

either by having an economic stake in the ownership or by providing seafarers to crew the

ships. Due to the lack of ratification, the Convention for Registration of Ships has never

entered into force. A one-ship post box company thus remains the only “genuine link” to

the flag under which a large proportion of the world’s fleet is registered. According to

UNCTAD, almost 73% of the world fleet is flagged in a country other than that of the

vessels beneficial ownership.20 Therefore, there is a huge discrepancy between the states

in which ship owners are based and the flag states that exercise regulatory control over

the world fleet.

FOCs compete for ship registration with policies that promise lower costs by keeping taxes,

fees, and regulatory burdens light. Despite having ratified several IMO and ILO

conventions, FOCs often lack the resources or the will to enforce international law

effectively. Ship owners choose FOCs for their vessels in order to avoid the associated costs

involved with regulatory compliance and thus determine themselves the operating

standards of their ships. Ship owners can easily and quickly change the flag of their ship

and the practice of recurrently changing the flag of a ship to reduce costs and avoid laws

is also referred to as “flag hopping”. It has led to increased competition amongst registries

for less regulation and lower costs, with traditional flags states being unable to compete

with popular FOCs such as Panama and Liberia. As a consequence, also European flag

states have drastically reduced taxes for the shipping industry, for instance by replacing

corporate tax by a flat-rate tonnage tax system and creating second international or off-

shore registries21 to incentivise ship owners to maintain European flags.

Figure 2a and 2b show the distribution of the largest flag states as well as the states where

the majority of the beneficial owners of the global merchant fleet are located. The largest

flag states by far are Panama and Liberia, under whose flags nearly one third of the worlds’

merchant fleet is registered. Most of the ships are however owned by EU Member States

(in particular Greece and Germany) and East Asian countries (mainly Japan, China and

South Korea). The comparison of the largest flag states and the most important ship-

owning states makes it obvious that there is a total discrepancy between states in which

ship owners are based and states that exercise regulatory control over these ships.

2.2 Making money or exercising control? FOCs and substandard shipping

Despite exercising a public function, the FOC registries are in most cases not government

agencies, but private companies situated outside the actual flag state or operating from

different branch offices run by agents. Typically, the profits are shared between the

company and the state of registration .24 For the Panama flag, the most widely used FOC,

the Panama Maritime Authority does not provide any information on its website: the flag

can be obtained from various consultants who offer registration under several FOCs.25 The

registries of Liberia and Marshall Islands, the second and third largest FOCs, are based in

the US. They were initially created as low-cost solutions for American ship owners.

Providing flags to foreign ships has become a profitable business for FOC states.

The faultiness of this practice can be seen as follows: a state which allows for the

registration of a foreign ship, knowing that it may deprive another state’s legitimate

interest to exercise the right to enforce laws onto it, abuses the right to define the “genuine

link” under its national law and effectively breaches the principle of good faith vis-à-vis

other states. In the case of FOCs, flag state jurisdiction allows ship owners to circumvent

laws and/or avoid fees and taxes and deprives the state of beneficial ownership of its right

to enforce its law on the ships. FOCs are further problematic in the context of international

maritime law making. It is flag states that negotiate, adopt and enforce international

maritime law and states representing significant amounts of tonnage, in particular large

FOCs such as Panama and Liberia, have little incentives to make regulation stricter for their

clients, the ship owners. Still, the drafting, adoption and entry-into-force of IMO

conventions, which regulate the shipping industry, strongly depend on the approval and

ratification by major FOC states. Moreover, even if conventions are in force and FOCs have

ratified them, the IMO does not have strong mechanisms to ensure the actual enforcement

in case of non-compliant flags.26

FOC states typically do not have enough surveyors for all the ships on their register and

their general maritime legal and administrative infrastructure is not sufficient to effectively

monitor and enforce compliance. They are often unwilling or incapable of investing in law

enforcement – either because it is economically convenient to ignore these laws so that

vessels are not dissuaded from flying their flag or because enforcing the law is costly. Last

but not least, when the beneficial owner of a ship is located outside its jurisdiction, it is

difficult, if not impossible, for the FOC state to exercise effective control, for instance

through fines or other penalties.

Especially the following problems have been attributed to the use of FOCs:

Concealed ownership: The 2003 OECD report "Ownership and Control of Ships"

found that corporate structures in the maritime industry are multi-layered, spread

across numerous jurisdictions, and make the beneficial owner almost impenetrable

to law enforcement and taxation. The report said that “it is very easy, and

comparatively cheap, to establish a complex web of corporate entities to provide

very effective cover to the identities of beneficial owners who do not want to be

known."27 It pointed out that FOCs play a crucial role in providing ship owners with

opportunities to conceal a ship’s ownership structure.

Undermining labour rights: The International Transport Workers Federation (ITF)

has been denouncing the practice of FOCs for several decades. It argues that ship

owners use FOCs in order to take advantage not only of cheap registration fees and

low taxes, but also of minimal regulation regarding labour rights and the freedom

to employ cheap labour. For workers, this practice often means low wages, poor

working conditions, inadequate food or drinking water, and long periods of work

without proper rest leading to excessive fatigue and accidents. The ITF says that

FOCs “make it more difficult for unions, industry stakeholders and the public to hold

ship owners to account” and thus legally liable. 28 The ITF’s Fair Practice Committee

looks into flag state practices with a particular focus on seafarers’ rights and sets

up a list of problematic FOCs: the largest flag states Panama, Liberia and Marshall

Islands are amongst those listed. 29 Several European international registries

feature on this list as well, showing that also the EU needs to protect seafarers’

rights. The ITF consequently continues to campaign for the establishment of a

meaningful “genuine link” between the flag and the ship owner to better protect

seafarers.

Environmental pollution: FOCs have been involved in severe accidents and

subsequent pollution, including major oil spills – the flag of Malta for Erika, Bahamas

for Prestige, Marshall Islands for Deepwater Horizon, and Liberia for Torrey Canyon,

Amoco Cadiz and Sea Empress. In the case of Erika, the flag state had not made

sure the ship was fully seaworthy. When the oil tanker sank close to the coast of

Brittany and released 30,000 tonnes of oil into the sea, the spill polluted 400 km of

coast and killed tens of thousands of animals. The classification society Rina, oil

giant Total, who had chartered the vessel, and an Italian company identified as one

of the owners, were condemned to pay several million euros in fines in 2008. During

the investigations, 12 shell companies were found linked to the beneficial owner,

most of them brass plate companies based in Malta and Monrovia. The flag state of

Malta, which had overall responsibility for the vessel’s seaworthiness, pleaded

diplomatic immunity after the Malta Maritime Authority was charged by the French

courts for reckless endangerment, carelessness and breach of the law when

inspecting and issuing flag state certificates to Erika. The French Criminal Supreme

Court finally had to withdraw the charges as it held that the issuing of a

seaworthiness certificate is a sovereign act of a flag state, i.e. even though it was

clear that the Maltese authorities had given a certificate to a ship whose condition

was not sufficiently safe, the French courts could not hold the flag state liable for

the harm caused along its coasts. In the case of Deepwater Horizon, the Joint

Investigation Committee found that the flag state – Marshall Islands – was

responsible for "abdicating its safety inspection responsibilities".30

Illegal fishing: FOCs play an important role in illegal, unreported and unregulated

(IUU) fishing.31 In this context, FOCs are also referred to as “flags of non-

compliance” (FONC), that is, flags that do not fulfil their obligation to enforce fishing

regulations on their fishing vessels. European companies have been found using

these FOCs to fish illegally around the world. The “Stop Illegal Fishing Campaign”

argues: “FONC are notoriously easy, quick and cheap to acquire, obtainable over

the Internet for just a few hundred dollars. IUU vessels can therefore re-flag and

change names several times in a season to confuse management and surveillance

authorities, a practice known as 'flag hopping'. Backed by shell companies, joint-

ventures and hidden owners, FONC severely constrain efforts to combat IUU fishing,

as they make it extremely difficult to locate and penalise the real owners of vessels

that fish illegally”.32 Large FOCs such as Panama have been found to be flags of

non-compliance in the context of IUU.

Other examples of deplorable practices linked to FOCs include the circumvention of

sanctions against the South African apartheid regime and organised crime such as

drug trade and human trafficking.

2.3 Attempts to regulate FOCs

As already mentioned, the United Nations Convention for Registration of Ships, which

attempts to introduce a stricter interpretation of the “genuine link” required between a ship

and its flag, has not yet entered into force almost 30 years after its adoption. Concerns

regarding the poor implementation of international maritime law by FOCs have also been

raised within the IMO: “With 167 Governments as Members, IMO has plenty of teeth but

some of them don't bite. The result is that serious casualty rates - probably the best way

of seeing how effective Governments are at implementing legislation - vary enormously

from flag to flag. The worst fleets have casualty rates that are a hundred times worse than

those of the best. ”33 The IMO consequently seeks to assist flag states who “lack the

expertise, experience and resources” necessary to properly enforce maritime laws34 and

has created an audit scheme to help these flag states. The use of this auditing scheme

remains voluntary and its results confidential if requested by the audited Party. So far,

Member States to the IMO have been unwilling to question the fact that developing

countries are responsible for enforcing laws on the global merchant fleet whose owners are

primarily based in Europe, East Asia and North America – a close to total divergence of the

nationality of owners and the jurisdictions under which their ships fall.

At the European Union level, incentives for ship owners to return to EU registries and to

increase the competitiveness of EU Member States’ flags have been put in place. At a

national level, several Member States have adopted arrangements for aiding maritime

transport. In 2004, the European Commission issued Guidelines on State Aid in Maritime

Transport. The general objective of this soft-law instrument is to increase transparency of

state aid schemes and encourage the flagging or re-flagging to Member States' registers.

According to the Guidelines, Member States can offer substantial tax reductions to ship

owners by introducing a tonnage tax. In general, ship owners can benefit from this tax

scheme if they keep at least 60% of their tonnage under an EU flag and comply with certain

requirements related to crewing, safety and environmental performance. Benefitting from

the tonnage tax system thus initially meant the wider use of EU flags – nonetheless, aid

can be “exceptionally granted to fleets which also comprise vessels flying other flags“,

including FOCs, and Member States in reality only need to ensure that beneficiaries

“commit themselves to increasing or at least maintaining under the flag of one of the

Member States the share of tonnage that they will be operating under such flags“.35 The

tonnage tax system has thus not been very successful in substantially reversing the trend

amongst European ship owners of using FOCs.

The failure to reduce the use of FOCs has led to the development of port state control as

an additional enforcement mechanism to strengthen weak law enforcement practices by

certain FOCs: “The most important IMO conventions contain provisions for Governments

to inspect foreign ships that visit their ports to ensure that they meet IMO standards. If

they do not, they can be detained until repairs are carried out. Experience has shown that

this works best if countries join together to form regional port State control

organizations.”36 Port state control authorities cooperate with rules defined in regional

Memorandums of Understanding (MOU). The Paris MOU, covering most of Europe and the

North Atlantic, draws up a performance list of flags. Flag states, which do not exercise

proper regulatory control over their ships, are grey and black listed and are subject to

trading restrictions or reinforced controls. 37

Whilst port state control may be successful in reducing some substandard practices of the

shipping industry and dissuade some ship owners from using the worst FOCs, when a

vessel reaches its endof-life and commences its last voyage towards the shipbreaking yard,

there is no scope and incentive for a port state to intervene. The following section argues

why FOCs are of particular concern to effective implementation of legislation on ship

recycling based on flag state jurisdiction.

1 The Hong Kong International Convention for the Safe and Environmentally Sound

Recycling of Ships was adopted 15 May 2009. It will enter into force 24 months after

ratification by 15 States, representing 40 per cent of world merchant shipping by gross

tonnage and a combined maximum annual ship recycling volume not less than 3 per cent

of their combined tonnage. This means that next to flag states representing 40 % of the

world’s commercial ships, at least two major shipbreaking countries, such as China and

India, have to ratify the convention for it to enter into force.

2 The EU Ship Recycling Regulation (EC 1257/2013) entered into force on 30 December

2013. It will become applicable 6 months after the date that the combined maximum

annual ship recycling output of the ship recycling facilities included in the European List

constitutes not less than 2.5 million light displacement tons (LDT), or latest on 31

December 2018.

3 In 2014, 1026 vessels were broken globally — 641 of these vessels, representing 74

percent of the gross tonnage dismantled, ended up on the beaches of India, Bangladesh

and Pakistan.

4 See www.shipbreakingplatform.org/problems-and-solutions

5 A list of responsible ship owners can be found at:

http://www.shipbreakingplatform.org/shipbreawp2011/wp-

content/uploads/2015/01/List-of-responsibleship-owners.pdf.

6 See ILO (2004) Safety and Health in Shipbreaking. Guidelines for Asian Countries and

Turkey.

7 See FIDH and YPSA (2008) Childbreaking Yards. Child Labour in the Ship Recycling

Industry in Bangladesh. The NGO Shipbreaking Platform has found through recent

research in 2014 that although very young boys are now found less in the yards, a large

number of adolescent workers are still employed in shipbreaking in Bangladesh despite

the fact that no worker under 18 is allowed to work in hazardous industries according to

the Bangladesh Labour Act. The Platform as well as the media documented the child

labour situation in various case studies and reports in 2014.

8 See Impact Assessment for an EU Strategy on better Ship Dismantling. European

Commission: 2008.

9 See Google Earth images of Alang, India, 2015

10 The Ban Amendment is not yet in force at the international level; however, it is fully

implemented into European law by the Waste Shipment Regulation (WSR) which

prohibits the export of hazardous waste from the EU to non-OECD countries.

11 See Decision VII/26 of the 7th meeting of the Conference of the Parties to the Basel

Convention.

12 Regulation (EC) No 1013/2006 of the European Parliament and the Council of 14 June

2006 on shipments of waste.

13 When alerted, Member States have detained end-of-life vessels regardless of their

flag and ownership which were about to be exported for illegal breaking in a developing

country. End-of-life vessels can only be exported to an OECD destination from the EU

according to the WSR. The most recent cases include the “Northern Vitality” in the

German port of Wilhelmshaven (2012) and the “Global Spirit” (2014) in the Belgian port

of Antwerp. Both vessels were arrested by the relevant authorities and were

consequently not exported to India for breaking as originally intended by the ship owners

– the Northern Vitality is still in operational use as of March 2015 and the Global Spirit

was broken in Turkey. Cases like these remain rare as there is no transparency on the

ship owners’ intent to dispose of their vessels.

14 The EU Ship Recycling Regulation (EC 1257/2013) entered into force on 30 December

2013. It will become applicable 6 months after the date that the combined maximum

annual ship recycling output of the ship recycling facilities included in the European List

constitutes not less than 2.5 million light displacement tons (LDT), or latest on 31

December 2018.

15 The NGO Shipbreaking Platform has criticised the HKC for failing to uphold the

principle of the international hazardous waste trade law, by permitting companies to

export toxic end-of-life ships to developing countries without first pre-cleaning them of

toxic materials and without setting clear standards for downstream waste management,

legitimising the fatally flawed beaching method of scrapping toxic ships on ocean

beaches, a practice that is not allowed in developed countries, without providing a clear

understanding of the adequate methods available for clean and safe recycling, neglecting

provisions to substitute hazardous materials used in shipbuilding with safer existing

alternatives, and rejecting funding mechanisms, such as a mandatory ship owners’ fund,

to internalize costs with the polluters and to support safer and cleaner operations. See:

www.shipbreakingplatform.org/shipbreawp2011/wp-

content/uploads/2011/11/IMOSpeech RIZWANAHASAN. pdf

16 Whilst circumvention of the Basel Convention and EU WSR involve the illegal practice

of not disclosing the intent to dispose a ship to relevant authorities and can be criminally

sanctioned, circumvention of the HKC and EU SRR is completely legal as it involves the

legitimate business of changing the flag of a ship, also known as 'flag-hopping'

17 The term FOC is generally understood as the practice of registering a merchant vessel

in a sovereign state different from the state where the beneficial owner of a ship is

located. The Maritime Transport Committee of the OECD defined it as "the flag of such

countries whose law allows – and indeed makes it easy – for ships owned by foreign

nationals or companies to fly those flags in contrast to the practice in the maritime

countries where the right to fly the national flag is subject to stringent conditions and

involves far reaching obligations". See OECD (1958) "Study of the Expansion of the Flags

of Convenience and of Various Aspects Thereof".

18 The Seamen’s Act of 1915 had strengthened sailors’ rights such as regulated working

hours, adequate payment and requirements for shipboard food.

19 The ownership structure of ships is usually described in terms of a beneficial owner, a

commercial operator, and a registered owner. The beneficial owner is deemed to be the

ultimate owning entity and is often identical with the commercial operator responsible for

the commercial direction of the ship. The registered owner is the company or individual

to whom the ship's legal title of ownership has been registered. This often involves FOCs

and post-box companies. Unfortunately, both certain flags states and the maritime

industry interpret the requirement of a “genuine link” between the owner of a ship and

its flag as fulfilled by a post-box company in the flag state, rather than by a substantial

“genuine link” as defined by Convention for Registration of Ships.

20 UNCTAD (2014), Maritime Transport Review, p.38.

21 Several EU Member States have established second registries. With the aim of

preventing vessels from flagging out to an open registry and of attracting others back,

manning costs, for example, are reduced to a competitive level. The result is a two-tier

system with either a strict or a highly flexible employment regime.

22 See http://unctadstat.unctad.org.

23 See www.ics-shipping.org/shipping-facts/shipping-and-world-trade/largest-beneficial-

ownership-countries.

24 Global Witness and International Transport Workers Federation (ITF) (2011) Taylor-

made: The Pivotal Role of Liberia’s Forests and Flag of Convenience in Regional Conflict,

p. 32.

25 For instance, “Panama Ship Registry” (www.pana mash ipregistry.net).

26 The IMO has no enforcement and compliance monitoring powers. There is a voluntary

IMO Member State audit scheme intended to provide a Member State with an

assessment of how effectively it administers and implements the mandatory IMO

instruments covered by the scheme. Information on which states have undergone a

voluntary audit is distributed by an internal IMO Circular, which is not publicly available.

States may decide to make the audit report public, but there is no requirement to do so.

27 See OECD “Ownership and Control of Ships”, March 2013, p. 3.

28 See http://www.itfglobal.org/en/transport-sectors/seafarers/in-focus/flags-of-

convenience-campaign/

29 The complete list includes Antigua and Barbuda, Bahamas, Barbados, Belize, Bermuda

(UK), Bolivia, Burma, Cambodia, Cayman Islands, Comoros, Cyprus, Equatorial Guinea,

Faroe Islands (FAS), French International Ship Register (FIS), German International Ship

Register (GIS), Georgia, Gibraltar (UK), Honduras, Jamaica, Lebanon, Liberia, Malta,

Marshall Islands (USA), Mauritius, Moldova, Mongolia, Netherlands Antilles, North Korea,

Panama, Sao Tome and Príncipe, St Vincent, Sri Lanka, Tonga, and Vanuatu.

30 See http://content.usatoday.com/communities/sciencefair/post/2011/08/marshall-

islands-issuesdeepwater-horizon-oil-spil l-report/1#.VM-SxbN0wZ4

31 See http://www.wwf.org.au/?2301/Pirate-fishing-thrives-under-flags-of-convenience-

warns-report.

32 See http://www.stopillegalfishing.com/sifnews_article.php?ID=29.

33 See http://www.imo.org/blast/mainframe.asp?topic_id=156

34 Ibid.

35 See http://eur-

lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ:C:2004:013:0003:0012:EN:PDF.

36 See http://eur-

lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ:C:2004:013:0003:0012:EN:PDF.

37 See the latest list at https://www.parismou.org/sites/default/files/WGB%202011-

2013.pdf

TO BE FOLLOWED

INSERE 05/07/16 HISTORIEK HISTORIQUE ENLEVE 05/08/16

La côte déchiquetée du Nord Finistère, l'absence de signalisation et la navigation à l'estime

ont longtemps favorisé les naufrages, perçus comme une manne divine par les riverains,

volontiers pilleurs d'épaves avant que l'Administration n'organise la gestion des bris. D'où

la réputation - d'ailleurs usurpée - de naufrageurs faite aux Léonards et singulièrement

aux farouches habitants du pays Pagan.

Avant tout, il convient d'éviter d'exagérer l'importance numérique des naufrages en Léon,

même s'ils constituent indéniablement un spectacle apprécié par les communautés

littorales du XVIIIe siècle. Les archives couvrant la période 1661-1815 n'en mentionnent

que quatre cent cinquante environ, soit une moyenne de trois par an. Certes, la liste n'est

pas exhaustive, car nombre de navires ont disparu sans laisser de trace, leur perte n'ayant

pas suscité la rédaction d'un procès-verbal, pour différents motifs, dont l'absence

d'opportunités lucratives pour les autorités. Néanmoins, le Léon semble mieux — moins

bien pour les pilleurs — loti en la matière que la Comouaille voisine, où l'on enregistre en

moyenne cinq naufrages annuels à la même époque.

Quelles sont les causes de ces naufrages ? Le poids de la nature est évident pour cette

région au trait de côte chaotique, miné d'une multitude d'écueils dangereux. À quoi

s'ajoutent la fréquence des brumes, la force des courants et la violence des tempêtes.

L'hiver surtout est dangereux : près de soixante-sept pour cent des fortunes de mer ont

lieu entre novembre et mars. Ainsi, en 1782, la Mariedes-Carmes, un bâtiment de 300

tonneaux, se destine à rejoindre Londres avec un chargement de cendres lorsqu'elle

talonne une roche près de Molène. "Elle est mise en deux en un instant", abandonnant à

la voracité des flots vingt-six membres de son équipage.

La deuxième cause de naufrage concerne les manquements involontaires ou délibérés des

hommes. Le 21 janvier 1738, l'Atlas dérive dangereusement au large d'Ouessant après le

décès du capitaine Kerlorec et alors que l'équipage est lui-même décimé par la fièvre jaune.

Le second, M. de Sorel prend le commandement du bâtiment, mais suite à une fausse

manoeuvre, l'Atlas se déchire sur un écueil et sombre. Ce jour-là vingt marins périssent.

Ce genre d'accident se comprend d'autant mieux si l'on se remémore les conditions dans

lesquelles s'effectue le point sur les navires au XVIIIe siècle. La navigation se fait en effet

à l'estime ou en calculant la latitude et la longitude avec le risque de relevés erronés. En

mars 1782, le lieutenant de Boisanger, commandant le détachement de Brie basé à l'île de

Batz, raconte qu'un capitaine anglais "s'est trompé de route en ayant pris les terres de l'île

de Batz pour les côtes de l'Angleterre".

Quant aux pilotes côtiers qui conduisent les navires à travers passes et récifs, s'ils sont

réputés pour leur compétence et leur probité, on compte aussi parmi eux quelques brebis

galeuses. En 1740, ceux d'Argenton sont accusés par L. Marelle, le capitaine de la Félicité

de Calais, "d'avoir par malice fait échouer son navire sur les roches de Portsall au lieu de

le faire entrer, par suite de gros temps, dans le port d'Argenton".

Les navires abandonnés font la joie et parfois la fortune de leurs découvreurs

Par ailleurs, il n'est pas exceptionnel de rencontrer en mer des navires abandonnés par

leur équipage. De telles prises font la joie de leurs découvreurs, car la loi leur attribue le

tiers de la valeur du bateau et de sa cargaison ! Pour certains, comme les habitants de

Port-Malo, qui ont recueilli en 1785 le Saint-François, chargé de tabac et de cacao, au large

de Plouguerneau, cela représente une véritable fortune. Mais pour un navire indemne,

combien ne s'abîment-ils pas ? En octobre 1792, la Sainte-Anne de Brest revient à son port

d'attache lourdement chargée de sel du Croisic. À la pointe du Finistère, le navire est happé

par "une mer bulleuse dans le raz de Saints". Malgré toutes les tentatives entreprises pour

sauver son bâtiment, le capitaine François-Marie L'Hostis doit se résoudre, en compagnie

de ses matelots, à embarquer sur la Providence de L'Aber-Ildut qui croise dans les parages.

Quelques instants plus tard la Sainte-Anne est drossée sur les rochers et coule bas.

Le Vengeur englouti à Ouessant après son combat contre le Brunswick

Les conflits armés constituent bien sûr un contexte favorable aux naufrages. Durant la

"seconde" guerre de Cent Ans (1689-1815) opposant la France et l'Angleterre, nombre de

navires achèvent leur combat sur le littoral léonard. Ainsi en est-il de l'Aréthuse, une

ancienne frégate française capturée par les Anglais, qui se brise sur les cailloux de Molène

en mars 1779 suite à un duel avec l'Aigrette. Il en est de même pour le Vengeur, englouti

à Ouessant en juin 1794 après son combat contre le Brunswick. Outre les navires

désemparés à cause de leurs blessures de guerre, il arrive aussi que des bâtiments se

mettent au plain en voulant fuir l'ennemi ou se placer sous la protection des batteries

côtières. En octobre 1808, le corsaire malouin Espérance se jette de la sorte à la côte entre

Melon et l'Aber-Ildut, en voulant se débarrasser de deux vaisseaux anglais.

Après la nature ingrate et les déficiences humaines, la troisième grande cause des

naufrages est l'insuffisance notoire de la signalisation maritime. Malgré un trafic qui ne

cesse de croître avec l'explosion du commerce colonial, les bateaux qui croisent à la pointe

du Finistère ne peuvent compter que sur deux phares : celui du Stiff à Ouessant et celui

de la pointe Saint-Mathieu. Encore ces tours à feu ont-elles un fonctionnement très

aléatoire, faute de combustible ou de foyer suffisamment abrité. Un phare éteint, ce sont

des navires aveugles à la merci d'un drame.

De l'étude des causes des naufrages il ressort néanmoins que la majorité des fortunes de

mer résulte de la conjonction de plusieurs facteurs. À la défaillance d'un feu s'ajoutent

souvent une mer démontée, un navire fragilisé, un équipage épuisé...

L'un des meilleurs récits de naufrage de cette époque nous est donné par Jacques Cambry

dans son Voyage dans le Finistère (1794). Il s'agit de celui du Républicain, survenu le 3

nivôse an III. "Le Mingan, rocher redoutable, coupe en deux parties le goulet [de Brest].

C'est là que, presque sous mes yeux se perdit le Républicain. À peine [ce vaisseau de cent

quatorze canons] fut-il engagé dans la passe, qu'un vent contraire et furieux le força

d'employer tous les moyens de l'intelligence et de la présence d'esprit pour éviter le plus

affreux danger. Le pilote était chargé du vaisseau ; la neige, un vent furieux, un froid

insupportable s'opposaient à toutes les manoeuvres ; la nuit approchait ; le pilote assura

qu'on avait doublé le Mingan. L'espérance commençait à renaître, quand or sentit que le

bâtiment donnait, et qu'il portait sur ce rocher; en vain, pour alléger un( masse aussi forte,

on employa tous le: moyens d'usage; en vain les officiers montrèrent tout le sang-froid,

toutes les connaissances, toutes les ressources de leur art; tout leurs efforts furent inutiles.

"Qui le croirait ? Oubliant le danger commun, trois hommes descendirent dans un canot et

se sauvèrent sans reparaître. L'orage redoublait; la carcasse s'ouvrait enfin; par un

mouvement majestueux presque insensible, l'arrière du bateau s'éleva, l'avant s'enfonça

dans la mer et s'abîma. On s'élance dans la chambre du conseil, on s'attache à la galerie ;

huit cents hommes sont agglomérés, suspendus, sans espoir; le vaisseau descendait

encore. Il s'arrête sur quelques pointes de rocher. Le vent redoublait de fureur. On craignait

une autre secousse et la mort qui devait suivre." En définitive, le Républicain reçut les

secours d'un vaisseau ancré à Camaret et une grande partie de l'équipage fut sauvée.

Le capitaine de l'Été fait vœu à la Vierge d'aller à la messe pieds nus

La diversité des situations oblige les capitaines à prendre des décisions rapides. Ici,

l'équipage pompe continuellement, là, on construit des radeaux de fortune. En novembre

1747, le capitaine du corsaire granvillais la Nymphe, naufragé aux Sept-Îles, fait tirer

quelques coups de canons et illuminer son bâtiment pour signaler sa présence; puis il fait

abattre vergues et mâts pour confectionner deux radeaux. L'un s'en sort sans trop de

difficultés alors que le second disparaît à tout jamais. Quand la promptitude du drame

précipite les hommes à la mer, chacun tente de sauver sa peau en nageant vers le moindre

bout de bois flottant alentour. En 1782, le capitaine du Gélusktadt et quelques-uns de ses

matelots réussissent à rejoindre le mât brisé de leur navire. Arrimés à l'espar, ils dérivent

vers la côte de Landunvez, où ils arrivent "pour ainsi dire sans connaissance".

Autre cas de figure. Lorsque le lieu du naufrage est parsemé de rochers, les rescapés s'y

accrochent en attendant les secours. En avril 1774, le commis greffier d'Ouessant relate

qu'il fut, "le 15 du courant, averti qu'il y avait un pavillon sur une roche, au large, éloignée

d'une demi-lieue, [et] que l'on croyait qu'il y avait du monde dessus".

Comment les naufragés vivent-ils ces drames ? Craignant pour leur vie, ils en appellent

souvent au réconfort de la religion. Quand le capitaine Nicolas Vallet se rend compte que

son bâtiment, l'Été, de Rouen, "se comblait tribord et bâbord tellement que tout l'équipage

et lui-même criaient miséricorde et croyaient que le navire allait au fond, [il] fait vœu à la

Sainte Vierge d'aller à la messe, pieds nus, un cierge à la main, au premier port

convenable". D'autres prient ou encore

promettent de placer un ex-voto dans quelque

sanctuaire de leur connaissance.

La législation en matière de bris remonte au

Moyen Âge (VIe siècle). Le droit de bris

appartient aux ducs de Bretagne, aux vicomtes

de Léon et à certains seigneurs locaux. Les

moines de Saint-Mathieu, réclament à ce titre le

droit de conserver les vêtements et les effets des

noyés retrouvés sur le littoral. Aussi, afin de

préserver leurs biens, les propriétaires de

bateaux achètent-ils des brefs qui leur accordent

toute une série de garanties. Mais peu à peu la

monarchie multiplie édits et ordonnances — dont

celle de Colbert de 1681, appliquée dix ans plus

tard en Bretagne —afin d'évincer les justices

seigneuriales au profit des amirautés. Dès lors,

l'amirauté de Léon — qui s'étend de la rivière de

Morlaix à celle de Landerneau — supervise les

opérations de sauvetage des navires naufragés

afin d'assurer la sauvegarde des biens et des

personnes. Mais les représentants de l'Administration — lieutenants, sergents, greffiers,

commis, gardes-côtes — ont mauvaise réputation. On leur reproche de travailler peu pour

des émoluments trop élevés, de faire traîner le règlement des sinistres, voire de détourner

des marchandises, parfois avec la complicité des pilleurs.

Sous la Révolution et l'Empire, on reprend les mêmes dispositions que celles en cours sous

l'Ancien Régime. Dans un premier temps, les juges de paix, concurremment avec les

officiers des classes et des douanes, se voient confier la direction des opérations de

sauvetage des naufrages. Puis les administrateurs de la Marine prennent le relais. Les

motivations de l'intervention des autorités ont évolué durant la période considérée. À la

volonté, sous Louis XIV, de juguler la noblesse locale et de renforcer l'autorité du roi,

succède, au Siècle des lumières, la prise en compte de valeurs morales et civiques. Comme

en témoigne ce commentaire d'Y. Le Denmat suite au pillage, à Plouescat, du navire de

son frère, la Marie-Thérèse de Morlaix, en 1779: "Dans un siècle policé, on est étonné de

ne retrouver dans les Armoricains que des ennemis de l'humanité; la fureur de s'enrichir

des dépouilles des malheureux l'emporte chez ces âmes barbares sur tout sentiment

honnête."

Respect de la propriété et

des personnes, volonté

philanthropique de

soulager la détresse

humaine, désir d'annihiler

les exactions des pilleurs,

c'est sur cette trilogie que

s'appuient les autorités

pour organiser les

sauvetages des bâtiments

naufragés. Le capitaine

peut d'ailleurs décliner

l'offre de secours et

procéder lui-même aux

opérations de

récupération de la

cargaison. En 1739, le

capitaine et l'équipage de

la Femme Catherine,

naufragée à Molène,

après avoir repoussé

l'assaut des insulaires "à

coups de mousquets",

s'échinent ainsi "à retirer

", par 3 à 4 mètres de

profondeur, soixante et

un sacs de piastres.

La nouvelle d'un naufrage

leur étant parvenue, les

autorités mettent en

place toute une logistique

destinée à sauver ce qui

peut l'être. À une époque

où il n'existe pas de

sauveteurs

professionnels, elles

appellent à la rescousse

les populations littorales.

Cela n'est pas toujours

une mince affaire, comme

en témoigne ce récit du

commis greffier

d'Ouessant, M. de

Montigny: "Par la douceur, par menaces, par autorité, je pus déterminer cinq hommes à

s'exposer la vie pour la sauver à d'autres, leur promettant un louis, trois pots d'eau-de-vie

et de répondre de leur bateau".

Des naufragés réconfortés avant d'être détroussés

Dans un premier temps, les naufragés sont généralement bien accueillis, mais le lucre

reprend vite le dessus. En 1782, les rescapés du Gelukstad, abordant la côte à Saint-

Samson, près de Landunvez, accrochés à un mât, se félicitent de l'aide des riverains, qui

les réconfortent... avant de leur dérober divers objets. Même avidité à Kerlouan, où

l'équipage de l'Hire-Hélion se fait molester lorsqu'il tente de s'opposer à la rapine. Suite à

de tels abus, l'Administration s'organise pour récupérer rapidement le bris des naufrages.

Elle constitue des équipes avec des journaliers patentés, des charretiers et maîtres de

barques. Les moindres débris d'espar, de cordage, de planche, les ballots, les tonneaux

sont ainsi récupérés. Le 4 mars 1807, le naufrage de la Blanche, à Plouguerneau, mobilise,

outre les fonctionnaires, soixante-dix journaliers, quatre chaloupes et de nombreuses

charrettes pour le transport des noyés et des restes du navire.

Les débris sont stockés en lieu sûr, dans un local cadenassé et parfois même gardé par un

homme en armes. Car ces cavernes d'Ali Baba attirent les convoitises. En 1795, au

Conquet, le juge de paix déplore la visite d'un malfaiteur, qui, démolissant une porte, a

dérobé pour 200 livres d'objets provenant de l'Olivier. Les vols peuvent également avoir

lieu au cours du transport. Suite au naufrage de l'Adler, en décembre 1806, à

Plouguerneau, l'administrateur de la Marine en siège à Roscoff constate que, malgré les

gardes qui les accompagnent, les charrettes s'arrêtent dans les champs pour être délestées

de leur précieuse cargaison.

Les noyés découverts à la côte sont enterrés à proximité, sur la dune, ou dans un enclos

paroissial voisin. Il n'est pas rare qu'avant leur inhumation les cadavres soient dépouillés

de leurs vêtements et de leurs objets précieux. La section des doigts portant alliance ou

chevalière est si fréquente que l'on s'étonne presque de trouver un noyé non mutilé,

comme le capitaine Desgoutes, dont le vaisseau avait explosé à Brest-Saint-Marc en 1745,

et dont on pensa qu'il avait oublié de mettre sa bague le jour du drame.

Que deviennent les débris et produits des navires ? Selon l'ordonnance de 1681 et le décret

de 1792, si aucun ayant droit ne se présente dans un délai de trente jours, les

marchandises les plus périssables sont vendues afin d'éviter un manque à gagner et de

dédommager les sauveteurs. Les objets non susceptibles de détérioration et non réclamés

par leurs propriétaires attendront un an et un jour avant d'être vendus aux enchères. Ces

ventes sont annoncées par voie d'affiches placardées dans les grandes villes du Léon et

parfois même au-delà. La vente a lieu sur la côte lorsqu'il s'agit de se partager les restes

d'une épave. Ainsi, le 22 juin 1797, "un bout d'artimon cassé des deux bouts" est vendu

aux enchères en présence d'un juge de paix, d'un syndic marin, d'un receveur des douanes

et d'un crieur public. L'espar est emporté pour 66 livres, dont la moitié ira ses inventeurs.

Malgré quelques exceptions — comme la vente du Herdiguend, naufragé Molène en 1800,

qui atteint quelque 21500 francs —, ces ventes rapportent peu, le plus souvent moins de

2000 livres.

Néanmoins, le naufrage constitue un complement de revenus pour toute une frange de la

population des villages côtiers. D'abord pour les fonctionnaires, largement rétribués pour

leurs prestations. Ainsi, le juge de paix du Conquet empoche 372 francs pour ses trente et

une interventions sur le Herdiguend. Quant à l'administrateur de la Marine de Roscoff, le

naufrage de la Blanche lui rapporte une nouvelle paire de bottes d'une valeur de 36 francs,

les précédentes avant été "brulées par la mer et coupées par les pierres". Pour ce même

naufrage, les journaliers perçoivent 726 francs (2 francs par jour) et les voituriers 326

francs (5 francs par voyage). En général; les femmes et les enfants sont moins bien servis

: ils ne sont payés respectivement que 1,25 franc et 0,75 franc par jour.

Si les autorités tardent se rendre sur place, les pilleurs passent à l'offensive

Outre les profits

qu'elles peuvent en

tirer, les populations

littorales perçoivent le

naufrage comme un

évènement rompant la

monotonie des jours

ordinaires. C'est une

attraction et l'ont vient

parfois de très loin

assister au spectacle,

ne serait-ce que dans

l'espoir d'y grappiller

quelque chose. Car si,

par malheur, les

autorités tardent à se

rendre sur place, les

pilleurs passent à

l'offensive. La raison de

ces pillages tient

essentiellement à la

mentalité des gens de

la côte et à leurs

conditions de vie

rigoureuses.

Traditionnellement,

c'est de la mer qu'ils

tirent leur subsistance.

Goémons, poissons,

coquillages, tout ce

qu'apporte la mer sur

l'estran est considéré

comme la propriété des

riverains. En 1695,

lorsque les

Plouguernéens découvrent une baleine échouée sur leur plage, ils se servent sans

vergogne. N'en déplaise au greffier de l'amirauté, qui note "avoir trouvé un reste de corps

de baleine échoué et ouvert, démembré et écartelé, le tout paraissant avoir été coupé et

emporté à coups de haches et de couteaux". Rien n'y fait: "Malgré avertissements et

sommations à plusieurs particuliers, poursuit le fonctionnaire, ceux-ci ont continué la coupe

et enlèvement du lard".

Il en va de même pour toute épave (pense, en Breton). Le riverain faisant son tro aod

(tour de grève) ramasse spontanément tout ce qu'il trouve, sans même penser qu'il

commet un délit. Lorsque les autorités l'interrogent sur quelque vol d'épaves, il invoque

les coutumes ancestrales, l'ignorance des lois, voire le consentement divin. À cette culture

littorale spécifique s'allient une topographie côtière qui n'entrave guère l'accès aux lieux

des naufrages, un peuplement relativement dense qui multiplie les vigies, et un isolement

imputable à des moyens de communication limités, surtout l'hiver, saison des bris. A ce

niveau, les iliens savent profiter admirablement de leur insularité. En mars 1818,

l'intendant de la Marine de Brest, voulant se rendre á Ouessant pour assurer la sauvegarde

de l'Hector, se trouve bloqué quatre jours á Brest, puis autant à Molène, la tempête faisant

rage. Quand il arrive enfin sur place, il ne reste plus rien à sauver.

Tout est bon pour les pilleurs. Ils grappillent vêtements, bijoux, alcools, vins, ustensiles,

arrachent le métal pour en faire des outils, récupèrent le bois pour le chauffage, la

fabrication de meubles ou la construction de bâtiments. Le pillage des grèves est une telle

institution que dans le Léon nombre de granges côtières ont le pignon percé d'une

ouverture spéciale appelée toul arpene (trou épave), ou l'on entrepose le butin de ces

rapines.

Avertis par un pêcheur, un paotr saout (jeune pâtre) ou quelque flaneur de l'arrivée

imminente d'un bâtiment à la côte, les badauds accourent de partout sur les lieux du

drame. En 1792, on estime entre six cents et mille cinq cents le nombre de riverains venus

assister à l'agonie du Neptune au Corréjou, en Plouguerneau. Dans un premier temps, on

se préoccupe d'immobiliser la proie, de l'empêcher de s'échapper. En 1749, lors du

naufrage de l'Anna et Alida, Landéda, les habitants "hachèrent et enlevèrent les agrès et

apparaux, voiles, cordages et câbles des ancres". Puis vient le pillage proprement dit, et

gare à ceux qui voudraient entraver la prédation ! En février 1746, le Saint-Pierre, capitaine

Jacob, a le malheur de s'échouer à Guissény: "Les gens de la côte ont tout pillé, toutes les

hardes, 220 livres en argent que le capitaine avait dans son armoire, jusqu'aux plaques de

cuivre qui étaient dans la cuisine. Le peuple, en très grand nombre, a défait á coups de

haches le bâtiment et a tout emporté à l'exception du grand-mât. Le capitaine et l'équipage

ont été menacés d'être hachés á coups de haches lorsqu'ils voulurent s'opposer á leur

pillage."

La découverte d'alcool déclenche toujours une ruée frénétique

Souvent armés d'un croc à goémon, les pilleurs font la navette entre l'épave et les

charrettes stationnées sur la dune ou à même la grève. La découverte de vin rouge ou

d'eau-de-vie déclenche toujours une ruée frénétique. Le tonneau est immédiatement mis

en perce et chacun se sert, qui avec son chapeau, qui avec son nabot. Avec l'ivresse

viennent les débordements. À l'île Tariec, l'Ouest de Landéda, en 1749, une pièce de vin

est perdue par la faute d'un ivrogne qui y a "jeté un chien tout sale et tout crotté". A

Plouguerneau, en 1806, "un pilote qui avait travaillé au naufrage a péri á force de boire".

Les échauffourées de fin de pillage sont monnaie courante. Le pillage est moins facile quand

le navire naufragé n'a pas atteint l'estran. Il faut alors se rendre sur l'épave en bateau. En

1741, après le bris du SaintDomingue à l'Aber-Ildut, "plusieurs bateaux de pêche arrivèrent

sur les lieux du naufrage.

Ils pillèrent par les écoutilles,

ils entrouvrirent les ballots,

volèrent près de la moitié

desdits ballots et

marchandises".

Qui sont ces pilleurs?

Curieusement, ce sont en

majorité des paysans.

Viennent ensuite les pêcheurs.

Mais pas seulement, car la

rapine réunit des gens de

toutes conditions. Les témoins

du saccage du Neptune

décrivent "une foule de

pillards, riches et pauvres,

gens de la mer et de la terre,

nobles, bourgeois, menu

peuple, se côtoyant sur le

rivage pour participer á la

curée". Ailleurs, on a même vu

les employés des fermes du roi

dépouiller les cadavres ou

détourner des marchandises.

Son forfait achevé, le

malfaiteur achemine

rapidement son butin jusqu'à

des caches aménagées de

longue date ou improvisées. En

mai 1807, l'aubergiste de

Kerlouan, Y. Jaouen, "cache derrière un banc entre le foyer et le pignon Sud 50 à 60 kilos

de fer, deux jolis plats ovales blancs, un étau superbe", provenant du pillage de l'Horizon.

Toutefois, dans la majorité des cas, les navires qui s'abîment sur les côtes léonardes ne

déversent que bois, futailles, produits alimentaires, ou denrées coloniales. Rares sont les

cargaisons mirifiques, comme celle du Saint-Domingue, dont les cales contenaient

"quantité de ballots et de caisses de marchandises considérables, savoir en bijoux et

étoffes d'or et d'argent, gallons d'or et d'argent, draps fins".

Le maire et le greffier sont accueillis à coups de pierres

Les objets détournés sont conservés, échangés ou vendus. La veuve Grignou et sa nièce

Marie-Catherine organisent ainsi, dans leur auberge, une vente illicite de draps provenant

du Garlingue, échoué à Plouguerneau en 1793. Par souci de discrétion, les receleurs

dispersent parfois le fruit des rapines dans les villes voisines. Ainsi, le "Parisien" fournisseur

de la veuve Grignou s'enfuit vers Brest afin de se fondre dans l'anonymat de la cité du

Ponant pour vendre le produit de son larcin. Comme les pilleurs, les acheteurs

appartiennent à tous les milieux sociaux. Dans l'affaire du Neptune, sont mêlés un

cultivateur de Plouguin, un potier de Lannilis et un chirurgien de Saint-Pol-de-Léon. Dans

celle de l'Horizon, sont impliqués un receveur des douanes, son fils, sa servante, sa voisine,

et le patron du canot de la douane de Pontusval.

Face à ces exactions, les autorités tentent bien sur de faire triompher le droit. Le naufrage

du Neptune en donne un bon exemple. Ce navire s'échoue au Corréjou dans la nuit du 22

au 23 janvier 1792. A 8 heures du matin, quatre douaniers sont sur les lieux, rejoints

bientôt par le maire, les officiers municipaux et le procureur de la commune. La première

mesure consiste, sous les quolibets, à "repousser une multitude de personnes [pour]

empêcher la spoliation des effets et marchandises composant la cargaison dudit bâtiment".

Entre-temps le juge de paix a fait préparer, Kergoff, un magasin où seront entreposés

"vingt caisses et trente paniers de fayence". Mais le 25 janvier, cent vingt malfaiteurs y

font irruption.

Le lendemain, le maire et le greffier se rendent sur le site du naufrage, où ils sont accueillis

à coups de pierres. La situation devenant insurrectionnelle, il est fait appel à la garde

nationale de Lesneven. Le 27, soixante hommes en armes se présentent devant une foule

en furie "de mille cinq cents personnes" brandissant pierres, bâtons et fusils. La sagesse

commande de se replier. Le lendemain, "les drapeaux rouge et blanc [sont] déployés", qui

proclament la bi martiale. La garde investit l'épave, sur laquelle besognent vingt-deux

pilleurs. Faute de pouvoir les arrêter tous, on se contente de relever leur identité et d'en

saisir quatre pour l'exemple. Incarcérés à Lesneven, ces détenus semblent avoir été élargis

par la suite.

L'impuissance, voire l'indulgence, des autorités s'explique notamment par les liens,

familiaux ou de voisinage, qui souvent unissent les populations littorales et les

représentants de l'ordre. Dans ces conditions les condamnations sont rares et légères. La

majorité des amendes n'excède pas 20 livres. Les seules sanctions graves répertoriées

sont celle de V. Le Carn, conduit au gibet pour baraterie, naufrage simulé et détournement

de cargaison en 1700, et celle des acolytes d'un certain Bergot, condamnés aux galères

par contumace pour avoir dépouillé un cadavre au Corréjou en 1770.

Une manne céleste glanée avec la bénédiction des curés

Depuis l'ordonnance de 1681, les prêtres sont censés prévenir les autorités des naufrages

et organiser les sauvetages. En réalité, un grand nombre d'entre eux manifestent une

certaine tolérance à l'égard des pilleurs. Il en est même qui, comme le curé de Landunvez

en 1774, voient "dans le varech et l'épave un grand don de la Providence". Ceux-là ferment

les yeux sur les exactions de leurs ouailles, voire les encouragent. En 1667, le vicaire de

Molène n'hésite pas à entraver les opérations de sauvetage d'un navire et à s'opposer aux

perquisitions ordonnées pour retrouver certaines marchandises dérobées par les insulaires.

L'aveu du seigneur de Nizon qui commande file d'Ouessant est à cet égard très éclairant ;

en 1707 il écrit l'amirauté que "lors des naufrages qui arrivent sur l'île, il ne saurait contenir

les habitants, ni les empêcher de piller, parce que le vicaire leur insinue que ces sortes de

naufrages sont des présents du Ciel, qui appartiennent à ceux qui sauvent ce qui en

provient". Quant au chanoine de Kersaint, il roue carrément de coups de bâton le commis

de l'amirauté d'Ouessant pour obtenir la barrique de vin qu'il considère comme sa part de

bris. L'esclandre lui vaudra un séjour á la prison de Pontaniou, á Brest.

Les naufrageurs léonards, un mythe forgé par les écrivains romantiques

Peu à peu cependant, le clergé évolue, y compris dans le pays Pagan. Si l'on en croit

Cambry, à la fin du XVIIIe siècle s'emploie "à adoucir les mœurs de ces farouches enfants

des Celtes, au point qu'ils ont renoncé à l'usage inhumain de la spoliation des naufragés".

Les prêtres peuvent utiliser la procédure du monitoire enjoignant les fidèles, sous peine

d'excommunication, dénoncer les fautifs. Mais les effets de cette mesure restent

marginaux. En revanche, le clergé contribue assez efficacement à la restitution des objets

détournés. Ainsi, en 1787, le recteur d'Ouessant reçoit 860 livres d'un pilleur qui craignait

que sa faute ne soit sanctionnée par un châtiment céleste.

La réputation des pilleurs d'épaves du pays Pagan est telle que la littérature s'empare

rapidement de leurs exploits pour forger un mythe. Sous la plume des écrivains, le cha-

pardeur des grèves devient un naufrageur multipliant les ruses pour amener les navires á

la côte. L'image du prédateur, tapi dans les rochers, le croc à la main, guettant sa proie

les nuits de tempête est profondément ancrée dans la mémoire collective. D'aucuns

l'imaginent sur la dupe, attirant les navires en promenant une vache á la patte avant

entravée, affublée d'un fanal dont le balancement est censé imiter le feu d'un bâtiment

d'assistance.

Cette légende repose sur l'ordonnance de 1681, qui proclame que "seront punis de mort

ceux qui allumeront des feux trompeurs sur les grèves de la mer la nuit et dans des lieux

périlleux pour y attirer et faire perdre les navires". On peut supposer que cette précision

repose sur des faits avérés, mais rien ne le prouve. Il existe aussi quelques témoignages,

comme celui de Dubuisson-Aubenay daté de 1681, mais il concerne l'ile de Sein et non le

Léon. Cambry évoque également des naufrageurs, mais en Cornouaille, pas en pays

léonard. Quoi qu'il en soit, la légende était trop belle pour ne pas être reprise et enjolivée

par les auteurs de l'époque romantique, comme l'ethnologue Paul Sébillot, ou l'historien

Jules Michelet. "La nature est atroce, écrit ce dernier, l'homme est atroce. Dès que la mer

jette un pauvre vaisseau, ils courent à la côte, bommes et femmes, ils tombent sur cette

curée. Loups, ils pilleraient tranquillement sous le feu de la gendarmerie. Souvent, Biton,

une vache, promenant à ses cornes un fanal mouvant, a mené les vaisseaux sur les écueils.

On en a vu qui, pour arracher une bague au doigt d'une femme qui se noyait lui coupaient

le doigt avec les dents."

Pourtant, rien ne permet

d'authentifier la

divagation criminelle de

cette vache lumineuse ou quelque autre simulacre

destiné piéger un navire. Dans le quartier maritime de

Ré, sur trois cent quatre-vingt-dix naufrages, J. Boucard

ne mentionne qu'un seul capitaine trompé par un feu de

pêcheurs. Bourde de La Rogerie n'en signale aucun en

Cornouaille et nous-mêmes n'avons rencontré aucune

condamnation liée á ce type de méfait dans l'inventaire

de l'amirauté de Léon. Ainsi donc, dans l'état actuel de

nos connaissances, l'image du naufrageur usant d'un

stratagème lumineux à des fins criminelles n'est

absolument pas fondée.

La réputation de naufrageurs faite aux Léonards est donc

usurpée. Ils ne méritent que celle de pilleurs d'épaves.

Et encore, celle-ci est-elle également très exagérée. En

effet, statistiquement, la proportion des épaves pillées

sur la côte léonarde n'est que de treize pour cent, ce qui

est relativement faible par rapport à la Cornouaille, ou

l'amirauté en enregistre plus de vingt-huit pour cent de

1723 à 1791. Il est vrai cependant que certains secteurs

dépassent largement cette moyenne, et le pays Pagan

— de Plouguerneau à Plounéour-Trez — détient la palme

des exactions avec trente-trois pour cent d'épaves pillées. Quoi qu'il en soit, les razzias ne

concernent donc qu'une minorité des épaves venues à la côte. En outre, on observe que

les pillages sont de moins en moins nombreux au fil du temps. Cette décrue est due à la

conjonction de nombreux facteurs, parmi lesquels on doit citer l'action de plus en plus

répressive de l'État, l'influence d'un clergé moins enclin à l'indulgence, le maillage plus

serré des postes de gardes et la création de nouveaux corps comme les douanes et la

gendarmerie.

Néanmoins, la répression ne parviendra jamais à éradiquer cet instinct du glaneur de

grèves qui sommeille en chacun de nous. Aujourd'hui encore, sur les côtes du Finistère

comme partout ailleurs, les objets échappés des conteneurs venus se fracasser sur les

rochers font la joie des riverains, qui moissonnent allègrement cette manne céleste l'instar

de leurs ancêtres. ■

Bibliographie : J. Boucard, "Les naufrageurs, naufrages et pillages d'épaves", in Cahiers de

la mémoire nos 33 et 45. Alain Cabantous, Les Côtes barbares, Fayard. Jacques Cambry,

Voyage dans le Finistère, rééd. Coop Breizh. J.-P. Hirrien, Naufrages et pillages en Léon,

Skol Vreizh, 2000. J.-Y. Legoff, Le Pays Pagan, Collection mémoire en images, 1994.

Sources : Inventaire de l'amirauté de Léon de 1681 1792; procès-verbaux des juges de

paix durant la Révolution et des administrateurs de la Marine sous l'Empire.

Chasse-marée n° 221

INSERE 07/07/16 DOSSIER ENLEVE 07/08/16

What a difference a flag makes

Why ship owners’ responsibility to ensure

sustainable ship recycling needs to go beyond flag state jurisdiction (Part 2)

3 FLAGS OF CONVENIENCE AND SHIPBREAKING

For end-of-life vessels, the discrepancies between the countries of beneficial ownership

and the ships’ flags are even higher than during operational use. In particular grey- and

black-listed FOCs are popular for ships sold to substandard shipbreaking facilities. We will

see that the use of cash buyers to sell an end-of-life vessel combined with last-voyage

discount packages offered by particular FOCs enhance the risk of poor flag state

enforcement of laws meant to ensure safe and environmentally sound ship recycling. FOCs

offer a system which allows the use of non-party or non-compliant flags. Hazardous waste

usually follows the path of least resistance – and backed by FOCs, ship owners will be able

to continue choosing profits at the cost of people and the environment.

3.1 Substandard shipbreaking and grey- and black-listed flags

Not only are end-of-life ships usually registered under a FOC, but there are particular “end-

of-life flags of convenience”. These FOCs are hardly used during the operational life of

ships, but are particularly popular for the last voyages to the scrap yards. They are

primarily used for ships beached in substandard breaking yards in South Asia, rather than

for ship recycling facilities elsewhere.

Over several years, the NGO Shipbreaking Platform has been analysing flag preferences at

end-of-life and has found that the flags of St Kitts and Nevis, Comoros and Tuvalu, and to

a lesser extent Togo, Tanzania, St Vincent and the Grenadines, and Sierra Leone, which

are less favoured flags during the operational life of the ships, are excessively popular flags

for the end-of-life vessels broken in substandard beaching facilities. These flags are all

grey- or black-listed by the Paris MOU, that is, these are flags with very low performance

in implementing international standards.38

Not all of these flags were swapped at end of life; however, these FOCs are particularly

popular for last voyages and are over-represented at end-of-life when compared to

operational use.

Unsurprisingly, Panama and Liberia, the world’s largest FOCs, still rank high on the list for

all ships scrapped on beaches. Two flags appearing on the list have clear nationality links:

nearly all of the Indian flagged vessels broken on the beaches were Indian-owned, thus

broken in their country of origin. Most of the Thai-flagged ships were also Thai owned. All

other flags appreaing on this list of most popular flags at end-of-life — St Kitts and Nevis,

Comoros, Tuvalu, Tanzania, St Vincent and the Grenadines, Tanzania and Togo — are grey-

and black-listed flags of convenience with no link to the nationality of the owners and/or

cash buyers of the end-of-life vessels. These flags are especially popular at end-of-life—

also for ships whose last benefical owner was based in the EU.

In 2014, the NGO Shipbreaking Platform counted 641 end-of-life vessels beached in South

Asia. Close to one third of all beached vessels, 202 ships, were under regulatory control of

these particularly popular end-of-life flags hardly used during operational use. Altogether,

252 beached vessels arrived under a grey- or black-listed flag,40 nearly 40% of all vessels

scrapped in South Asia.

By contrast, when looking at the most popular flags used for end-of-life ships going to

modern ship recycling facilitis in China, Turkey, and the EU in 2014, the end-of-life flags

popular for substandard shipbreaking hardly appear in the list.

With the exception of Panama, the flags which are most popular for end-of-life vessels

broken in substandard beaching facilities do not feature on the list of flags used for ships

broken in non-South Asian facilities. China, one of the leading shipping nations in the world,

tops the list on flags used for ships broken off the beach. Having introduced a subsidy for

Chinese ship owners using the Chinese flag that recycle their ships domestically, China is

so far the only leading shipping nation worldwide which aims at being self-sufficient in ship

recycling. Also the Hong Kong flagged vessels were mainly scrapped in China. Thus, specific

end-of-life flags are not used widely for demolition in China, Turkey and other destinations

with modern ship recycling facilities, but are used for ships broken in South Asia where

cash buyers usually become the owners of the vessels for a short time and tend to register

the ships under one of the popular end-of-life flags.

3.2 “Last voyage packages”

End-of-life registries such as St Kitts and Nevis, Comoros and Tuvalu compete with each

other by offering low-cost “last voyage” packages and expressly state that no nationality

requirements need to be fulfilled in order to register under their flags – not even the setting

up of a shell company. According to information on their public web-sites, St Kitts and

Nevis, Tuvalu, Comoros and St Vincent and the Grenadines all have special arrangements

in place for the registration of vessels explicitly intended for scrapping. Typically, this

includes fast-track registration procedures, valid only for a very limited period of time, at

a special lower price. The registry of St Vincent and the Grenadines, for instance, offers

short term registration for 0.15 USD per GT instead of 0.60 USD per GT for normal

registration. Also Tanzania, declared the worst flag by the Paris MOU, offers short-term

registration which automatically expires after three months.

Most of these flags can be obtained from private agencies all around the world. The

Mongolian register, a very popular end-of-life flag in previous years, has its main office in

Singapore, one of the world’s largest shipping hubs. It offers one-month registration if the

vessel does not transport cargo – ideal for a last voyage. The popularity of certain end-of-

life flags also varies over the years, with new end-of-life flags popping up every now and

then.

The flag of St Kitts and Nevis

has become the most popular

end-of-life FOC. In a 2003

Greenpeace report on

shipbreaking practices, the

flag does not yet figure

amongst the top 15 favourite

end-of-life flags.42

Meanwhile, around 10% of all

old ships beached in South

Asia come in under the flag of

the miniscule Caribbean

state. Obviously, St Kitts and

Nevis has positioned itself

well as an end-of-life flag

amongst cash buyers and

other intermediaries. It acts, for instance, as an official sponsor to the most important

annual conference on ship recycling, which mainly brings together cash buyers, brokers

and shipbreakers. The flag of St Kitts and Nevis is available to foreign corporations and

there are no nationality requirements: the ship owner or cash buyer using the flag does

not even have to set up a shell company.

The flag can be obtained from the St Kitts and Nevis International Ship Registry, but also

from various agencies around the world. “Shiplink International Registries” is the

Singapore-based agent offering the flag as well as other end-of-life FOCs such as St Vincent

and the Grenadines, Tuvalu and Sierra Leone.43 “Inmarine” in London registers under St

Kitts and Nevis and promotes its services to ship owners: “Flying under a FOC provides the

ship owner with many advantages, such as simplified procedures of arranging mortgages,

lower tax rates, more flexibility in ship manning, low registration fees and short term

options for both registration and any other operations within the register” .44 Also

“International Shipping Bureau” with offices in China and Panama City offers the flag of St

Kitts and Nevis.45

St Kitts and Nevis offers a “special purpose registration” for scrap voyages including a

special registration form under which ships are registered for only 3 months. Applications

can be handed in online. According to the registry, the registration procedure is “simplified

and speedier” and “most such registrations can be completed in one working day.” A

reduced rate of fees applies to these special purpose registrations.46

The flag of Comoros

does not have any

nationality

requirements for a

ship to be registered.

The owner or cash

buyer using the flag

does not even have to

set up a shell

company to forge a

“genuine link”; a ship

is eligible irrespective

of nationality or place

of incorporation of the

registered or actual

owner.

The flag can be

obtained from the National Transport Authority of Comoros. However, there is a wide

spectrum of agencies around the world offering the flag. An agency called “Ukrainian

Marine Lawyers” also registering vessels under other FOCs such as Kiribati and Tuvalu

offers “registration of vessels and yachts in few hours as we are the official representative,

instead of the intermediary” as well as setting up offshore companies .47 A Bulgarian

contact offers the flag,48 a firm based in Dubai ,49 a Spanish company offering all different

flags of convenience,50 and “International Ship Registration Services”, a company with a

Slovenian phone number also providing the set up of offshore companies.51 The

Bangladesh-based company “Unirose” arranges for registration under the flag of Comoros,

next to the flags of Bangladesh, Jamaica, Panama and Togo. The company is based in

Chittagong, the second largest shipbreaking area in South Asia. Also the “Comoros

Shipping Services” based in Mumbai, India, registers ships under the Comoros flag.52

The registration form can be downloaded online. Other important documents can be

handed in as copies. Only if registration should be permanent must original documents be

presented after three months. The registration form for the flag also contains a provision

for “scrap registration”. The fees are not made public – ship owners can ask for a quote.

Any ship owner can register a ship under

the flag of Tuvalu, not even a forged

“genuine link” is required. Ship owners

using the flag during operational use get

a tax refund if they incorporate in Tuvalu.

The registry offers: “We are able to

provide incorporation services for Tuvalu

offshore companies if required.” Tuvalu

has a dedicated website for setting up

offshore companies.53

The website of the Tuvalu registry does

not mention any contract details in

Tuvalu, only the registry’s address in

Singapore, which seems to be the

headquarter, as well as their IMO

representative based in London. Also

other agencies hand out the flag. The

“International Ship Register” based in Spain, which offers all different kinds of flag of

convenience, also registers ships under the flag of Tuvalu,54 and so does “Shiplink” in

Singapore.55 Tuvalu offers a special registration for “single deliver voyages”.

3.3 Hiding behind cash buyers and intermediaries

Once a vessel reaches the end of its service life, ship owners – with the exception of

responsible companies that directly engage with modern recycling facilities – sell their ship

to a so called cash buyer who brings the vessel to its final destination. The majority of ship

owners do not deal with ship recycling facilities themselves. Most, if not all, sales of end-

of-life vessels to substandard South Asian shipbreaking yards are conducted with the help

of cash buyers. They are specialised in end-of-life ships and act as a middlemen between

ship owners and shipbreaking yards by either buying the ship ‘as is, where is’ from the

ship owner, or by simply arranging for the sale to the breaking yard. Their service may

include moving and crewing the ship on its last voyage and dealing with the required paper

work and authorities at the breaking destinations. Cash buyers are called so because they

pay ship owners up-front before the ship reaches its final destination and is dismantled.

By using cash buyers, ship owners seek to avoid legal, financial and other risks related to

selling a ship for breaking – they can also claim not to be responsible for the demolition of

the ship if criticised for substandard practices, pollution or accidents. 56

The most well-known cash buyers are Global Marketing Systems (GMS), operating form

Dubai and various other locations, and Singapore-based Wirana; however, many other

smaller cash buyers, middlemen, brokers and intermediaries seek to get their share of

end-of-life sales. Almost all sales conducted by cash buyers go to substandard shipbreaking

yards in South Asia. In most cases the sale of an end-of-life vessel to a cash buyer involves

a brief change in ownership and consequently a new registration of the ship and even

changing the ship’s name – these may be imposed upon the cash buyer by the ship owner

in an attempt to conceal their tie to the ship. When changing ownership, end-of-life

registries such as St Kitts and Nevis, Tuvalu and Comoros are preferred by cash buyers

due to their advantageous “end-of-life packages”. Cash buyers register the ships with the

sole purpose of owning them for the short period of the last voyage. There is no

transparency regarding the brass plate companies, the cash buyer, and all the other

intermediaries involved in the sale. These companies are unknown to maritime databases

and have concealed their corporate structures. Also the ship owners rarely share

information about a cash buyer they have used to sell their vessels.

SeaFrance Renoir and SeaFrance Cézanne: an example of the fraudulent practices of ship

owners, cash buyers, end-of-life flags and post box companies

In autumn 2011, two old ferries, previously known as SeaFrance Renoir and SeaFrance

Cézanne, left the port of Dunkirk in Northern France under the flag of Belize and headed

straight for the beach-breaking yards in Alang, India. The ships had been laid up in the

port of Dunkirk for more than two years. They were part of the fleet of SeaFrance, a

subsidiary of Government-owned SNCF. The ferries were thus owned by the French

Government, they flew the French flag and had spent most of their operational life serving

the Calais-Dover ferry route across the Channel. When both vessels were sold in summer

2011, the parent company SNCF was involved in the sale as part of a restructuring plan

for SeaFrance. The Board of Directors of SNCF, which comprises Government

representatives, discussed the vessels’ fate as an integral part of the plan to save

SeaFrance from bankruptcy.

Only a few weeks after the ships left Dunkirk the ferries were beached in India – and France

later became subject to an infringement procedure by the European Commission. The

export of the vessels from France to India was a particularly grave breach of the EU Waste

Shipment Regulation, as the French state itself owned the vessels and the Government

had been warned twice of the illegal export to South Asia: already in August 2010 by the

French NGO Robin des Bois and again shortly after the ships had left Dunkirk. What

happened is a perfect example of how ship owners – including Governments – with the

help of fake companies and cash buyers circumvent the law to gain maximum profits.

While the ferries were laid up in France, SeaFrance was already in economic difficulties and

was looking to sell parts of its fleet. The Renoir and the Cézanne were not in demand any

more. The company’s only option was to sell the vessels for dismantling. After having failed

to find a buyer willing to continue to operate the vessels, SeaFrance started to ask for

quotes for Inventories of Hazardous Materials and advice on ship recycling in accordance

with international and European law.

Despite being aware of a proper

procedure to dismantle the ferries,

SeaFrance finally sold the vessels

with the pretext of “further

operational use” to an obscure

German company named Condor

Maritime. According to maritime

databases, Condor Maritime had

never owned any other ship and

was very obviously not a ferry

operator. Just before the sale, the

post box companies Emily Shipping

Inc and Kimiya Shipping Inc were

registered in Panama: they were

set up with the sole purpose of becoming the registered owners of the Cézanne and Renoir

for their last voyage to India. After the sales contracts were signed between SeaFrance

and the Panama based brass plate companies on 9 May 2011, the vessels changed names

to Eastern Light and Western Light and were reflagged to Belize. As a later judgement

given by the Mumbai High Court on unsettled payments revealed, cash buyer GMS had

acted as the “agent” of both Kimiya and Emily Shipping. It must have been obvious for the

management of both SeaFrance and SNCF that Condor Maritime would not repair two old

passenger ferries and operate them again in Dubai as was promised in the sales contract.

France had been warned of similar scams pretending further operational use in the cases

of the Beni Ansar and Onyx. Still, despite the dubious record of Condor Maritime and the

Panama post box companies being linked to one of the largest cash buyers specialised in

sales of end-of-life vessels to substandard yards, the French Government later maintained

that they had thought the ships were sold for further operational use.

The SeaFrance case shows how cash buyers assist shipping companies in circumventing

laws which regulate ship recycling. GMS, which had already been fined by the US EPA for

the illegal export of the SS Independence from Seattle in 2008, and Condor Maritime

ensured that post box companies were set up to become the new registered owners of the

SeaFrance vessels for their last voyage, provided fake information about further

operational use and a flag of convenience. That France so far has failed to criminally pursue

Condor Maritime and the associated registered owners of the vessels, Emily and Kimiya

Shipping, for having lied about their intentions only goes to suppose that French authorities

were complicit in the illegal export.

The availability of fake companies and end-of-life flags, even more accessible with the

support of cash buyers, will persist in the future and will equally undermine new laws based

on flag state jurisdiction rather than an “exporting state”: in the SeaFrance case, the ferries

could have sailed legally to the Indian beach-breaking yards under the flag of Belize despite

the link to France, which could not have been any stronger than in the case of two

government-owned vessels, flying the French flag throughout their operational lives and

exclusively used between French and British ports.

3.4 Focus on European end-of-life ships Already during operational life, many European ship owners choose to register their ships

under FOCs — the most commonly used are Panama and Liberia. Consequently, only 22%

of the world fleet are registered under an EU flag during operational use even though

shipping companies based in the EU own around 41% of the world fleet.

Figure 3e and 3f show the proportion of EU-owned and EU -flagged vessels as part of the

global merchant fleet. While European ship owners hold 41% of market shares of global

shipping, only 22% of vessels fly the flag of an EU member state.

Both European ownership and registration further decreases with the age of a ship, and

the trend of flagging out from European registries is accentuated at end-of-life. In 2014,

only 7,8% of all ships dismantled globally were still registered under an EU flag, although

26% were still under EU ownership. If looking only at end-of-life vessels destined for

substandard beaching facilities, EU owners accounted for 32% of the total gross tonnage

broken. Again, only 7,7% of these vessels still flew a European flag. In general, the change

of flag at end-of-life is thus much more frequent than a change in ownership: whilst the

percentage vessels whose last beneficial owner was based in the EU and which were broken

in substandard facilities is not much lower than the percentage of EU-owned ships during

operational use, it is clear that the EU flag is favoured for younger and operational ships

rather than for last voyages. 60

Counted both in number of ships and gross tonnage, all EU registries have a below average

percentage of end-of-life vessels, some registries such as France, Belgium and Sweden did

not break any ships in 2014. Although most European owners are less represented at end-

of-life than during the operational life of ships, Greek and German owners only slightly

decreased their percentage of the total tonnage at end-of-life compared to operational life,

especially when looking at their share of ships broken in substandard yards. Owners from

countries such as Cyprus, Poland and Malta however increased their representativeness at

end-of-life and sold almost exclusively to substandard yards. In contrast, owners from

Sweden, Norway and Denmark opted for breaking destinations outside South Asia.

The EU ship registries are primarily favoured by European owners for ships that are broken

in modern ship recycling facilities off the beach. Out of the 182 EU owned ships sold to

South Asia in 2014, 22,5 percent were still flying a European flag when they reached their

final breaking destination. For ships broken in the EU, almost three quarters of the

European owned ships were registered under an EU flag. And whilst there were no changes

of flag on ships owned by European shipping companies that were destined for breaking in

the EU and China, and only one flagging-out from an EU register before breaking in Turkey,

at least 15 ships left an EU registry just weeks before hitting a South Asian beach.

EU flags used for end-of-life vessels that were sold to a substandard beaching facility

included:

■ 17 under the flag of Malta

■ 8 under the flag of the UK

■ 8 under the flag of Cyprus

■ 4 under the flag of Greece

■ 3 under the flag of Italy

■ 1 under the flag of Norway

15 additional EU flags were swapped to end-of-life flags just weeks before the ships were

beached:

■ 6 changed from Italy to St Kitts and Nevis (4), Comoros (1) and Palau (1)

■ 4 changed from Malta to St Kitts and Nevis (2), Comoros (1) and Tuvalu (1)

■ 2 changed from Greece to St Kitts and Nevis

■ 1 changed from Germany to Liberia

■ 1 changed from the Netherlands to Tuvalu

■ 1 changed from Madeira (Portugal) to St Kitts and Nevis

Most of the ships still sailing under an EU flag when they hit the beach were larger vessels

owned by German, Greek or Maltese owners, all of which sell almost exclusively to

substandard yards. There is a strong risk that these owners will opt for the circumvention

of the EU SRR by maintaining FOCs already during operational use, flagging out to an end-

of-life FOC, or selling the ship to a cash buyer who would do the same.

The EU SRR may thus – once applicable – only cover smaller EU-owned vessels and a

handful of larger ships belonging to the few responsible ship owners who already do not

sell their old ships to substandard yards. In large, the EU SRR could be reduced to an

exercise of simply rubberstamping already legitimate ship recycling of smaller vessels in

the EU and Turkey, and legalising the recycling of a few vessels in China. Unless policies

directly target ship owners both by introducing obligations and creating incentives, easy

circumvention of the law will allow for continued substandard practices by EU owners that

opt for maximum profits in substandard yards.

4 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS: BEYOND FLAG STATE JURISDICTION

Whereas around three quarters of all ship owners from around the world already register

under FOCs during operational use of their ships, more ships flag out from responsible

registries, including European registries, with age and in particular for the last voyage.

Backed by a system of cash buyers opting for end-of-life FOCs offering last voyage

discounts, end-of-life ships are overrepresented amongst grey- and black-listed flag

registries that have a track-record of poorly implementing international legislation.

Attempts to regulate ship recycling practices without obligations for ship owners beyond

flag state jurisdiction and other incentives for clean and safe recycling will fail as re-flagging

to a non-party or non-compliant end-of-life flag, or selling the vessel to a cash buyer, who

can do the same, remains an attractive solution for ship owners seeking to avoid stricter

rules.

The EU has a particular responsibility to find effective solutions to ensure sustainable ship

recycling as it is home to many ship owners who prefer ‘green dollars to green recycling’,

i.e. who choose higher profits by selling to substandard yards. Whereas ship owners from

the industrialised countries make a profit of several million dollars with every vessel

beached, the true costs of clean and safe ship recycling are externalised to poorer

communities in breach of both environmental justice and the polluter pays principle. If

done properly, ship recycling is a sustainable practice as it helps to recover valuable

resources. Clean and safe ship recycling is technically and financially feasible and is already

available in the EU, North America, China and Turkey and more capacity may develop in

other localities. More than ten years ago, the Parties to the Basel Convention identified the

need to upgrade the substandard facilities in South Asia in order to allow for a transition

towards safer methods off the beach. 62

This analysis has shown that:

ship owners worldwide use flags of convenience to reduce costs and avoid legislation

related to workers rights and environmental protection;

most ship owners do not adhere to the ‘polluter pays principles’, but follow a

‘polluter profits’ strategy by selling off old ships to developing countries;

in particular grey- and black-listed FOCs are used by cash buyers selling end-of-life

vessels to substandard scrap yards as these FOCs offer cheap short time

registration without any nationality requirements;

these flags have a track record of poor law enforcement and are unlikely to become

the driving force for a change towards clean and safe ship recycling, but are rather

likely to offer easy circumvention of laws to ship owners and cash buyers.

Ensuring a genuine link between the owner of a ship and the flag state based on a real

economic stake in the ownership of the ship or by providing mariners to crew the ships has

been identified to put an end to substandard shipping practices by several UN bodies and

other stakeholders working to protect seafarers rights and a sustainable management of

our oceans. With most ships still sailing under a flag other than that of their beneficial

ownership, Port State Control is meant to prompt certain flag states to improve their

performance. At end-of-life, Port State Control will not play an equally important role in

ensuring a level-playing field. Both international and European regulation for clean and

safe ship recycling based on flag state jurisdiction is very likely to be circumvented by the

use of non-party or non-compliant flags. By choosing non-European flags, European ship

owners can easily, and legally, circumvent the SRR. Also the IMO’s HKC, if it should enter

into force, can be avoided by using non-party or non-compliant flags, so that ship owners

can easily free themselves of any responsibility to ensure sustainable ship recycling.

Regulation trying to improve ship recycling practices needs to look beyond flag state

jurisdiction.

The lack of political will at the international level to directly hold ship owners accountable

or impose obligations on the states where ship owners are located has so far hindered any

effective legislative solution to the shipbreaking problem, in particular the implementation

of the polluter pays principle for ship owners. With the main obligation on flag states and

shipbreaking countries with weak law enforcement, the HKC has not been able to create

the incentives needed for substantial change.

At the European level, the establishment of an economic incentive which goes beyond flag

state jurisdiction and covers all ships calling at European ports could direct more end-of-

life vessels towards modern ship recycling facilities and thus provide the necessary

incitement for investments in safer and cleaner ship recycling methods world-wide. In the

interest of protecting human health and the environment and having regard to the ‘polluter

pays’ principle, Article 29 of the SRR asks the European Commission to explore possible

financial incentives that should “generate resources that would facilitate the

environmentally sound recycling and treatment of ships without creating an incentive to

out-flag”63. By targeting all vessels, regardless of flag, that enter European waters, the

SRR would considerably enlarge its scope. Already the Regulation requires an Inventory of

Hazardous Materials for all ships calling at EU ports. Conservative estimations say that this

will cover 30.000

ships above 500 GT – i.e. 60 percent of world fleet. Prompting such a high number of ships

to opt for sustainable ship recycling with the help of a financial incentive that would cover

all ships visiting EU ports becomes extremely attractive: the EU would then indeed be

setting a global standard and could expect a successful implementation of the SRR.

The encouraging outlook of the possible positive effects of the SRR strongly speaks in

favour of the EU adding a financial incentive to the Regulation, especially when compared

to the small number of ships that would be covered by the SRR only based on flag state

jurisdiction – an estimated 4,1 percent of the global end-of-life fleet, most of which

anyways already opt for legitimate destinations under the EU WSR in ship recycling facilities

in Europe and Turkey, plus the few EU-flagged ships that go to China.

Recalling that EU owners control 41 percent of the global fleet, the EU will rid itself from

its responsibility if it does not add an instrument beyond flag state jurisdiction. The EU is

in need of such new policies which will have a positive effect in changing the current

unacceptable conditions under which large ocean-going vessels are broken. With legislation

only based on flag state responsibility, the FOC system not only allows ship owners to avoid

EU law, but also weakens the power of the EU to achieve its own legislative objectives and

the institution itself.64

38 See https://www.parismou.org/publications-category/performance-list.

39 In 2014, the Platform documented 1026 ships dismantled worldwide. 641 end-of-life

ships were beached in substandard yards in South Asia, the remaining part was mainly

dismantled in China and Turkey.

40 The list grey- or black-listed under the Paris MOU comprise: St. Kitts & Nevis: 64,

Comoros: 39, Tuvalu: 24, India: 22, Tanzania: 20, St. Vincent & Grenadines: 19, Togo:

17, Sierra Leone: 11, Belize: 9, Cambodia: 8, Dominica: 5, Vanuatu: 4, Malaysia: 3,

Moldova: 3, Cook Islands: 2, Curacao: 1, Honduras: 1.

42 Greenpeace (2003) Playing Hide and Seek. How the shipping industry, protected by

flags of convenience, dumps toxic wastes on shipbreaking beaches.

43 See http://www.weblog-a1.com/shiplink/our_services.html.

44 See http://www.inmarine.com/en/shipreg.html.

45 See http://www.isbship.com/php/serviceMore.php?s_id=3.

46 See http://www.stkittsnevisregistry.net/.

47 See http://www.olvi.biz/arhiv/flagadmin.com/page.html.

48 See http://www.bihlyumov.com/.

49 See http://www.uae-shipping.net/union-of-comoros-maritime-administration-

4948.html.

50 See http://www.galeon.com/internationalships/.

51 See http://www.flagadmin.com/index-en.html.

52 See http://www.comorosshipping.com/.

53 See http://www.tvoffshorecompanies.com/

54 See http://www.internationalshipsregister.org.

55 See http://www.weblog-a1.com/shiplink/ourservices.html.

56 The last beneficial owner of a particular ship should be held responsible for end-of-life

management. In many cases where ship owners have been caught red-handed selling

ships for substandard breaking the first excuse used is that they sold the ship to a cash

buyer without knowing that the ship would end up on a beach for breaking. This is of

course not the case as the price paid by the cash buyer is indicative of the quality – or

rather lack of quality breaking.

57 For detailed figures see Annex II and IV.

58 Ibid

59 For more detailed figures, see Annex IV.

60 An additional 205 ships broken on the beaches of South Asia in 2014 and that were

not owned by an EU based shipping company, nor EU flagged, at end-of-life had been

registered under an EU flag during their operational life — 64 of these were EU flagged

during more than half of their operational life.

61 In 2014, the Platform documented 1026 ships dismantled worldwide. 641 end-of-life

ships were beached in substandard yards in South Asia, the remaining part was mainly

dismantled in China and Turkey. For further details, see Annex III.

62 See Technical guidelines for the environmentally sound management of the full and

partial dismantling of ships, Secretariat of the Basel Convention, 2003.

63 EU SRR 1257/2013 Article 29: “The Commission shall, by 31 December 2016, submit

to the European Parliament and to the Council a report on the feasibility of a financial

instrument that would facilitate safe and sound ship recycling and shall, if appropriate,

accompany it by a legislative proposal.” See also preamble 19 of EU SRR 1257/2013.

64 Including strengthening the EU fleet and more specifically with regards to ship recycling

“to reduce disparities between operators in the Union, in OECD countries and in relevant

third countries in terms of health and safety at the workplace and environmental standards

and to direct ships flying the flag of a Member State to ship recycling facilities that practice

safe and environmentally sound methods of dismantling ships instead of directing them to

substandard sites as is currently the practice.” (preamble 7 of EU SRR 1257/2013)

INSERE 07/07/16 BOEKEN LIVRES BOOKS ENLEVE 708/16

Path in the Mighty Waters : Shipboard Life and Atlantic Crossings to the New World

Author Berry, Stephen R

Format HB Publisher Yale University Press (2015)

Price £25.00

This vivid and revealing portrait of shipboard life as experienced by eighteenth-century

immigrants to the New World explores the transformative journey undertaken by the

thousands of Europeans who journeyed in search of a better life. Stephen Berry shows how

the ships, on which passengers were contained in close quarters for months at a time,

operated as compressed "frontiers", where diverse groups encountered one another and

established new patterns of social organization. As he argues that experiences aboard ship

served as a profound conversion experience for travellers, both spiritually and culturally,

Berry reframes the history of Atlantic migrations, giving the ocean and the ship a more

prominent role in Atlantic history.

The ocean was more than a backdrop for human events: it actively shaped historical

experiences by furnishing a dissociative break from normal patterns of life and a formative

stage in travellers' processes of collective identification.

ISBN9780300204230 Image © Yale University Press (2015)

INSERE 09/07/16 NIEUWS NOUVELLES NEWS ENLEVE 09/08/16

Drone technology applied to vessel inspections

DNV GL reports that it has recently completed several tests using drones to support hull

surveys for two vessels at the Remontova shipyard in Poland.

The company says that it has incorporated drones into the process of visually checking the

condition of remote structural components as they have the potential to significantly reduce

survey times and staging costs, while at the same time improving safety for the surveyors.

"We have been looking at ways we could help our customers by accelerating the survey

process," said Cezary Galinski, manager of the DNV GL maritime classification flying squad

based in Gdansk.

"Camera equipped drones are now much more widely available and affordable, and by

using them for a first screening we can identify areas that require closer inspection quickly

and without extensive staging, which can be both costly and time-consuming."

The tests used a camera-equipped drone to visually evaluate structural components

through video streamed to a tablet. One surveyor operated the drone, while a second

checked the video feed in real time. The stream was also recorded for review and

documentation purposes.

Equipped with a headlight, the drone was able to produce a video of sufficient quality for

initial inspection purposes, though DNV GL notes that if any damage is detected a standard

close-up survey may still be required.

"We used a modified off-the-shelf drone for our tests," explained Mr Galinski.

"Because there are currently no drones formally certified as explosion-proof commercially

available, we performed a risk assessment. Of course, before the drone operation started,

we also ensured that the cargo tank was gas-free and certified for safe entry."

"Our next step is to work with a more advanced tailor-made drone in early 2016. We are

also developing a special guideline for performing drone-based surveys. This could open

the way to remote or even autonomous inspections being carried out as part of our survey

scheme in the near future."

DNV GL sees the use of drones and other technologies emerging from its inspections R&D

programme, such as its IRIS system which can automatically associate photos onboard a

ship with a 3D model of the vessel's structure, as early progress in its goal to have fully

automated surveys in the future.

"Using a drone in combination with a system like IRIS could be very beneficial to our

customers. We have already demonstrated the ability to place images within a 3D model

and furthermore to assess the individual findings," said Dr. Pierre C. Sames, director of

group technology and research.

"These are the first steps towards an automated survey process which might include using

a drone to make the initial survey, taking the images generated and then running them

through an algorithm to determine the hull condition."

DigitalShip

INSERE 11/07/16 DOSSIER ENLEVE 11/08/16

The “NEW FLAMENCO”

The Court of Appeal holds that benefit arising from the sale of a vessel can reduce claim

for repudiation of charterparty

In Fulton Shipping Inc. of Panama v Globalia Business Travel S.A.U. (“The NEW

FLAMENCO”), the Court of Appeal considered the question of when benefits arising from

actions taken to avoid losses are to be brought into account when assessing damages for

a repudiation of a time charter. In particular, they upheld the decision of the arbitrator that

a benefit which arose from the sale of the Vessel by the Owners, following the charterers’

repudiation of a time charter, should be taken into account when assessing damages, since

the sale was a step taken in mitigation. In so doing, they reversed the decision of

Popplewell J [2014] 2 Lloyd’s Rep. 230. Clyde & Co. LLP (Elizabeth Turnbull, Partner, and

Marcia Perucca, Associate) acted for the successful Charterers.

The Facts

The “NEW FLAMENCO” (the Vessel) was a

small cruise ship built in 1972. The Vessel

was chartered in 2004 by Globalia

Business Travel (Charterers) from Fulton

Shipping Inc. (Owners). In 2007, the

parties met to negotiate an extension.

Owners alleged that, in that meeting, a

two-year extension of the charter was

agreed (up to November 2009). The

Charterers, who disputed having reached

the agreement, redelivered the Vessel in

October 2007. At the time of redelivery there were no equivalent substitute time charter

fixtures available (i.e. there was no available market). The Owners sold the Vessel for USD

23,765,000 in October 2007.

The Award and the Commercial Court Judgment

The arbitrator found that an oral agreement to extend the charter had been reached, and

that the Charterers had breached that agreement. However, he found that the sale of the

Vessel in October 2007 was caused by the breach, and was a step taken in reasonable

mitigation of damage. He also found that, if the Vessel had been sold when the charter

was due to come to an end in November 2009, her value would have been USD 7,000,000,

a fall in value of USD 16,765,000. It followed that the Charterers were entitled to a credit

of USD 16,765,000 in respect of the benefit that accrued to the Owners by selling the

Vessel in October 2007 when worth more than it was at the end of the charter period in

November 2009. The amount of this benefit, if brought into account, seemed likely to

exceed the Owners’ loss of profit.The question on the appeal to the Commercial Court (and

to the Court of Appeal) was whether that difference constituted a benefit which, on

principles of mitigation and avoidance of loss, should be brought into account. Popplewell

J disagreed with the arbitrator and held that it should not.

Popplewell’s conclusion can be summarised as follows:

the Owners’ decision to sell an asset acquired before the breach was not caused by the

Charterers’ breach and the arbitrator’s conclusion that the sale was, in fact, in reasonable

mitigation of the loss could not be conclusive when the sale was caused by the independent

decision of the Owners to realise the capital value of the vessel (there must be a causative

connection between breach and benefit, not merely between breach and mitigating act);

the fact that the benefit gained was of a different kind (capital as opposed to income) and

that the sale was a transaction that Owners could enter at any time, were indicative that

the benefit was not ‘legally caused’ by the breach;

if the benefits accruing from the sale were to be taken into account, so should the use of

the proceeds, leading to an endless regression;

and the Owners had taken the business risk of acquiring the Vessel in 2005 and selling it

in 2007, and it would be contrary to public policy to allow the contract-breaking Charterers

to appropriate the result of the Owners’ business acumen.

The Court of Appeal Judgment In delivering the Court’s judgment allowing the appeal and

holding that the benefit should be taken into account, Lord Justice Longmore said that ‘in

appeals from an arbitrator’s award a court has to be particularly respectful of the

boundaries between fact and law which the parties, by their choice of tribunal, have

created’.

The starting point in Longmore LJ’s judgment was the decision of the House of Lords in

British Westinghouse Electric and Manufacturing Co Ltd v Underground Electric Railways

Co of London Ltd [1912] A.C. 673. The principle which emerges, and which should be

sufficient to guide the fact-finder in any particular case, he said, is that, if a claimant adopts

by way of mitigation a measure which arises out of the consequences of the breach and is

in the ordinary course of business, and such measure benefits the claimant, that benefit is

normally to be brought into account unless the measure is wholly independent of the

relationship of the claimant and the defendant.

Available market v not available market

Another important consideration was whether the measure of damage should be the same

whether there is or is not an available market. The Court accepted the Charterers’

submissions that the prima facie case that the measure of damages is to be ascertained

by the difference between the contract and the market rate of hire, is only applicable when

there is an available market (as in The Elena D’Amico [1980] 1 Lloyd’s Rep 75). In that

case, a decision to speculate on the market at the date of the breach did not arise from

the contract but from the innocent party’s decision not to avail himself of the available

market. That thinking, the Court held, cannot be automatically transposed to cases where

there is no available market. In such cases, the prima facie measure of loss is the difference

between the contractual hire and the cost of earning that hire, but the shipowner cannot

claim this measure if he is able to mitigate his loss, and any additional loss or profit arising

from such mitigation will be taken into account. He is not, in these cases, speculating on

the market, rather he is just bringing into account the consequences of his decision to

mitigate his loss.

The Court, therefore, held that the arbitrator was right to rely on The Kildare[2011] 2

Lloyd’s Rep 360 and The Wren [2011] 2 Lloyd’s Rep 370. In The Kildare, there was no

available market at the time of the repudiation, but the market later revived. However,

only the actual trading of the vessel (by spot fixtures) could be taken into account, since

the decision to trade in the spot market was reasonable mitigation in circumstances where

there was no available market. Likewise, in The Wren, the shipowner was allowed to claim

damages based on his actual loss, taking into account his actual mitigating actions. The

Court also mentioned Spar Shipping [2015] 2 Lloyd’s Rep 407 to point out

that’compensation for actual loss is the underlying principle’.

In the light of these decisions, the Court of Appeal concluded that when there is no available

market, an owner may decide, as well as entering the spot market, to mitigate his loss by

selling the vessel, and it is not easy to see why the benefit arising from such a sale should

not be brought into account, so long as the sale was one satisfying the British Westinghouse

test. Further, it concluded there was no reason why the value of that benefit should not be

calculated by reference to the difference between the value of the vessel at the time of

sale and its value at the time when the charter was due to expire.

The Court disagreed with Popplewell J’s reasoning that, where the benefit arises from a

transaction of a kind which the innocent party would have been able to undertake for his

own account, irrespective of the breach, or involve the exploitation of their own assets,

that is suggestive that the breach is not sufficiently causative of the benefit. Where the

market rate is displaced because there is no market, the British Westinghouse principles

apply and one just has to decide whether the sale arose ‘out of the consequences of the

breach and in the ordinary course of business’, and that was what the arbitrator had found.

There can be no universal rule that market fluctuations over the period of a time charter

should never be taken into account, because this happens when profits from spot charters

are taken into account, since their rate vary considerably.

Causation

As for Popplewell’s principle that there must be a direct causative connection between

breach and benefit, the Court considered that it is not necessary for an arbitrator to spell

this out. A sufficient formulation of the causative link is that found in British Westinghouse

that the benefit must ‘arise from the consequences of the breach’. Lord Justice Christopher

Clarke added that if Popplewell’s application of this principle were to be followed, he found

it ‘difficult to see how the third rule [of mitigation] set out in McGregor would retain much

of a foothold on life’. The third rule is that, where the claimant does take steps to mitigate

its loss and these steps are successful, the defendant is entitled to the benefit accruing

from the claimant’s action.

Fairness and Justice

On this point, the Court held that, although some authorities support the principle that it

would be contrary to fairness and justice if the defendant were to be allowed to appropriate

the relevant benefit when that benefit was the fruit of something which the innocent party

has done or acquired for his own benefit, this is not a principle which must be followed in

all cases. A more fundamental principle is that a claimant who sustains loss is, so far as

money can do it, to be placed in the same situation as if the contract had been performed.

The arbitrator had taken considerations of fairness and justice into account when he looked

at the case as a whole, and found that the Owners had made a considerable profit from

selling the Vessel by way of mitigating their loss.

Comments

The Court of Appeal unanimously provided a robust judgment in the area of mitigation of

loss, where, according to the Court itself, ‘it is notoriously difficult to lay down principles

of law’. The fact that the sale of the Vessel had been found by the arbitrator to have been

a step taken by the Owners to mitigate their loss was fundamental to the Court’s decision.

However, the Court did not avoid the difficult questions of law presented by the case,

providing, in particular, useful guidance in assessing damages in cases of repudiation of a

charter where there is no available market.

Source: Clyde & Co.

INSERE 13/07/16 NIEUWS NOUVELLES NEWS ENLEVE 13/08/16

Unmanned vessels: Not just insurers concerned

Risk analysis has always been at the heart of the marine insurer’s decision process.

Shipping safety has a genuine link to the efficiency and professionalism of sailors and

master mariners, and anyone in the industry would consider that a good crew is a

prerequisite to a well maintained vessel fully able to face any perils at sea. This means that

the most important pillar for a marine insurer regarding ship security is the quality of crew

on board.Nevertheless, the present situation reflects the fact that modern shipping is

regularly challenging this traditional approach and developments in the industry are less

driven with having people on board. Since the end of World War II marine technology has

extensively developed, which in turn has reduced the need and number of crew on board.

Indeed, despite the ever increasing size of ships, or the innovative use of a vessel, for

example an oil storage facility such as a FPSO, or the development of a huge floating

dredging factory, we are witnessing a decreasing number of crew on board due to the

development and advancement of smart technology. This is linked to cost reduction.

Unmanned ships are no longer just a fantasy.

We have already seen a number of experiments with unmanned vessels being controlled

ashore with remote control equipment, or from a sister ship sailing alongside or in close

proximity to the vessel, using the same type of electronic control devices navigating as a

convoy. Has the time arrived for crewless ships as we have seen recently with cars and

trains? If the answer is yes then is it only a matter for marine insurers to decide?

Undoubtedly marine insurers, be it from the property or liability side, will be key decision

makers, but we must see the results from the first prototype tests before any verdict can

be taken (please see presentation from the President’s Workshop on Unmanned Vessels –

DNV GL Re-Volt from the IUMI 2015 Berlin Conference.

Moreover, the marine insurer’s decisions on unmanned vessels will follow the position

adopted by the shipping community’s main stakeholders, such as the shippers and/or

charterers. The concept of an unmanned vessel does not fit with the traditional known

approach of the shipowner’s legal commitment, which is to safely man its vessel and

identify the master as the central authority on board.All charter-parties and bills of lading

currently used specify that the important duties on board must be fulfilled by the master

and/or other crew members. Will the stakeholders be prepared to change this? Apart from

these commercial partners to shipping, what about flag state and classification societies?

Will they be ready to issue new rules, regulations and laws which will recognise the

preeminence of remote control technology over the immediate know-how of a crew on

board? We can’t ignore or resist new technology and unmanned ships look likely to play a

limited – or perhaps broader role – in the future. Once the key issues have been addressed

and an international convention has been developed and ratified, then it is likely that these

ships will become a reality. But there is a lot of work to be done first and IUMI will be on

the forefront during these discussions.

Source: IUMI (By Frédéric Denèfle, Insurance Director at CESAM & GAREX, and IUMI Legal

& Liability Committee Chairman)

INSERE 15/07/16 HISTORIEK HISTORIQUE ENLEVE 15/08/16

LES TORPILLES OFFENSIVES

Article écrit fin XIXsiècle

La question des torpilles offre une importance capitale ; elle préoccupe très-sérieusement

les marines des pays civilisés, et s’impose tout à la fois aux études d’un grand nombre de

savants : mécaniciens, physiciens et chimistes. La torpille en effet apporte d’étonnantes

complications à la science déjà si complexe du combat naval.

Nous ne connaissions alors que la torpille défensive, celle que l’on place dans les rivières,

les entrées de port, et que le choc ou l’électricité enflamme. Ce genre de torpilles, dites

dormantes, a fait depuis de considérables progrès ; on peut même affirmer que si ces

engins n’ont pas atteint la perfection, ils sont bien près d’offrir aux eaux qu’ils auront à

défendre une sécurité absolue, quelque ingénieux que se montre l’agresseur à les

découvrir. Le talent dépensé dans cette voie par toutes les marines devait amener ce

résultat. Mais ce que l’on n’osait prévoir au début, c’est le rôle offensif de la torpille rendue

mobile, qu’elle soit conduite sur l’ennemi par des hommes de la trempe des brulôtiers grecs

Canaris et Pépinis, ou des torpédistes américains Davidson et Cushing, ou que la

redoutable machine soit remorquée par des bâtiments spéciaux sur le théâtre d’un combat

naval (système Harvey), ou enfin que, douée d’une force propre, elle aille frapper un navire

désigné à ses coups (systèmes Whitehead-Luppis, Lay, Ericsson, etc.) C’est pourtant sous

ces trois formes qu’elle se présente aujourd’hui aux méditations des tacticiens et des

ingénieurs, dont l’œuvre, depuis un demi-siècle, recommence sans cesse avant même

d’être achevée.

Le Spuyten-

Duyvil,

bateau

torpille

américain.

La première

marine qui

ait fait

l’expérience

des torpilles,

nous l’avons

dit, est la

marine des

États-Unis.

Après les

avoir

employées

pour la

défense de leurs rivières, pendant leur guerre de sécession, les Américains en vinrent peu

à peu à imiter les Chinois et imaginèrent des machines qui, abandonnées au courant des

fleuves, allaient éclater contre les flancs des navires qu’ils voulaient détruire. Mais ce

peuple ingénieux et hardi ne devait pas en rester à ces essais, si satisfaisants qu’ils fussent.

En 1863, alors que la flotte fédérale bloquait Charleston, il y avait dans ce port un petit

bateau dont il faut parler, car il est l’ancêtre des torpilles mobiles. Construit pour les

travaux sous-marins, son mécanisme était des moins compliqués ; il consistait en un

simple engrenage qui, mû à la main, faisait, évoluer une hélice. Submergé il recevait l’air

par le moyen assez élémentaire d’un long tuyau maintenu à la surface de l’eau par un

flotteur. Un officier rebelle, dont le nom nous échappe, l’ayant vu, songea aussitôt à

l’utiliser pour aller la nuit fixer une torpille sous les flancs de l’un des navires qui cernaient

le port.

Dans ce but, il plaça un de ces engins à l’avant du petit bateau et se dirigea droit sur le

navire-amiral, qui était l’Hoosatonic ; il l’atteignit, fixa sa torpille et s’éloigna… Un montent

après, l’arrière de l’Hoosatonic sautait, et le bâtiment tout entier s’abîmait dans les flots !

Le torpedo-boat était créé.

L’exemple donné devant Charleston ne fut pas perdu. Les Américains commencèrent à

construire des petits canots sur le modèle de celui qui avait si bien frappé le navire fédéral,

avec cette différence, qu’ils n’étaient pas sous-marins et qu’ils étaient pourvus d’une

machine à vapeur.

À l’avant, un espar d’une vingtaine de pieds s’avançait. Un mécanisme très-simple

permettait de manœuvrer cette lance, à l’extrémité de laquelle était la torpille. Celle-ci

consistait en un vase de cuivre ayant la forme d’une bouteille de champagne, rempli d’une

poudre puissante, et dont le ventre était pourvu de cinq détonateurs. La tête de l’espar

s’enfilait dans le col de la bouteille, où celle-ci était, retenue par une clavette.

Le mécanisme qui faisait mouvoir la lance permettait de l’incliner sous l’eau dans la mesure

nécessaire pour atteindre le navire au point que l’on supposait le plus vulnérable.

Le premier essai de ce genre de bateau eut lieu dans la nuit du 9 avril 1864 contre le

Minnesota, navire amiral fédéral, mouillé à Hampton-Roads, devant Newport-News. Le

canot employé dans cette affaire se nommait le Squib et avait été confié au fameux

capitaine Davidson. Aidé de deux hommes, celui-ci descendit la rivière dans le Squib et

s’approcha d’abord de l’Atalanta ; mais ce bâtiment étant près du rivage, et d’ailleurs

environné d’embarcations, les torpilleurs se dirigèrent sur le navire le plus voisin, qui se

trouvait être le Roanoke ; malheureusement ce dernier n’était guère plus accessible que le

premier, occupé, qu’il était à faire son charbon, et par conséquent presque entièrement

entouré de chalands.

Le Squib fut hélé ; Davidson répondit qu’il venait du fort Monroë et qu’il apportait des

dépêches pour l’amiral ; bénévolement on lui indiqua alors le lieu où était mouillé le navire

de cet officier.

La lune brillait au ciel, çà et là cependant, obscurcie par quelques nuages, ce qui ne

permettait pas au Squib de se diriger aussi bien que le désirait son audacieux équipage.

Avant d’atteindre le Minnesota, Davidson fut donc interpellé plus d’une fois par les navires

près desquels il dut passer. Il leur fit la réponse qu’avait déjà reçue le Roanoke, et continua

sa course ; mais en approchant du Minnesota les qui vive ! devinrent plus impérieux, et

ordre fut donné de délivrer ses dépêches au tender, qui était en arrière.

Davidson comprit que le moment était venu d’agir. Lançant donc son canot, il contourna

le navire de façon à l’atteindre sur tribord.

L’officier de quart, croyant à une faute de manœuvre, réprima vertement le commandant

du canot ; mais celui-ci ne tenant aucun compte de l’observation dont sa gaucherie simulée

était l’objet, l’officier comprit enfin le péril qui le menaçait et donna aussitôt le signal

d’alarme. « C’est le canot-torpille Squib des confédérés ! » lui cria Davidson. Au même

moment, le Squib frappait le Minnesota à 8 pieds au-dessous de sa ligne d’eau, tout près

de l’hélice.

Le choc fut si violent que l’arbre de l’hélice fut projeté hors du centre, quatorze canons de

la batterie furent démontés, et plusieurs matelots jetés hors de leurs hamacs. Le Squib,

cause de ce désordre était lui-même dans une situation difficile : le choc ayant fait sortir

de leurs paliers les tourillons de son unique cylindre, il se trouvait dans l’impossibilité de

s’éloigner. Quelques matelots et marines du navire fédéral, revenus de leur surprise, lui

tirèrent plusieurs coups de carabine et quelques coups de canon de bordée ; mais le Squib

était trop près de la frégate pour être atteint. Enfin son mécanicien, qui avait conservé

toute sa présence d’esprit, ayant remis les tourillons à leur place, la machine reprit son

mouvement et le canot, favorisé par l’obscurité, rentra dans la rivière, sous une pluie de

projectiles dont aucun ne le toucha.

Les confédérés ne furent pas seuls à faire usage des canots-torpilles. M. Wood, professeur

de machines à l’École navale d’Annapolis, inventa un bout-dehors et un obus-torpille qui,

pendant la guerre, fut appliqué à quelques canots d’avant-poste. Ce bout-dehors diffère

de l’espar des confédérés en ce qu’il est creux ; il contient intérieurement un plus petit

bout-dehors ou tige. Le tout est avancé ou abaissé au moyen d’un mécanisme. C’est avec

un bateau de ce genre que le lieutenant Cushing, de la marine fédérale, entreprit

l’expédition qui l’a rendu célèbre.

C’était en 1864. Les navires fédéraux étaient sur le Roanoke, devant Plymouth. Deux fois

l’Albemarle ; monitor confédéré, avait paru au milieu d’eux, et chaque fois leur avait fait

les avaries les plus graves. « Las de le combattre sans résultats avantageux, dit le

secrétaire de la marine dans son report de 1864, le commandant des forces navales dut

se préoccuper d’en avoir raison par des moyens autres que les moyens ordinaires, et choisit

dans cette intention le lieutenant W. B. Cushing. On mit à sa disposition un des canots

destinés au service d’avant-garde, sur lequel on plaça une torpille Wood d’une puissance

extraordinaire. Le lieutenant Cushing reçut l’ordre de faire ses préparatifs, et l’exécution

suivit de près, aussi brillante que rapide. Avec quatorze officiers et matelots qui s’offrirent

pour le seconder, il remonta le Roanoke jusqu’à Plymouth dans la nuit du 27 octobre,

attaqua le bélier amarré à quai, défendu par son équipage et par un détachement de

soldats postés à terre, et le coula. »

« Le lieutenant Cushing revint seul avec un de ses hommes, ajoute le Report ; tout le reste

fut tué. Mais le succès de cette audacieuse entreprise faisait tomber la plus solide défense

de Plymouth. »

Ce type de bateau-torpille (picket-boat) a survécu à la guerre de sécession. Il n’y a pas

aujourd’hui une seule marine qui n’en ait un plus ou moins grand nombre dans ses

arsenaux.

Ou doit aux fédéraux un autre modèle de bateau-torpille : le Spuyten-Duyvil. Il a 74 pieds

de long et jauge 130 tonneaux. Il est muni de compartiments dans lesquels on peut

introduire de l’eau jusqu’à le couler à la hauteur de la ligne du pont. Ce pont, qui dans ce

cas est la seule partie du navire qui émerge, est doublé de plaques de fer. Au milieu se

trouve la guérite du pilote ; elle est également cuirassée. Le système de torpilles adopté

pour ce type de bateaux est celui dont M. Wood est l’inventeur ; il est manœuvré de

l’intérieur par un mécanisme puissant : une cloison s’abaisse et l’espar armé de sa torpille

va frapper l’ennemi sous sa ligne de flottaison et sans qu’une goutte d’eau puisse entrer

dans le navire agresseur.

La guerre de sécession ayant pris fin au moment de son lancement, le Spuyten-Duyvil n’a

servi jusqu’à présent qu’à faire sauter, avec un succès dont notre dessin représente

fidèlement les effets, les barrages que les Américains avaient établis sur quelques-unes de

leurs rivières.

Le Spuyten-Duyvil détruisant des obstructions

sous-marines.

Son infériorité par rapport aux picket-boats est, à

notre sens, d’être plus visible, et par suite moins

propre à un coup de main. Celui que l’amiral Porter

fait construire en ce moment à Brooklyn, dans le

plus grand mystère et sur des plans semblables,

ne nous paraît pas mieux conçu, au moins au point

de vue de l’invisibilité. Il est néanmoins supérieur

à son aîné sur ce point qu’il « est muni, dit le New-

York Times, d’un éperon long de 40 pieds à

l’extrémité duquel fonctionne une machine qui,

sous l’action de l’électricité, pourra envoyer de

petites torpilles contre l’ennemi. » Mais les essais

donneront-ils gain de cause à son auteur ?…

Nous le répétons, s’il est possible de trouver dans

une escadre un certain nombre d’hommes décidés

et capables de manœuvrer ce genre de bateaux (picket-boats, plus ou moins vastes), un

navire bien gardé aura toujours des chances nombreuses d’échapper à leur contact ; et

leur action ne saurait être effective que dans des circonstances particulières et assez rares.

La même critique peut être adressée à l’invention de M. Harvey, qui, elle aussi, malgré

l’engouement dont elle est encore l’objet de la part de quelques marins, ne saurait avoir,

dans les rencontres navales un effet décisif. Voici en quoi elle consiste :

Manœuvre de la torpille Harvey.

Étant donné un navire de guerre, ce navire, allant au

combat, remorque de chaque bord une torpille

amarrée à un câble filé à 100 mètres de l’arrière ;

une bouée soutenant la torpille la maintient à une

profondeur telle que la caisse immergée ne puisse

pas passer sous la quille du navire qu’elle est

destinée à heurter. Mais pour qu’elle frappe en plein

dans la carène, la caisse contenant la matière

explosible et la bouée doivent avoir une forme allongée, effilée, de manière à diminuer la

résistance à la marche dans l’eau. Cette caisse est munie d’un appendice fixe, qui,

maintenu sous une inclinaison déterminée, fait l’office de gouvernail ; l’appareil tout entier

s’écarte ainsi du navire qui le remorque, jusqu’à faire un angle de 45 degrés environ. La

figure formée par le bâtiment agresseur et les deux torpilles remorquées est celle d’un V

renversé (Ʌ), ouvert de 90 degrés.

Lorsque la torpille est convenablement disposée, on enlève la clavette de sûreté, qui

neutralise le mécanisme percutant, et il suffit, dans cette situation, d’un léger choc sur le

bras du levier supérieur pour déterminer l’explosion. Les expériences ont constaté que si

la torpille rencontre le bâtiment ennemi ou glisse le long de ses flancs, un des deux leviers

dont elle est pourvue fonctionnera invariablement ; de ce côté les résultats sont certains.

L’appareil est également maniable à bord. Son infériorité provient des manœuvres

spéciales et tout à fait extraordinaires imposées au navire torpilleur. Ainsi l’explosion ayant

lieu au contact, ce bâtiment doit courir sur l’ennemi et le ranger de façon que l’une des

torpilles vienne heurter la carène. Quoi qu’en dise M. Harvey, dans ses Instructions, cette

opération est assez difficile pour qu’en beaucoup de cas elle devienne un obstacle

insurmontable au succès. Il est logique de penser d’ailleurs qu’un cuirassé muni d’une forte

artillerie, bien servie, ne la laissera pas s’exécuter aussi tranquillement que le suppose M.

Harvey. Sa torpille ne nous parait donc ne devoir exercer sur l’ennemi qu’un effet moral.

Il est vrai que cet effet peut jouer dans une lutte, et sur un officier manquant de coup

d’œil, de décision, de sang-froid, un rôle capital.

Les tentatives faites dans ces derniers temps pour doter la torpille d’une force motrice

indépendante auront sans contredit sur les futurs engagements maritimes, si elles

aboutissent (ce qui nous semble certain), une action beaucoup plus marquée. Pour ce

motif, et bien qu’elle ne soit pas encore l’idéal, la torpille Whitehead-Luppis mérite

l’attention des hommes qui dirigent en ce moment leurs études sur la question qui nous

occupe.

Son invention est due à M. Luppis, officier de la marine autrichienne, et à M. Whitehead,

ingénieur d’une manufacture de Fiume. Le gouvernement anglais, après que l’Autriche l’eut

essayée pendant plusieurs années, en paya le secret 250 000 francs, avec promesse de

verser une seconde somme de 125 000 s’il était reconnu qu’il fut possible de le rendre

pratique. M. Whitehead exhiba sa machine devant quelques officiers anglais, en 1870, dans

la Medway. C’était un vase en fer, en forme de cigare, d’environ 4m,25 de long et mû au

moyen d’une hélice et d’une machine à air comprimé. Un gouvernail automatique dirigeait

l’appareil, et son immersion était réglée par un système de valves.

Le bâtiment destiné à lancer la torpille Whitehead porte à l’avant, dans la direction de la

quille, un tube spécial fixe sous la flottaison. Au moyen de l’air comprimé, on lance le

projectile-torpille, dont le moteur entre en action au sortir du tube et communique sa

vitesse à la torpille. Cette vitesse a été, dans la Medway, d’environ 4 mètres 10 par

seconde ; il faudrait donc à la torpille 66 secondes pour franchir les 270 mètres qui

constituent sa portée estimée.

Comme on le voit, la torpille Whitehead est, pour ainsi dire, un éperon prolongé, et allant

frapper le navire ennemi sur un point où l’artillerie a de nombreuses chances de rester

inefficace. Le seul inconvénient qu’on lui reconnaisse est celui-ci :

Au moment du lancement, il est nécessaire que la vitesse du bâtiment qui projette la

torpille soit inférieure à celle qu’on peut imprimer au projectile. Il convient donc, à cet

instant, de modérer la marche du navire, jusqu’à ce qu’elle soit d’un nœud (1 875 mètres)

ou d’un nœud et demi inférieur à celle de la torpille. Cette précaution est de toute nécessité

pour éviter les causes d’accidents. Elle représente aussi une obligation que les marins

signalent comme un embarras des plus graves. On entrevoit facilement, en effet, les

conséquences auxquelles peut entraîner une diminution aussi notable de la vitesse

normale. On comprend tout le danger qu’il y a, pour l’agresseur, à ralentir sa marche au

moment même où il s’approche de l’ennemi et s’expose à ses coups. D’autre part, la torpille

n’étant plus fixée à l’avant du bâtiment, mais au contraire lancée comme un projectile vers

un but mobile, l’incertitude du résultat, qui est le choc, augmente rapidement avec la

distance du bâtiment à atteindre. Enfin pour lancer sa torpille à propos, l’agresseur doit,

tenir compte de la direction du bâtiment qu’il attaque, apprécier sa vitesse et manœuvrer

ensuite pour présenter son avant sous un angle de tir difficile à préciser avec des données

aussi problématiques.

Il peut arriver néanmoins que des circonstances se prêtent à une bonne manœuvre de la

torpille, ainsi qu’il arriva lors de l’expérience faite dans la Medway, par l’Oberon sur l’Eagle,

qui fut atteint avec un plein succès à une distance de 118 mètres. La torpille Whitehead

devient alors une arme contre laquelle aucun navire ne saurait lutter. Mais ces conditions

de réussite se reproduiront-elles deux fois ?…

Pour donner une plus grande certitude à l’action de la torpille Whitehead, en Angleterre

(et, croyons-nous, en France) on s’efforce de remédier aux défauts qui ont donné lieu aux

critiques que nous venons de reproduire, tandis qu’en Russie, en Allemagne, en Italie, en

Autriche, aux États-Unis, on recherche, avec des engins de formes diverses, une utilisation

absolument pratique de l’air comprimé. Les Américains, dont les chantiers ont cessé,

depuis leur guerre de sécession, de construire des navires de guerre, montrent, en

revanche, dans cette voie nouvelle l’activité qui est le trait le plus saillant de leur

physionomie nationale. Le constructeur du Spuyten-Duyvil, M. Lay, a fait agréer du

gouvernement un bateau-torpille automobile dont les expériences n’ont pas encore donné

les résultats que son inventeur en espérait. Il y a, pensons-nous, plus de fond à faire sur

la torpille mobile sous-marine que son compatriote M. le capitaine John Ericsson se propose

d’expérimenter prochainement. Les obstacles qu’il prétend surmonter sont nombreux et

de plus d’un genre, mais il a dans le succès une foi si profonde, qu’on ne peut se défendre

de la partager. M. John Ericsson s’est acquis d’ailleurs, dans le monde scientifique et marin,

une place exceptionnelle. C’est lui qui, concurremment avec l’Anglais Smith, a rendu

pratique l’usage de l’hélice. Son propulseur est le premier qu’aient employé la France et

les États-Unis. Lors de la guerre de sécession, il a imaginé le type Monitor, adopté depuis

par toutes les marines. Enfin dans ces derniers temps, il a puissamment contribué, avec le

capitaine Coles, à imposer les tourelles tournantes aux grands cuirassés.

Tel est le degré de perfection atteint par les torpilleurs à l’heure où nous écrivons. Si leur

science a fait, depuis une dizaine d’années, d’immenses progrès et dans la forme des

engins, dans la composition des substances qui les chargent, et enfin dans les moyens

propres à en produire l’explosion, il leur reste, pour en faire des armes d’une valeur

absolue, bien des problèmes à résoudre. Il ne nous parait pas, quant à nous, que ce résultat

soit impossible ; nous avons même lieu de supposer qu’on l’atteindra dans un avenir très-

rapproché. Ce jour-là, l’art du combat naval aura dit son dernier mot, la guerre d’escadre,

épuisé ses combinaisons. Encore une fois la science, plus puissante que le droit, aura primé

la force.

INSERE 15/07/16 BOEKEN LIVRES BOOKS ENLEVE 15/08/16

Navigating the Great Barrier Reef and Torres Strait

There has been much talk of safe navigation in the inside passages of the Great Barrier

Reef, following a few high profile groundings.

As a result, Witherby Publishing has produced a comprehensive two volume Passage

Planning Guide to be used while navigating in and around these areas off the Australian

coast.

The Great Barrier Reef contains around 3,000 individual reefs, 900 islands and is more

than 1,600 miles long. Only about 50% of the reefs have been properly surveyed, due to

their almost inaccessibility.

The IMO declared the Great Barrier Reef a ‘Particularly Sensitive Sea Area’ in 1990,

followed by the Torres Strait in 2005.

A ‘regulated’ vessel is only allowed to transit extensive areas of the reef passage and the

Torres Strait with an Australian Maritime Safety Authority (AMSA) licensed pilot on board.

‘Regulated’ applies to all vessels of 70 m in length or over and all laden oil, chemical and

gas carriers.

Along this vast coastline are several ports capable of handling large vessels, especially to

the south of Cairns and the inside passage is well used by tanker traffic.

Both volumes are well illustrated with maps and pictures of landmarks, which are

referenced to the maps. The different routes are explained in detail for both the Great

Barrier Reef and the Torres Strait.

At £175, this guide does not seem expensive for the amount of information contained to

help bridge teams navigate what are among the most hazardous channels in the world.

INSERE 17/07/16 DOSSIER ENLEVE 17/08/16

Ballast water management strategies for tanker operators

The transfer of invasive marine species into new environments via ballast water has been

identified as one of the major threats to the world’s oceans.*

In 1992 the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) called

on the IMO to take action to address the problem. The IMO had been seeking a solution

for over 10 years, publishing in 1991, ‘Guidelines for Preventing the Introduction of

Unwanted Organisms and Pathogens from Ship’s Ballast Waters and Sediment Discharges’.

In 2004, and only after a long series of international conferences, the IMO finally achieved

the International Convention for the Control and Management of Ships Ballast Water and

Sediments, known as the Ballast Water Management Convention (BWMC).

By January 2015, 44 countries owning 32.57% of the world’s merchant fleet had ratified

the convention, which only comes into effect 12 months after 30 countries, representing a

combined total gross tonnage of more than 35% of the world’s fleet, have ratified it.

Commentators believe this will happen sometime this year or certainly by 2016.

According to the IMO, 3-5 bill tonnes of ballast water is transported annually around the

world. The major characteristics of the tanker sector, certainly as far as ballast water is

concerned, are the huge volumes of water involved, the criticality of the ballasting and

deballasting processes to the smooth completion of terminal operations and the size and

power of the BWMS required to handle the flow rates involved.

Most ballasting systems have a pump capacity that allows the total ballast to be emptied

or filled in 10 - 20 hours. Any time lost to BWT through breakdowns or filtration blockages

will result in considerable additional costs to the vessel operator.

Oil and chemical tankers, LNG/LPG carriers and larger bulk/ore carriers sailing halfway

around the world are the types of vessel most likely to transport unwanted organisms in

significant numbers inadvertently given the volumes these vessels carry. For example, a

typical VLCC will be carrying around 100,000 cu m of ballast water, so addressing the

specific operational requirements of these types of vessels is vital to the success of the

IMO convention in dealing with alien nuisance species.

As the IMO convention comes into force, cumulative investments of over $30 bill into BWTS

are expected over the next decade, according to a study by analysts Frost & Sullivan. More

than 57,000 vessels will require a BWMS driving a massive boom in orders. Capital costs

will range from $175,000 to $3 mill.

The emerging ballast water management market has attracted over 70 manufacturers

bringing differing experience, expertise and background; some are traditional marine

engineers, others have a history in water and wastewater management, some are

shipbuilders, others are shipowning companies in their own right, but almost all BWMS on

the market today rely on a combination of two out of three basic processes; mechanical

filtration to remove larger organisms followed by either chemical treatment or physical

disinfection to or render non viable smaller and microorganisms

All BWMS, which involve filtration do so down to the 40 or 50 micron level, although there

is one system that goes as small as 10 microns. All filters rely on automatic backwashing

to maintain flow and discharge waste. For tankers, the intake rates can be as high as 6,000

- 8,000 cu m per hour and this is where the problems can start because reliably filtering

such a volume of water can be challenging, especially in areas where ballast water may

contain high levels of suspended solids. The pretreatment filtration causes pressure drop

in the ballast circuit, the amount varies depending on pump pressure, design of the ballast

head and location of the installation.

The second stage of treatment has to be large enough to manage the water flow at the

same rate as it is pumped on board. One solution is to run two or more treatment systems

in parallel but this needs space and often complex piping and manifold arrangements in

areas where space is already at a premium.

BWMS based on UV technologies run water past a UV source that irradiates any organisms

at wavelengths damaging to their DNA, rendering them non-viable. Should organisms need

to be killed (such as is currently the case for US Coast Guard type approval), ballast water

must be exposed to more powerful irradiation for longer resulting in an even greater space

requirement, greater power demand and reduced UV source life. UV sources must be

regularly cleaned and cannot be used in turbid water.

It is sometimes suggested that re-irradiating the ballast water prior to deballasting might

be an answer to the problem of killing those organisms that have blossomed following

regrowth in the ballast tanks during the voyage. But this approach is not universally

accepted and effectively doubles the risk of BWMS interference in vessel terminal

operations. Newer generations of UV BWMS are certainly more flexible and efficient than

are the original designs, but there are still vessels whose the huge ballast capacities, high

pumping rates, power availability and space availability make UV impractical.

Complicating matters, the USCG is currently drafting its own approval processes requiring

that discharged ballast water contains no living organisms whereas the IMO regulations

provide only for organisms to be non viable-unable to reproduce- when discharged. In the

short term, the USCG has allowed Alternative Management System (AMS) status to

systems already type approved by other regulatory bodies while it studies the effectiveness

of UV treatments.

Tanker owners can opt for

systems using chemically

active re-agents like

chlorine, chlorine dioxide,

ozone, peracetic acid,

hydrogen peroxide or

sodium hypochlorite.

Electro-chlorination

(electrolysis) of salt water

produces chlorine entities,

which destroy cells but

have the disadvantage

that they cannot operate

reliably with fresh water or

at low temperature.

While the power

requirements for

electrolysis systems are

lower than that of UV

systems, they can still be considerable and the issue is further complicated by the

variations in power demand caused by changes in salinity, temperature and the

combinations thereof. Water is treated during ballasting but, as with other in line system,

the risk of organism regrowth in the ballast tanks over a long voyage is acute.

The concentrations of residual chlorine in ballast water drops below the 8 ppm needed to

achieve a kill, within just a few days, and attempts to boost chlorine levels passed through

to the tanks can result in significant (and costly) corrosion damage to tank coatings and

thence vessel structure.

Electrolysing seawater also produces hydrogen and chlorine gases as by-products and it is

clear that these systems must be handled with great care. At least four vessels relying on

electro-chlorination BWMS have suffered on board explosions for reasons that are not clear

in all cases. For these reasons, the use of chlorine in the ballast water of chemical or

LNG/LPG carriers is thought to introduce unnecessary risks.

In 2015, Bawat unveiled a new BWMS that uses reclaimed waste heat energy from the

ship’s engines. Ballast water is heated to 72 deg C and then flows back into the tanks to

allow pasteurisation to take place during voyage. Bawat reported good results on smaller

vessels but as ballast volumes scale up, the on board energy/heat transfer demands

struggle to scale proportionally.

Mechanical systems have the benefit of avoiding the use of active chemicals in contact with

water or tank linings and so minimise corrosion risks. The most recently accredited BWMS

is based on physical methods of killing micro-organisms, using de-oxygenation and

ultrasonic cellular disruption.

Coldharbour Marine, decided to focus on the needs of tanker operators, calling upon the

company’s 35 plus years of experience of supplying marine inert gas systems (FGS + IGG)

to these customers.

Instead of adopting a traditional (land type) water treatment technology, Coldharbour

began with a clean sheet and undertook an in-depth study of the views and requirements

of owners and operator contacts. These indicated that an optimal system would operate to

treat the water during the voyage and in the ballast tank. This is because the demands

made on personnel, managers and power systems in port were such that adding the

pressure of managing BWT with the need to cope with high pumping rates and raised power

demands at the same time was one distraction too many.

Coldharbour developed its design brief accordingly and designed and built a system that

delivered just what tanker operators had requested - a system that guaranteed no

disruption to port operations and guaranteed no risk of organism regrowth during long

voyages (> 10 days).

Following successful bench tests, Coldharbour retrofitted its BWMS onto a VLCC for sea

tests, being the first retrofit of such a tanker completed anywhere by any BWMS supplier.

Coldharbour’s in tank, in voyage system uses three complementary mechanisms to achieve

its BWMS. First there is no filtration step. Instead, ballast water is pumped into the tanks

as normal and treatment is not started until sometime after the voyage begins. At this

point, inert gas is pumped into gas lift diffusion (patented GLD) units mounted inside the

ballast tanks. These GLD units stir the tanks using fluid dynamics. There are no moving

parts and no electrical connections or pumps but the GLDs are remarkably efficient in their

stirring action with each capable of moving 1,000 cu m of ballast around the tank each

hour.

A typical VLCC installation would see five GLD units per main ballast tank and a smaller

number for the forepeak and after peak tanks - making a total of about 55 GLD units on a

VLCC, all easily installed in the vessel’s ballast tanks.

The de-oxygenated inert gas containing <0.2% O2 removes the dissolved oxygen in the

ballast water replacing it with CO2 and killing organisms by asphyxia. As the CO2 dissolves,

the water pH temporarily drops, becoming mildly acidic and killing anaerobic organisms by

hypercapnia. Finally, as the inert gases are introduced into the ballast water through the

GLDs, an ultrasonic shock wave is produced inside the GLD, which is tuned to disrupt the

cell structures of any remaining micro-organisms such as E coli, Cholera and others.

The water treatment requires just a few hours to complete and, by taking place during the

voyage, pressure on crews is reduced and no additional power is required during critical

time spent at terminals. With the water in the tanks full of inert gas, there is no risk of

regrowth with this system.

The ballast water is re-oxygenated prior to discharge by passing air through the GLD units.

This is mandatory, as it ensures that the water is at the correct pH for legal discharge. This

approach is particularly effective for vessels with large ballast capacities, high ballast

pumping rates that are critical to cargo operations and long ballast voyages where re-

growth would be a major concern.

Corrosion and coatings impact research was undertaken by Coldharbour with Jotun and

International Paints and these showed that the rate of tank corrosion experienced was

significantly reduced - representing a useful additional cost saving. In 2015 the

Coldharbour BWMS received IMO type approval from the UK MCA with all testing overseen

independently by Lloyd’s Register.

Andrew Marshall, Coldharbour Marine CEO, explained why a VLCC was chosen for sea trials,

“We wanted to demonstrate our system on a real vessel under challenging conditions. In

our tests, we studied the impact on organisms down to 2μm even though the target level

stipulated was 10μm.

“After all, small organisms grow into large organisms given the right conditions. We decided

long ago that it was not possible to offer one system that would satisfy all vessel types

and, having previously supplied Inert gas systems, it made sense for us to use our IGG

system and develop the patented GLD units enabling us to offer a truly innovative, in tank,

in voyage, BWMS to tanker operators,” he said.

At the end of April, Coldharbour Marine’s new headquarters was opened by the Rt Hon

Patrick McLoughlin, UK Secretary of State for Transport.

Coldharbour is now based in a 25,000k sq ft building in Linby, Nottinghamshire. Previously

spread over three sites, Coldharbour’s administrative headquarters, design office, research

laboratory, development and factory acceptance test (FAT) facility, rig, stores and

warehouse, together with a high-tech assembly shop are now under one roof.

The investment was awarded as part of the Unlocking Investment for Growth (UI4G)

programme, funded by the Government’s Regional Growth Fund and the European

Regional Development Fund. UI4G awards are given by the D2N2 Local Enterprise

Partnership whose role is to promote economic growth and job creation in Derby,

Derbyshire, Nottingham and Nottinghamshire.

Recruitment

The projected international demand for BWTS is underpinning an ambitious recruitment

campaign, as the company is in the process of recruiting 100 full time staff, including

marine engineers and designers, project managers and mechanical engineers.

According to Marshall, “The move to larger premises is part of a planned expansion of our

inert gas business and will ensure that Coldharbour is able to satisfy shipowners and

operators demand for products. We anticipate the imminent introduction of the IMO’s

ballast water management convention will trigger huge international demand for ballast

water management systems worldwide.”

*This article was written by Mark Wells, Chief Technical Officer, Coldharbour Marine.

INSERE 19/07/16 DOSSIER ENLEVE 19/08/16

UNTIL LEGISLATION IS ENACTED GOVERNING PURPOSEFUL TRAINING AND

DEDICATED EQUIPMENT, THE PROBLEMS AND ACCIDENTS ASSOCIATED WITH

ENTRY INTO ENCLOSED SPACES WILL CONTINUE

The increasing number of fatalities resulting from seafarers entering enclosed spaces was

first noted at the annual meeting of the Marine Accident Investigators International Forum

(MAIIF) in 2007, when members agreed to gather statistics to establish the true extent of

the problem.

They found at least 101 incidents that resulted in 93 seafarers losing their lives and 96

serious injuries. But little has changed. Since the adoption of recommendations in 1997

more ships continue to have incidents, accidents and fatalities involving enclosed spaces

than any other area of operation within the shipping industry.

Adam Allan and Capt Michael Lloyd, both of whom work for training provider Mines Rescue

Marine, say in their briefing paper Marine Enclosed Space Design that `the situation is no

longer tolerable... and until legislation is enacted governing purposeful training and

dedicated equipment, the problems and accidents will continue.'

However, efforts to address the myriad safety concerns are underway. For instance, MAIIF

submitted an information paper to the 14th session of the IMO Sub-committee on

Dangerous Goods, Solid Cargoes and Containers, highlighting how training was found to

be inadequate, and that the necessary drills were not carried out in the procedures for safe

entry and safe rescue from enclosed spaces. The organisation argued that training would

remain ineffective if not backed up by a positive management level commitment to

managing safety, assessing competence and training needs onboard, and developing a

safety culture from the company head-office to the master, the officers and the ratings.

The paper eventually led to the establishment of a

correspondence group to review the recommendations

for entering enclosed spaces, and new proposals will be

put to the IMO Assembly at its next meeting in November

this year.

The fact remains, though, enclosed space entry accidents

are still happening. In May last year two fatalities

occurred aboard the bulk log carrier TPC Wellington. The

chief officer entered a hold full of logs that had been

loaded at a previous port and rapidly lost consciousness,

falling from the ladder onto the cargo below. Then a

nearby crew member, seeing the unconscious chief officer

below, entered the hold but he too rapidly lost

consciousness and fell from the ladder onto the cargo.

The combined effects of an oxygen-depleted atmosphere

and the likely presence of toxic gases, both consequences

of the organic decomposition of the logs in the closed

cargo hold, ultimately led to both crew members losing

their lives; they were pronounced dead at the scene.

According to the Transport Accident Investigation

Commission of New Zealand, the dangers of the organic

decomposition of logs and other organic cargoes in

enclosed spaces were in fact documented onboard the

ship, but in spite of this the risk the cargo posed to the

crew had not been identified, no specific training had

been given to the crew members to heighten their

awareness of the risk, and no emergency drills had been

conducted in recent times for. rescue from enclosed

spaces.

Furthermore, the emergency response by the ship's crew to the accident was not

sufficiently coordinated, which reduced the possibility of saving the lives of the two men in

the cargo hold.

However, whilst the type of cargo, or rather the lack of awareness of its effects on the

human body, is one example of the problems associated with entry into enclosed spaces,

the impact and effect that ship compartment design has on entry, work and rescue is

another, which Allen and Lloyd believe has rarely been considered.

They say in their paper: `In industry ashore, entry, work and rescue are major

considerations in the design of any structures which contain enclosed spaces. It may come

as a surprise to some, that the only regulation on tank design for ships is that regarding

the manhole size on bulk carriers and tankers, with requires sizes of 800mm x 800mm for

vertical and 800mm x 600mm for horizontal entries and these dimensions are specified

with the sole intension of allowing a person wearing a BA set to enter them. It is strange

that only these ships are singled out for even this very basic requirement as accidents and

fatalities are shown to occur on all types of ship.'

Using the case of the Viking Islay and the tragic death

of three crew members as an example, the authors of

the paper recall an extract from the report into the

incident: `During the consequent rescue efforts, the

first rescuer found he was unable to enter the chain

locker wearing a BA, and therefore donned an EEBD

(Emergency Escape Breathing Device) . He

subsequently entered the space, but at some point the

hood of the EEBD was removed, (or became dislodged)

and this rating also collapsed.'

Other examples cited in the paper include incidents were

seafarers were injured or died as a result of poorly

designed lighting, ventilation, handrails, ladders and

anchorage points.

`There are many more such cases each different in their own way, but all of them involving

some aspect of failure of ̀ human' design in these spaces. Essentially, we need to recognise

that, when designing any enclosed space onboard a ship, consideration should always be

given to the fact that people may require to enter these spaces and, in some instances,

rescued from them.

`It is recognised that a ship is in itself an enclosed space and that the size, and structural

strength in certain cases will limit what can be achieved, but it would seem that at the

present time in ship building, there is no culture of consideration for "the human factor",

either in legislation or at the design stages of a ship's construction,' they say in the paper.

One of the most important issues highlighted is the difficulty of carrying out a rescue under

the current arrangements. `If the entrance is too small to get in wearing a BA set, then

we must question why personnel are required to enter these spaces,' they say.

The authors recommend that the ships' crew should be given guidance as to which spaces

can be entered with the existing rescue BA sets and which cannot and whether rescue

winches can be deployed vertical entrances. This advance information can be lifesaving in

any enclosed space emergency.

They also advise that lives could be saved by simply welding additional hand holds, extra

steps and eyebolts. Even the use of luminous strips to mark low beams or steps in dark

spaces can assist towards overall safety.

However, while placing the onus on the naval architects and the shipyards to `accept that

every space on the ship will at some time or other require humans to enter' and therefore

design these spaces accordingly, Lloyd and Allan say efforts must continue to deal with the

crew culture, training and equipment.

One sterling effort in making the wider marine community aware of the problem is the new

training series, Entry into Enclosed Spaces, developed by Videotel International in

collaboration with Mines Resuce Marine.The programme delivers a hard hitting message to

both shipboard and shore based personnel that will ensure that when working in enclosed

spaces the correct equipment is used and good safety procedures become second nature.

At the launch of the training video, Stephen Bond, Videotel's deputy chairman, said: ̀ Again

and again we hear of seafarers coming to grief in enclosed spaces. These incidents could

have been avoided by an understanding of the dangers of entering enclosed spaces and

the critical importance of following proper procedures. We are convinced that the Entry

into Enclosed Spaces training series will help save lives.'

With comprehensive written material including case studies and student exercises, the

package consists of six programmes covering: awareness; preparation and procedures;

equipment; enclosed spaces entry; emergency procedures and rescue; and the correct use

of breathing apparatus. It is available in a range of formats - interactive CD-ROM, through

Videotel on Demand (VOD) and VHS/ DVD with supporting booklets.

INSERE 21/07/16 DOSSIER ENLEVE 21/08/16

Lack of training and familiarisation

Late last year, the UK’s Marine Accident Investigation Branch (MAIB) published a report

into the circumstances of the grounding of the product/chemical tanker Ovit on the Varne

Bank in the English Channel.

According to P&I Club Steamship Mutual, who analysed the report, it identified a

watchkeeping officers’ failure to properly use an ECDIS as a major cause in the grounding.

On 18th September, 2013 the 10,307 dwt Turkish-managed Ovit was on passage from

Rotterdam to Brindisi laden with a cargo of vegetable oil. The vessel’s primary means of

navigation was an ECDIS. The Master and officers had received type-specific training on

the ECDIS equipment fitted on board.

In addition, the third officer was due to be promoted and as preparation for his new role

had been given the task of preparing the passage plan for the voyage to Brindisi. However,

his preparations were not supervised by a more experienced officer, and the completed

plan was not checked by the Master.

The Varne

Bank is a

significant

navigational

hazard, being

a sand bank

almost six

nautical miles

long located

about nine

nautical miles

southwest of

Dover. It lies in

the centre of

the southwest-

bound lane of

the traffic

separation

scheme in the

Dover Strait.

The Ovit’s passage plan had set a course to pass directly over the Varne Bank.

MAIB’s investigation found that the function of the ECDIS. which enabled the completed

plan to be checked for safety, identified a number of dangers associated with the passage,

including the specific risk of grounding on the Varne Bank.

Unfortunately, that function was not used in the passage planning, even though the third

officer had recently been provided with familiarisation training for the specific ECDIS on

the vessel. Instead, the officer simply zoomed in on each leg of the passage to visually

check for navigational hazards.

This was a much less reliable means of checking the navigational safety of the intended

plan. MAIB’s investigation also established that the audible alarm on the ECDIS was

inoperative and that the system had been in this condition for a considerable period of

time. This deficiency rendered the setting of various safety parameters on the system,

such as the guard zone, safety contour and grounding alarm, ineffective, the report said.

Furthermore, certain system settings had not been utilised and this compromised the

quality of the information displayed. The feature, which automatically loaded the most

appropriate scale of chart available, was not selected. The officer of the watch at the time

of the grounding had aligned the scale of the ECDIS with the radar display, resulting in an

ECDIS display that contained an ‘over-zoom’ notification, intended to alert the navigator

to the fact that important navigational information may be missing because of the scale in

use.

In addition, the safety contour had not been set in accordance with the requirements of

the vessel’s Safety Management System. Had that been done, the setting on the ECDIS

would have been 20 m. As it was, the safety contour was set to the manufacturer’s default

setting of 30 m. Comparison of the ECDIS displays on both of these settings showed that

a much clearer display of safe water was available on the 20 m setting, MAIB said.

The vessel passed the 30 m contour 17 minutes before grounding, which should have

activated an alarm. However, the only alarms that were active were the grounding and

cross track distance (XTD) alarms. The safety contour alarm was effectively disabled

because an option on the ‘Guard Zone’ menu page to ‘Display and Highlight Dangers’ was

set to ‘Never’.

The grounding alarm was determined by the safety depth, which was set at 13 m. Ovit

passed over that depth seven minutes before grounding. Although this initiated the

system’s alarm, the watchkeeper was unaware of it because the system’s audible alarm

was inoperative. The XTD limit was set to zero. At the time of grounding the vessel was

over 200 m to port of the intended track.

While this situation also failed to activate an audible alarm, the XTD out of limit alarm

would only have been effective if the planned route was inherently safe, which it was not

in this instance given that the intended track passed directly over the Varne Bank.

Apart from the risks arising from the passage plan and the ECDIS settings, there were

other issues, which contributed to the cause of this grounding. On taking over the

navigational watch, the Chief Officer did not check the planned route for the next four

hours to determine the potential navigational hazards and navigational marks likely to be

encountered. This was in contravention of STCW Section A – VIII/2, Part 3, which states

that: 20. Prior to taking over the watch, the relieving officers shall satisfy themselves as

to the ship’s estimated or true position and confirm its intended track, course and speed,

and UMS controls as appropriate and shall note any dangers to navigation expected to be

encountered during their watch.

The Varne Bank is identified by navigational marks. The northeastern extremity of the bank

is marked by a light vessel with an all-round red flashing light, at a height of 39 feet,

having a range of 15 nautical miles. The other limits of the bank are marked by east, south

and west cardinal marks with lights of the appropriate characteristics. MAIB undertook a

simulation of the incident using the prevailing weather conditions, which established that

the Varne light vessel was visible at a range of 10 nautical miles, and the cardinal marks

at five nautical miles.

At the time of the grounding, the Chief Officer was assisted on the bridge by a cadet acting

as lookout. Seventeen minutes before the grounding, the vessel passed close by the light

vessel. That navigational mark appears not to have been either noted, or its significance

appreciated, the report said. While the cadet observed the white flashing lights of the

cardinal marks as the vessel approached the Varne Bank, he did not identify the lights nor

report their sighting to the Chief Officer.

Lack of awareness

Shortly after the vessel had grounded, an engineering alarm sounded from which the Chief

Officer concluded that the ship had stopped because of a mechanical breakdown. His

situational awareness was so impaired that he failed to appreciate the vessel had run

aground until 19 minutes after the event.

As a result of its investigation, MAIB’s made a number of recommendations concerning

ECDIS systems.

The UK Maritime and Coastguard Agency (MCA) was recommended to forward a submission

to the IMO’s Navigation, Communication and Search and Rescue Subcommittee promoting

the concept of carrying out annual performance checks on all ECDIS systems used on ships

as the primary means of navigations. Such a check should have identified the inoperative

audible alarm on the Ovit’s system.

Transport Malta, the vessel’s flag state was recommended to propose to the Paris MOU

committee that a Concentrated Inspection Campaign (CIC) be conducted on ECDISfitted

ships to establish the standards of system knowledge among navigators using a list of pre-

defined questions. The International Chamber of Shipping (ICS) and the Oil Companies

International Marine Forum (OCIMF) were recommended to develop and introduce, in

conjunction with ECDIS experts, a set of focused questions for use by surveyors and

auditors when conducting audits and inspections on ECDIS fitted ships.

MAIB recommended to the vessel’s owners that steps be taken to monitor the effectiveness

of ECDIS familiarisation provided to its deck officers. Steamship Mutual said that this was

a recommendation that could apply to all ECDIS fitted vessels.

INSERE 23/07/16 BOEKEN LIVRES ENLEVE 23/08/16

“Ate the Dog Yesterday”

B O E K B E S P R E K I N G By : Frank NEYTS

Whittles Publishing recently released a new title, “Ate the Dog Yesterday. Maritime

casualties, calamities and catastrophes”, written by Graham FaiellaThe constant dangers

that the deep-sea sailing ships and sailors of the 19th century and early 20th centuries

faced were numerous and this book recounts the true-life dramas of their perils and

misfortunes – the battles that they waged, and all too often lost – against the hazards of

the sea. Life was tough for 19th century sailors in sail - shipboard work was hard and

routinely dangerous. Crew members were frequently maimed or even killed by the sea, of

by any number of dangers they faced while working their ships. It was the same for crews

in all merchant sailing ships of that time: sailors bore the extraordinary hardships as

nothing more nor less than their duty to obey their captains and drive their ships to a safe

port to discharge or take on cargoes.

Great disasters from around the world are featured including the ‘Sir John Lawrence’: loss

of all crew and 730 pilgrims; the ‘Oncle Joseph’ and the ‘Damned Ship’ ‘Ortigia’; the

‘Princess Alice’ and ‘Bywell Castle’ collision: tragedy on the Thames; the ‘Camorta’ sunk in

Bay of Bengal cyclone with 739 dead; the sinking of the ‘Utopia’ at Gibraltar with over 500

lives lost; the ‘Mohegan’ wrecked on the Manacles and the loss of the ‘Stella’ in the Channel

Islands when 112 people lost their lives.From remarkable voyages, mutinies, hoaxes,

curiosities and disease, to Cape Horn passages, collisions and castaways, this book has a

fund of amazing tales that will engross the reader. “Ate the Dog Yesterday” (ISBN 978-1-

84995-089-3) is issued as a paperback. The softback book, liberally illustrated with

engravings, maps and photographs, counts 528 pages and costs £30. The book can be

ordered via every good book shop, or directly with the publisher, Whittles Publishing,

Dunbeath Mill, Dunbeath, Cairness IKW6 6EG, Scotland (UK), e-mail:

info@whittlespublishing.com , www.whittlespublishing.com

INSERE 23/07/16 NIEUWS NOUVELLES NEWS ENLEVE 23/08/16

Shaking Up Manning Levels

Amendments to the ISM Code which took effect on January 1, 2015 are slowly beginning

to shake up the perennial problem of minimum safe manning levels, according to a new

insurance industry study.

It was long been felt that the minimum safe manning rules are not wholly fit for purpose.

Thankfully the amendment has now shifted the onus of responsibility back on to the

shipowner.

Instead of being told what is acceptable, owners will now be held liable if they have not

made a proper assessment of the necessary minimum safe manning level or for not

reassessing a change in the circumstances of the vessel.

The requirement is that the ship is manned in excess of its Minimum Safe Manning

Document in order to comply with hours of rest rules and other requirements that may

arise due to the operation of the ship.

Minimum manning levels have meant that some crews have had to work under pressure

of unachievable hours of rest, and they have often been forced to take on additional duties

– usually security related. This means that tired crews are forced to either flog the logs or

come under pressure from management ashore.

Having too few crew onboard is tantamount to negligence – it does nothing for the safe,

effective and efficient carriage of goods. It causes undue stress and fatigue, and it is no

good for business, or for the reputation of shipping. In addition it also affects recruitment

and retention.

The lowering of manning levels has perhaps been the single most damaging and damning

issue affecting modern shipping. It may have instigated as we all thought technology would

take up the slack – but this has not happened. Instead we have seen deaths, accidents

and environmental disaster, we have seen an erosion of professionalism and the death of

the very culture of seafaring.

Having less and less people threatens both the present, but the future too – hopefully the

new amendments and the change of emphasis will make a difference.

INSERE 25/07/16 HISTORIEK HISTORIQUE ENLEVE 25/08/16

L'activité maritime des Belges au lendemain de 1830

La Révolution de 1830 nous rendit la liberté politique, mais non pas une complète liberté

commerciale, le bras de l'Escaut qui relie Anvers à la mer ayant été maintenu sous la

souveraineté de nos voisins du nord.

La désastreuse campagne des Dix Jours, en 1831, ne fut pas faite pour améliorer la

situation. Et lorsque le traité de 1839 établit enfin la paix définitive entre les deux pays, si

le droit de passage dans l'Escaut en temps de paix fut reconnu à la Belgique, ce fut

moyennant une taxe à payer à la Hollande pour chaque navire qui se dirigerait vers Anvers.

Dans l'esprit des Hollandais, cette taxe devait éliminer la concurrence du port belge et

réserver la prééminence aux ports des Pays-Bas.

Après d'incessantes et laborieuses négociations, menées habilement par le baron

Lambermont, notre gouvernement obtint cependant, en 1863, la suppression de ce péage

moyennant le versement d'une indemnité globale et unique de 17 141.640 florins. Anvers,

cette fois, allait pouvoir enfin connaître la véritable prospérité.

Rien ne devait plus s'opposer non plus au libre développement de notre marine marchande.

Hélas ! celle-ci ne suivit pas la grande cité dans sa prodigieuse ascension.

Alors que nous possédions, au moment du rachat du péage de l'Escaut, une flotte de 67

navires dont 55 voiliers et 12 steamers, jaugeant ensemble 30.449 tonnes, notre flotte ne

comptait plus, en 1895, que 55 unités. Il est vrai que le tonnage global atteignait près de

80.000 tonnes, 50 steamers d'un tonnage unitaire supérieur à celui des anciens voiliers

ayant remplacé la plupart de ceux-ci dont le nombre était tombé à cinq.

Nos premiers souverains ne manquèrent pas, cependant, d'essayer d'intéresser leurs

sujets à la mer et aux entreprises lointaines.

Hélas ! la Marine Royale, que Léopold Ier désirait voir se développer dans le but d'assurer

la sécurité de nos côtes et de former aussi de bons officiers et de bons marins qui auraient

pu servir avec distinction dans la marine marchande, ne fit que vivoter péniblement

jusqu'au moment où la Chambre des Représentants obtint enfin son désarmement en

1848.

La volonté du Roi de pouvoir disposer d'une force navale capable de faire respecter notre

pavillon était taxée de mégalomanie et accueillie avec des haussements d'épaules par les

hommes qui prétendaient représenter les intérêts supérieurs du pays...

Léopold II, qui devait doter la Belgique, contre sa volonté, d'une des plus belles colonies

du monde, tenta, lui aussi, d'inculquer à son peuple l'amour de la mer.

Alors qu'il était encore Duc de Brabant, il s'exprimait en ces termes devant le Sénat :

« Je voudrais qu'aux stations d'Anvers et d'Ostende, où s'arrêtent les chemins de fer

belges, tout ne fût pas fini pour nous, et que là, au contraire, s'ouvrît une nouvelle et large

voie à l'activité nationale. Je voudrais que ces stations, points extrêmes aujourd'hui,

devinssent bientôt les points de départ de nombreux steamers qui prolongeraient sur la

mer notre railway ».

« Un pays n'est jamais petit lorsqu'il est bordé par la mer », dira-t-il aussi plus tard.

Mais tout ce que réalisa de grand ce souverain qui avait, plus qu'aucun autre, le sens inné

de la grandeur, il dut le faire dans une atmosphère de pénible incompréhension, voire

même de franche hostilité. Ce qui lui dicta un jour ces dures paroles : « Je suis le souverain

d'un pays de petites gens »...

Paroles désabusées, prononcées dans un moment de lassitude, par un homme qui n'en

continua pas moins, jusqu'à son dernier souffle, à servir son pays avec la même volonté

obstinée. Paroles, hélas ! qui se sont révélées trop souvent vraies et qui méritent d'être

méditées si nous ne voulons pas que l'avenir répète les trop nombreuses erreurs du passé.

A l'époque où, la Révolution lui rendit l'indépendance, la Belgique se trouvait à la tête d'une

flotte de 4 petits vapeurs jaugeant ensemble 1.477 tonneaux et de 151 voiliers, bien

modestes également, jaugeant 21.260 tonneaux ; au total, donc, 22.787 tonneaux.

La réussite de la traversée de l'Atlantique par les premiers steamers anglais et américains

détermina le gouvernement, qui cherchait alors à intensifier nos relations avec les pays

lointains, à établir une ligne régulière de navigation entre Anvers et New-York. Il acheta,

dans ce but, à l'Angleterre, en 1840, le paquebot British Queen, un navire qui faisait

l'admiration des gens de l'époque, mais pour lequel on manquait malheureusement, en

Belgique, d'officiers et de marins spécialistes compétents. L'affaire fut, d'autre part, très

mal gérée, et, après quelques traversées assez difficiles, on se décida, en 1844, à revendre

le navire.

On s'occupa alors de chercher quelques débouchés pour notre commerce du côté des

Indes, trafic qu'assurèrent, pendant plusieurs années, cinq bons navires : le Macassar,

l'Emmanuel, le Schelde, l'Ambiorix et le Charles.

Une nouvelle tentative eut lieu en 1853 sur la ligne Anvers-New-York, au service de laquelle

furent affectés deux paquebots de 3.000 tonneaux, La Belgique et La Constitution,

construits en Hollande, suivis bientôt de trois bâtiments construits en Belgique dans les

Ateliers Cockerill : le Léopold ler, le Duc de Brabant et Le Congrès. Les résultats de

l'exploitation se révélèrent malheureusement déficitaires et la société fut obligée d'entrer

en liquidation en 1859.

L'échec de ces tentatives découragea nos armateurs, d'autant plus que la suppression de

la Marine Royale les avait privés d'une pépinière de marins spécialisés qui devenaient,

cependant, de plus en plus nécessaires.

C'est alors que le Gouvernement décida d'attirer à Anvers un certain nombre de grandes

compagnies étrangères en leur accordant de gros avantages. La « Red Star Line », le «

Norddeutscher Lloyd » et l' « Union Steamship C° » furent parmi les plus importantes qui

répondirent à cet appel.

La solution était intéressante, en ce qu'elle assurait au grand port national le bénéfice d'un

trafic plus considérable, mais elle devait aussi, par contre, décourager les armateurs belges

dont la plupart renoncèrent à se mesurer avec des rivaux aussi puissants.

Les entreprises coloniales

Le début de notre période d'indépendance fut aussi marqué par quelques tentatives de

colonisation dont la plus célèbre fut, en 1842, la Société Anonyme créée, avec l'appui du

Roi Léopold Ier, pour créer des établissements coloniaux en Amérique centrale et,

notamment, au Guatémala. L'entreprise ne fut malheureusement pas soutenue par le

Gouvernement et dut être rapidement liquidée alors que plus de douze cents colons belges

s'étaient déjà installés dans le pays.

Une tentative du même genre au Brésil n'eut pas plus de succès.

Un projet d'expédition en Abyssinie, puis sur la côte de Guinée, tous deux proposés par

Léopold Ier, n'eurent pas de suite.

Parmi les projets de colonisation qui virent le jour au début de notre période

d'indépendance, il en est un généralement peu connu, mais qui mérite, néanmoins, d'être

signalé, car il prouve combien notre premier souverain avait le sens de l'intérêt national

joint à celui de l'opportunité et ne reculait pas devant l'audace des conceptions.

Léopold Ier venait à peine de faire son entrée à Bruxelles, le 21 juillet 1831, que l'armée

hollandaise, rompant la trêve qui durait depuis les événements de septembre de l'année

précédente, franchissait, le 2 août, notre frontière septentrionale.

Le Roi se trouvait au Quartier Général de l'armée à Aerschot, lorsqu'il reçut, le 8 août, par

un envoyé spécial de la Cour d'Angleterre, une lettre lui annonçant que deux officiers

belges, Kerchoven et Louis, avaient soulevé la garnison de Batavia, composée en majeure

partie de soldats d'origine belge. Le roi était invité à envoyer d'urgence un agent à Batavia

pour y prendre possession de la colonie au nom de la Belgique.

Dès le lendemain, Léopold Ier fit annoncer la nouvelle, par des affiches apposées sur les

murs de Louvain, où il venait de transporter son Quartier Général.

Les Chambres de Commerce du pays, consultées d'urgence sur D'attitude à adopter en

cette circonstance et sur les moyens qu'il conviendrait d'utiliser pour mettre à profit la

situation créée dans les Indes Néerlandaises par Je soulèvement de Batavia, se montrèrent

malheureusement très réticentes. Dans l'ensemble, elles admettaient que la possession de

ces contrées serait la source d'un profit considérable pour notre industrie et notre

commerce, mais elles reculaient devant les sacrifices pécuniaires qu'il faudrait consentir.

La réponse la plus ferme vint de Bruges, qui proposait l'envoi immédiat, à Batavia, d'un

corps expéditionnaire de 5.000 hommes convoyé par des bâtiments de guerre anglais et

français.

Nous ne possédions pas, en effet, de marine de guerre et les Hollandais n'auraient guère

eu de mal à se saisir de nos bateaux si nous avions eu l'imprudence de les envoyer aux

Indes sans escorte.

Anvers, qui avait précisément, à ce moment, deux navires en rade d'Ostende, les offrit

aussitôt au Gouvernement.

L'idée de l'expédition suscita aussi un grand enthousiasme à Bruxelles.

Hélas ! pendant que l'on se grisait à l'idée d'enlever à nos voisins du nord une de leurs plus

belles colonies, les événements militaires avaient pris, dans le Limbourg et le Brabant, une

tournure tellement défavorable, que le Roi fut obligé de demander l'aide de la France pour

sauver la capitale.

Une armée française de 50.000 hommes, qui se tenait prête sous les ordres du maréchal

Gérard, franchit aussitôt la frontière et arriva à Wavre le 12 août, obligeant le Prince

d'Orange, qui commandait les troupes hollandaises, à accepter un armistice, mais cette

suspension d'armes interdisait aussi aux Belges de donner suite à leur projet de conquête

de l'île de Java.

Les révoltés de Batavia furent donc abandonnés à leur sort et l'affaire en resta là.

D'autres projets furent encore examinés par Léopold Ier, et, notamment, une expédition

aux îles Fidji ; ils trouvèrent chaque fois un petit noyau d'hommes enthousiastes prêt à se

mettre aux ordres du souverain ; parfois même ils réussirent à éveiller quelque intérêt

dans la population, comme ce fut le cas à Bruxelles lors du projet d'expédition à Batavia,

niais jamais ils ne parvinrent à décider les milieux de l'industrie, du commerce et de la

finance à fournir les fonds qui étaient indispensables à la réalisation de l'entreprise.

Cette apathie aurait infailliblement voué au même échec toutes les tentatives qui auraient

pu être envisagées dans l'avenir et la Belgique aurait assisté au partage général des terres

lointaines sans recueillir la part que le développement de son économie lui permettait de

réclamer, si elle n'avait heureusement trouvé, en Léopold II, l'homme de génie qui allait

oser courir seul tous les risques de l'entreprise.

Chacun sait quelle habileté, quel sens aigu de la diplomatie, quelle énergie farouche et

quelle patience inlassable Léopold II dut déployer pour arriver à ses fins.

L'affaire commença par la réunion, le 12 septembre 1876, à Bruxelles, d'une « Conférence

Géographique Internationale » à laquelle le Roi avait convié de nombreux savants et des

explorateurs célèbres, pour leur exposer un plan commun d'exploration méthodique du

centre de l'Afrique.

Ainsi fut fondée « L'Association Internationale pour la Civilisation et l'Exploration de

l'Afrique Centrale », connue sous le nom d' « Association Internationale Africaine ».

En diplomate avisé qu'il était, Léopold II avait jugé bon de recourir à cette phase préalable

de caractère international, pour éviter les suspicions et les jalousies.

Mais ce fut à des officiers belges que le Roi confia le commandement des expéditions

envoyées en Afrique.

La première fut placée sous les ordres du capitaine Crespel et du lieutenant Cambier. Ce

dernier atteignit Karema, sur la rive orientale du lac Tanganika, en 1878.

Entretemps, l'explorateur américain Henry Stanley avait réussi à traverser l'Afrique

centrale en trois ans, de 1874 à 1877, reconnaissant le cours du Zaïre, ou fleuve Congo,

qui était resté, jusque là, une énigme pour les géographes.

Léopold II, avec un esprit de décision remarquable, résolut aussitôt de s'assurer le

concours de Stanley et, en 1878, il fonda le « Comité d'Etudes du Haut-Congo », pour le

compte duquel l'Américain, accompagné de bon nombre de Belges, entreprit, de 1879 à

1884, l'exploration méthodique du fleuve.

A la phase scientifique ou géographique de l'entreprise allait succéder, maintenant, la

phase politique. Le Comité d'Etudes se mua en « Association Internationale du Congo »

qui se déclara souveraine des territoires immenses du bassin du Congo et parvint à faire

reconnaître ses droits par les Puissances, la première reconnaissance étant venue des

Etats-Unis, le 22 avril 1884.

Une Conférence se réunit alors à Berlin, sous la présidence de Bismarck, pour s'occuper de

résoudre la question du partage de l'Afrique.

Les délégués de quatorze Etats y assistèrent.

Le baron Lambermont et Emile Banning y défendirent les droits de l'Association

Internationale, qui, le 23 février 1885, fut reconnue, par l'Acte Général de Berlin, comme

puissance souveraine sous le nom d' « Etat Indépendant du Congo ».

Le nouvel Etat était placé sous la souveraineté de Léopold II, qui en était reconnu en même

temps le « propriétaire ».

Restait à faire reconnaître l'union personnelle du Congo et de la Belgique par les Chambres,

ce qui fut accompli la même année au mois d'avril.

Désormais, entièrement maître de son entreprise, Léopold allait pouvoir se consacrer en

toute liberté à son développement.

La lutte contre les grandes puissances était finie ; il allait falloir maintenant se défendre...

contre les Belges !

Au lieu de provoquer, dans notre pays, un mouvement d'enthousiasme et de légitime

orgueil, la naissance de l'État Indépendant fut accueillie, en effet, avec beaucoup de

réticences, voire même avec une franche hostilité dans la plupart des cercles politiques et

financiers. On se demandait avec inquiétude si le Roi n'avait pas l'intention de faire un jour

du Congo une colonie belge !

Les mesquines questions d'argent, qui avaient empêché les projets coloniaux de Léopold

Ier d'aboutir, reprenaient, cette fois encore, le premier plan... Incapables de se hausser

au-dessus du souci de l'immédiat, la plupart de nos Représentants ne voulaient considérer

l'acquisition d'un domaine colonial que sous le seul rapport des frais de premier

établissement !

Déçu par l'étroitesse de vues de ses sujets, Léopold Ier avait songé plus d'une fois, entre

1840 et 1850, à abandonner la couronne et à quitter le royaume. Il resta par sentiment du

devoir, parce qu'il avait conscience d'une mission à remplir.

C'est dans ce même état d'esprit que Léopold II soutint la lutte contre les pusillanimes qui

se gaussaient de sa « mégalomanie », incapables qu'ils étaient de comprendre que cette

prétendue mégalomanie n'était rien d'autre qu'une volonté de grandeur.

Par bonheur, le souverain obtint l'appui de quelques puissants financiers et il trouva,

comme son prédécesseur, dans l'armée, un noyau d'officier et de sous-officiers ardents et

intrépides qui ne lui ménagèrent pas leur concours. Des jeunes gens à l'esprit aventureux

suivirent.

Sans doute n'étaient-ils pas extrêmement nombreux (en 1908, au moment de la reprise

de l'Etat Indépendant par la Belgique, le nombre des Blancs habitant la colonie ne s'élevait

qu'à 2.943 !), mais cette poignée d'hommes sauva notre réputation aux yeux de l'étranger,

et elle le fit d'une façon magnifique.

Il n'entre pas dans le cadre de cette étude de faire le récit des difficultés sans nombre qu'il

leur fallut surmonter, ni des exploits glorieux qu'ils accomplirent pendant près de vingt-

cinq années d'efforts incessants. Beaucoup tombèrent héroïquement dans les combats,

d'autres moururent humblement, vaincus par la maladie, en accomplissant leur tâche

journalière. Mais leur sacrifice ne fut pas inutile.

Après que le Roi eût légué par testament le Congo à la Belgique, en 1889, et se fût efforcé

une première fois, sans succès, de faire voter son annexion par les Chambres, en 1895, le

peuple belge comprit finalement tout l'avantage qu'il pourrait tirer du riche domaine qu'on

lui offrait.

Tandis que les groupements financiers se décidaient, peu à peu, à participer, d'une manière

plus large, à la mise en valeur des richesses naturelles du pays, l'opinion publique

s'intéressait sans cesse davantage au récit des hauts faits de nos soldats sous l'équateur.

Le Roi sentait que le moment était venu où le sang versé et l'immense labeur accompli

avaient enfin triomphé de l'indifférence.

Lorsque pour la deuxième fois, en 1908, il offrit le Congo à la Belgique, les Chambres

n'osèrent plus refuser le cadeau royal. Votée le 20 août, l'annexion fut solennellement

proclamée le 18 octobre.

L'Etat Indépendant devenait le Congo Belge.

Raoul Crabbé La conquête de la mer 1944

INSERE 27/07/16 DOSSIER ENLEVE 27/08/16

Are you ready for digital navigation?

With just a few weeks to go until the majority of tankers have to be compliant with new

regulations to navigate with ECDIS and ENCs, many tanker companies are finding there is

still much to do.

Some tanker operators are well ahead, but many have still only dipped a toe in the water

in terms of digital navigation and othershave still to make a start.

Switching from navigating with paper charts to digital charts sounds simple but most

marine superintendents that have done it will tell you otherwise.

From a massive increase in administration for the shore-based team to getting to grips

with everything from new ways to buy charts, manage inventories, update charts,

demonstrate compliance to port state control inspectors, passage plan and execute a

voyager. not to mention following the new bridge procedures that will have to underpin

the whole process, digital navigation IS different and doing it safely, compliantly without

impacting your commercial operations does take some thinking about.

If you are still scratching your head about the best place to start or even if you are doing

okay but feel there is always room for improvement, then this article is for you.

Capt Mike Bailey, a former tanker Master, marine superintendent and tanker fleet manager

at Northern Marine and, now, head of navigational products at Global Navigation Solutions,

(GNS), a major Group that was formed by the merger of five of the world’s leading

Admiralty distributors between November 2012 and May 2013, shares his formula for a

successful transition in 10 easy to follow steps.

Chart and publication audit

Conduct a full audit of the navigational products and services in use across the fleet,

including how chart and publication updates are currently received.

Hardware and software audit

Conduct a full audit of the hardware (both ECDIS and PC) and software installed on board

across the fleet.

Document all hardware set-ups on a per vessel basis, including single, dual and triple

ECDIS installations, availability of separate power supplies and PC specifications and all

existing software solutions in use on vessels to ensure that features and functionality

available to each vessel are not reduced or lost during transition.

Preparation -

Develop an optimised version of each standard inventory in use across the fleet. Make sure

this includes:

Mapping paper and digital publications across both trading area specific and non-trading

area books.

Identifying ENC folios to replace paper chart outfits.

Agreeing any residual paper chart requirements you require onboard for ‘get you home’

and other safety and compliance requirements.

Where hardware is insufficient to support paperless navigation, identify alternatives. These

may range from single ECDIS with paper back up strategy through to fitting hardware to

enable paperless navigation. GNS recommends agreeing a standard inventory for each

vessel category within a fleet based on flag, vessel type and trading area to simplify

ongoing chart and publication management.

The company also recommends drawing up a plan with milestone dates for each vessel for

their transition. This should include any parallel running of paper and digital charts, as well

as target dates for removal of paper versions.

Start up phase -

Ensure that each vessel gets a copy of their roll-out plan and that changes to digital

services are scheduled in advance and in close co-operation with the vessels.

Software roll out -

Begin by rolling out the software to be used on board to help the vessel manage digital

charts. Remember there are 15,000 ENCs compared to just 3,500 Admiralty paper charts

and the majority of ENCs are bought on three-month subscriptions. With so many more

transactions required to keep digital chart indexes up to date, safe and compliant, the

vessels will need help from chart management software to manage this. Ensure any digital

updating facilities provided to the ships are in place well in advance before activation of

digital chart and publication services. Ideally, these will be provided by the same software

the vessel will be using to manage the ENC indices and ENC ordering. GNS recommends

that officers start using the chart management software as soon as possible to get

themselves familiarised. Make sure this software is also part of the company’s training

programme at the maritime academies used and that any training materials provided by

the supplier are issued to the seafarers.

GNS provides free copies of Voyager for training purposes. Voyager tutorials are provided

to all crew to enable them to quickly familiarise themselves with how to use it to perform

key tasks. In addition, training on Voyager is provided in locations to suit the customer.

Support in place -

Also ensure crews are equipped with email and telephone support contact details from the

supplier. GNS strongly recommends that support is available to seafarers 24/7, especially

during the start up phase, while they are still getting to grips with the new technology.

Stick to the plan! To avoid mistakes, make sure each roll out is managed according to the

agreed roll out schedule (see 3).

Ensure all relevant base and update CDs for digital services are dispatched to the vessels

in plenty of time. Close cooperation with a navigation supplier at this stage should help to

minimise delivery times and carriage costs.

Switch from paper to digital publications -

ADMIRALTY Digital Publications (lights, radio signals & tide table lists) are all now available

on CD. If time allows, it is recommended first switching to ADMIRALTY digital publications

because they provide a good way for bridge teams to get used to using digital alternatives

and provide many benefits in terms of simplifying on board management and compliance.

GNS also recommends adding ADMIRALTY eNPs to a vessel’s digital publications library.

eNPs are carriage compliant e-Reader versions of ADMIRALTY Sailing Directions, as well as

other miscellaneous ADMIRALTY books. Having at least one eNP title on board ensures

seafarers always have fast and easy access to ADMIRALTY publications to meet any

changes to trading areas.

Switch from paper to digital charts -

Supply initial ENC chart inventories to ships (media pack and activation codes) and, if not

already done so, activate ENC updates in the selected chart management software.

Reduction in paper chart folios - Gradually reduce down paper chart indexes to the pre-

agreed back up folio. The company recommends deleting charts from indices gradually, as

the UKHO withdraws and replaces them. GNS offers this as a free of charge managed

service to its customers.

NOTE: To ensure a smooth transition, GNS recommends running existing paper and new

digital chart and publication services in parallel for at least eight weeks before beginning

the transition to an optimised inventory.

Maintain service -

Maintain all software and data licences on board the vessel, obtain new chart permits as

and when required.

Talking with Tanker Operator, the company said that it recommended keeping a small back

up folio of paper charts on board for safety reasons, whether a vessel is fitted with two or

three ECDIS. This is not so much for training more to ensure that in the event of major IT

issue, the vessel still has some means by which to navigate. GNS recommends a back up

folio of paper charts for this purpose, which can be tailored to trading areas. Also

recommended was that traditional navigation is taught to cadets to cover this type of

eventuality.

ENC purchasing

In addition, the company recently unveiled a completely new approach to ENC purchasing

that is claimed to be simpler, more convenient and better value for money for ship

operators, sounding the death knell of ‘Pay as you sail’ formats.

V Ships’

managed VLCC

Overseas Mulan

was the first

vessel to take

advantage of

this new

approach.

The new GNS

bundle service

enables

customers to

buy a pre-

booked bundle of

ENC permits (for

example, 200 -

1,000 for a

vessel) so

whether the

vessel is

operating fixed

routes or

tramping worldwide, it only pays for the ENCs it uses from the pre-booked bundle.

They have no geographic restrictions and there are also no costly vessel-tracking fees, the

company said. Each month, GNS will provide the customer with a single report, which

tracks the ENC usage. Top-ups can be agreed if more ENCs are required, and those ENCs

that are not used in a year can be carried forward to the next period.

Free software

Each customer purchasing GNS bundles will also get free Voyager software to help vessels

manage their route planning, ENC inventories and permit requests, plus updates and a

facility to view ENCs and the Admiralty Information Overlay on back-of-bridge.

Having agreed on the bundle required, the customer is provided with a fixed cost for a 12-

month period, payable either as one annual fee or in 12 monthly instalments. Just one

order is raised and one invoice processed, thereby saving checking, approving, and

managing of ENC orders.

Hayley Jopson, GNS head of marketing, commented: “We see this as a logical development

for the way ENCs are used. GNS bundles can now be purchased on a similar basis to the

way mobile phone usage is now bought. It couldn’t be simpler.”

Capt Anshuman Jainat of V Ships added: “This is a simple cost-saving approach which will

save us money.”

INSERE 29/07/16 NIEUWS NOUVELLES NEWS ENLEVE 29/08/16

Panama worst MLC performing flag state

The ITF has revealed its experience of the Maritime Labour Convention’s second year in

operation at the International Shipping Conference held with London Shipping Week.

Speaking at the conference, maritime co-ordinator Jacqueline Smith said:“The MLC

embodies the hopes and aspirations of everyone in this room and beyond who is involved

in shipping. It is the best and brightest tool for seafarers’ rights. That is why we all are so

closely monitoring its effect and progress.

“Since its entry into force the ITF’s 150 inspectors worldwide have been reporting MLC-

related problems they’ve encountered. In 2014, our inspectors carried out 7,488 ship visits.

Some 36% (2,755 vessels) were found to have MLC-related problems. This is a 4%

increase (371 more vessels) compared to the first year of the convention’s entry into force.

The ITF had expected that the increase in flag states to which the convention applies would

have resulted in an improvement in the standards of living and working conditions for

seafarers on board their vessels, but based on the number of problems received, this

unfortunately does not seem to be the case.

“An optimistic explanation for the increase might be that the convention provides

mechanisms that make it easier for seafarers to make complaints. If this is the case, then

we can only speculate how many problems went unaddressed prior to the entry into force.

Either way, there can be no room for complacency,”she stressed.

The ITF’s survey was based on the real life experiences of seafarers gathered by the its

inspectors. It covered problems found on vessels flying all flags and did not exclude those

for which the convention was not in force.

It found that:

* The number of reports of MLC non-compliance had increased in year two of the MLC

being in force, both in numbers and as a percentage of inspections.

* The flag with the highest number of reported problems was Panama.

* The flag with the highest percentage of problematic inspections was St Kitts & Nevis.

* The most frequently reported problems related to unpaid wages; over the first two

years during which the MLC has been in force some $89 mill has been recovered by ITF

inspectors.

*The payment of wages below ILO minima was also a significant issue.

The number of inspections undertaken in the second year increased slightly by 2%. In

2013/2014 there were 146 inspectors and contacts, as of 19th August, 2015 there were

153.

Of the vessels inspected, 36% (2,755) were found to have MLC related problems, up by

4% (371 vessels) on Year 1 when 32% of vessels had problems.

INSERE 31/07/16 BOEKEN BOOKS LIVRES ENLEVE 31/08/16

“Canals Across Scotland”

B O E K B E S P R E K I N G by: Frank NEYTS

Whittles Publishing recently released a new maritime title, “Canals Across Scotland”,

written by Hamish Brown.This entertaining and informative book will be of practical

benefit to all who discover the historic Union Canal and the Forth & Clyde Canals, whether

walking, cycling, boating or visiting the Falkirk Wheel or the Kelpies.‘Canals Across

Scotland’ provides detailed towpath information, suggests what to see and do along the

way and in the towns passed. The book is full of fascinating historical background,

knowledgeable descriptions, practical information, good stories and is beautifully

illustrated. Side trips along the Antonine Roman Wall or to towns like Linlithgow, Falkirk,

Kilsyth and Kirkintilloch are also described. This updated guide will be an essential

companion. “Canals Across Scotland” (ISBN 978-1-84995-162-3) is issued as a

paperback.

The book counts 141 pages and costs £16.99 or $22.95. The book can be ordered via every

good book shop, or directly with the publisher, Whittles Publishing, Dunbeath Mill,

Dunbeath, Cairness IKW6 6EG, Scotland (UK), e-mail: info@whittlespublishing.com,

www.whittlespublishing.com.

INSERE 31/07/16 DOSSIER ENLEVE 31/08/16

Speed up for what?

This article is an extract from a report published by Euronav, which delves into the

anomalies in large tanker charters and in particular the relevance of vessel speed.

A shipping company’s expenses fall into two categories -

1. Fixed daily costs: These arise every day of the year, regardless of the movement

or employment of the ship, and are typically called daily costs in the shipping world.

They can be listed as -depreciation, capital cost, crewing, technical maintenance

(including drydocking), insurance and general administrative expenses.

2. Variable costs: These are the costs related to a voyage (sailing the ship, positioning

or even waiting to load or discharge a cargo). They can be listed as - bunker (fuel)

costs, port costs (including agent costs), canal transit fees, towage and pilotage.

Even though they may occur every day, they are not daily costs because they vary hugely

as they relate to the service being undertaken and in particular to the fuel consumption of

the service undertaken.

Waiting might consume only five tonnes of bunkers per day whilst the consumption of oil

when sailing depends on whether the ship is empty (ballast) or laden (with a cargo on

board), how much cargo is on board and the speed the ship is sailing. Consumption is also

affected by weather conditions and currents.

In ballast, at low speed and in fair weather, the consumption might be as low as 30 tonnes

per day but laden, at high speed, in heavy weather, it could be closer to 100 tonnes per

day.

Net freight

For commercial and business management purposes, the variable costs of any voyage are

deducted from the freight lump sum (paid by the cargo owner) to derive a net freight

amount because these costs vary according to the particulars of the voyage performed, ie

cargo size, distance, number of ports, etc.

The Net Freight amount can then be divided by the number of days that the voyage took

(including the time and voyage expenses of positioning the ship from the last port it

discharged a cargo to the port where it will take a new cargo) and this establishes a daily

rate of income, which is called the timecharter equivalent earnings (TCE earnings) which

is expressed in US dollars per day.

The TCE

earnings can be

compared to the

daily hire paid

under fixed term

contract, which

is called daily

timecharter hire.

However, although comparable, TCE earnings are not the same as timecharter hire. The

timecharter hire is a definite amount that is known when the contract is signed. The TCE

is a calculated number, which is not known until all of the income for the voyage has been

received and all of the expenses paid. Only then the expenses can be taken off from the

freight lump sum in order to arrive to the net freight of the voyage.

The duration of the voyage is also not certain. If, due to bad weather, the voyage took

longer than expected, the earnings will be less than expected because more bunkers will

have been consumed and the duration will lengthen so the net freight is lower and will be

divided by more days. Thus a voyage charter, where performance is measured in terms of

TCE earnings, is significantly different to timecharter, where the daily hire rate is fixed and

certain from the start of the contract.

Complex speed choice

The single largest variable cost of a voyage is the bunkers and this varies in direct

relationship to the speed at which the voyage is performed. The speed of the laden part of

the voyage is agreed with the charterer when the voyage charter is negotiated. The

shipowner or, if there is one, the timecharterer, chooses the speed of the vessel for the

ballast voyage sailing the ship to a position where it can load a cargo for the voyage charter.

In both cases the slower the ship, the lower the fuel cost, as consumption will be less and

the faster the ship, then the higher the fuel consumption and therefore the cost.

The slower a ship sails, the longer time it will take for the voyage (more days) but the less

fuel it will consume. So the calculation of the TCE will be affected in two ways, as the

freight lump sum remains the same.

The net freight will go up because of the savings made on the fuel but at the same time,

it will be divided by more days taking the TCE down. Therefore, a ship should only go

slower if the cost of fuel, saved by slower sailing, offsets the reduction of the TCE caused

by the increase in the number of days the voyage lasted.

Finally, if the fuel cost saving justifies slower sailing then the owner will look to the lost

opportunity of the days that could have been spent on the next voyage, compared with

the improvement in TCE from slower steaming on the current voyage.

This is a very important point but the decision must be taken at the start of a voyage (the

start of the ballast passage - see voyage accounting below) but this is done on the basis

of unpredictable assumption regarding the next voyage. At that moment, the current

voyage charter may not already have been fixed let alone the one after.

Consequently, it is good practice upon discharge to sail at the most economical speed away

from the discharge port to a way point (the last point at which the ship has full optionality

as to its destination). For example, on leaving China, this might be Singapore for orders.

During this period the vessel is being marketed for its next voyage charter. Once it is

contracted, the vessel should proceed at such a speed so as to arrive at the port just in

time to load the contracted cargo.

It serves no purpose to arrive earlier. as waiting adds additional costs against which there

is no certain additional income. So in this example arriving early worsens the voyage TCE

earnings.

More fuel is consumed when going faster and if the ship arrives too early, fuel is consumed

waiting (to provide minimum energy to run the ship) and there is no additional income. If

an earlier cargo lifting date could be contracted then the issue is whether it would add

sufficient additional income to offset the additional cost of fuel for sailing faster.

If it does not, then arguably, the days gained may translate into more value in the

subsequent voyage but with a high degree of uncertainty, which will be lifted only two or

more months away and in a market subject to huge volatility.

In addition, speeding up means that the global supply of ships is also going up and that,

in itself, is likely to reduce the freight market. There is therefore more chance that the

value burned in speeding up will not be recuperated in the subsequent voyage, as there is

more chance that the market will be lower by then.

In this context, it is also important to note that the consumption of fuel, relative to speed,

is not uniform and at the top speeds, ships consume exponentially more fuel. For VLCCs,

there is an inflection point above 13 knots and steaming above this speed, to save a few

days, will disproportionately increase the voyage expense compared to the number of days

saved.

The owner or timecharterer of a vessel should always manage bunker costs, as described

above, by sailing as slowly as the pattern of trade it is involved in allows. When deciding

the speed, at which to sail from a discharge port, the market environment is very

important.

The world’s VLCC fleet is small, only around 630 vessels, and each ship will lift somewhere

around five to six cargoes per year depending on the trade and move those cargoes over

long distances. So for any cargo movement the number of ships available to load the cargo,

due to location and timing, may vary considerably. This is very different from other tanker

trades that are short haul, such as the product trades or localised dirty trades in smaller

ships.

Many participants and investors follow the global supply of ships and try to present the

market as a bull or bear market depending on the overall supply of ships, compared to the

overall demand for ships. They are often confounded by a precipitous fall in rates in what

they have characterised as a bull market; equally they are often denying the possibility of

high fixtures in what they have characterised as a bear market. Yet when past fixtures are

reviewed, it is apparent that the market can have very large swings within both peak and

trough periods.

Average earnings between 2004 and 2008 (inclusive) for VLCCs were $70,000 per day yet

within that period, voyages were fixed at $300,000 and $20,000 and within days, swings

could make a difference of tens of thousands of dollars.

This apparent super volatility comes about through the structure of the market. As

described above, the earnings of ships come from the movement of cargoes. So when

transport is required for a cargo, the cargo owner will instruct its internal shipping

department, who will in turn approach several brokers and sometimes owners directly and

will seek to auction the cargo move. The lowest bidder will win the contract, or at least,

set the contract rate that clears the market for the other bidders.

Each broker hoping to make a commission on the contract conclusion will encourage his/her

owner to be low enough to win the auction. The owners will be guided as to who else is

bidding and how low they have to bid to succeed. The owners must have good information

to know who is a real competitor and who is not. To be a real competitor a ship must be

of the right age, type and class and be acceptable for the customer under the tanker vetting

regime. It should also be reliable and so only those ships, which are free of cargo and close

enough to reach the load port at which the cargo is being prepared on the dates that the

cargo owner has specified, can realistically compete.

This creates a mini market for each and every cargo, which comprises those ships that can

work that cargo. This mini market is defined by time and distance. If many ships are truly

available for the cargo, the mini market auction will take the current market level down, if

the number of ships available is limited or only one, then provided the owner is aware of

this, the market level will go up. This is regardless of the global supply of tankers.

The owner is at a disadvantage, as the auction is controlled by the cargo owner who holds

all the bids. The cargo owner also knows which ships are cleared for him/her to use and

what other cargoes also need to be moved. There is no uniformity of information relating

to bids or availability. The owner must have a view on that balance if the true value of the

ships position, the commodity, is to be discovered particularly when the market is set so

that it could go up. This is the true added value of a pool as it increases market visibility

through better information and broadens market knowledge improving pricing.

Speed is critical in the management of the spot market, as speeding up (this worsens

voyage economics) serves a negative purpose if it accumulates the number of ships bidding

on a cargo (increase the supply). It worsens the economics of the voyage that is about to

be undertaken and takes the whole market level down. So shipowners and timecharterers

need to focus on bunker cost management and only speed up when a voyage has been

fixed and then only sufficiently to arrive just in time for the cargo loading dates.

Shipowner dilemma

Too many shipowners focus on their relative out performance - whether they do better

than other shipowners. Often this leads them to undersell their services in the hope of

perceived marginal gains (making sure they get a cargo sooner than later) over the other

shipowners. But giving a discount to their services is detrimental because each voyage

charter is a separate commodity negotiation which needs to be priced, as precisely as

possible, to gain real absolute value giving good return to capital.

By underselling their services, they may cut waiting time but often the discount is greater

than the cost of waiting for the next cargo priced at a higher market. In the long run, the

reason why relative value is irrelevant is simply that weak performance does not cause

ships to leave the market as demonstrated over the last cyclical downturn. Relative out

performance will almost never deliver appropriate reward to capital... it just lowers the

market for all.

The only way to resolve this dilemma is to be part of a large platform, such as a pool,

which is actively marketing available tonnage every day.

As Euronav moves towards greater public ownership, it will continue to attempt to lead the

market in focusing on the requirement for a good return on capital. Shipping is a capital

intensive business and if the right returns are not given to capital then the industry will

struggle to find access to capital while providing the necessary stability in the industry to

bring security of supply, increasing environmental awareness, safe and rewarding

conditions for employment, in short all of the things that the world expects.

TankerOperator

INSERE 02/08/16 DOSSIER ENLEVE 02/09/16

What does the EU aim to achieve with MRV?

Starting in 2018, the European Union (EU) intends to gather, analyze and publish data on

the CO2 emissions of all ship sailing to EU ports. In accordance with the so-called MRV

regulation, Hapag-Lloyd is also supposed to hand over various forms of data, including

sensitive internal information – making MRV a highly controversial topic. Is MRV the first

step of integrating liner shipping into the EU’s emissions trading system, as is already

common in the aviation industry? What are the main criticisms of it? We spoke with Captain

Wolfram Guntermann, Director Environmental Fleet Management at Hapag-L loyd – our

inhouse expert, when it comes to environmental protection.

Captain Guntermann, what exactly lies behind MRV?

MRV stands for the Monitoring, Reporting and Verification of maritime CO2 emissions.

Beginning in January 2018, shipping companies will have to record and report the annual

carbon dioxide emissions of all vessels (over 5,000 GRT) headed to EU ports. For Hapag-

Lloyd, this would currently affect 108 ships, including charter vessels.

What does the EU aim to achieve with this regulation? Carbon dioxide is a greenhouse gas

widely regarded as playing a major role in climate change. The EU initially wants to use

the MRV to obtain reliable data on the specific CO2 emissions and energy efficiency of

ships. EU policymakers view MRV as an additional measure to reduce the shipping

industry’s overall greenhouse gas emissions. They openly admit that MRV is a first step

toward integrating the shipping industry into its emissions trading system (ETS), as is

already common in the aviation industry. But what isn’t clear is when that’s supposed to

begin.

So far, the MRV regulation hasn’t won over many fans in the liner shipping

industry. Why?

We share the opinion of the leading shipping associations, such as the World Shipping

Council (WSC), which holds that gathering sound and reliable data on maritime CO2

emissions is an important step toward improving environmental protection. However, it is

worrying that we are also supposed to hand over information that we classify as sensitive.

This includes, for example, information on cargo and vessel utilization. This data

contributes absolutely nothing to determining the actual CO2 efficiency of ships. So, it also

makes no sense to include them in the MRV process. If the EU gets its way, this information

is also supposed to be made publicly accessible and comparable. For us, that’s going too

far.

What drawbacks do you fear if the EU publishes this information?

In consensus with the leading shipping associations, we have always stressed that we don’t

see the logic of publishing commercial data. It results in an arbitrary and unfair comparison

of vessels, and we doubt whether this is even consistent with competition legislation.

If liner shipping was integrated into the ETS, how would it impact Hapag-Lloyd?

Generally speaking, the European shipping industry would face substantial financial

burdens. Since one metric ton of bunker results in three metric tons of CO2, the additional

costs for emissions rights could range between 20 and 150 euros per metric ton. In

addition, from the example of aviation, we see that being incorporated into the emissions

trading system leads to strong distortions of competition at the expense of European

companies.

Are there any alternatives to the MRV regulation? In our opinion, the International Maritime

Organization (IMO) should first set up a binding global system for gathering the CO2 data

of all seagoing vessels, and only then can it use this data as a basis for discussing climate-

protection goals and instruments. On top of that, in our view, shipping can only be

regulated at the global and not at the regional EU level. We’ve now gotten a step closer to

this within the IMO.

In the meantime, the IMO has announced plans to set up a global system. How

will it differ from the EU’s MRV system?

The major difference is that the IMO gives high priority to data confidentiality, and that’s

why it plans to not include the gathering of sensitive information about cargo and vessel

utilization. At the moment, we are strongly advocating for the EU to adopt the IMO’s global

system as a basis and to revise the MRV accordingly.

How good are the chances that the EU will do precisely that?

Completely adapting the EU system to the IMO system can only happen if the European

Parliament and the European Council revise the MRV regulation. But this step would only

be possible once the IMO has officially adopted its own system, which we expect to happen

in October.

Source: Hapag-Lloyd

INSERE 04/08/16 HISTORIEK HISTORIQUE ENLEVE 04/09/16

L'Atlantique au temps des paquebots à voiles.

Novembre 1793. La Terreur bat son plein à Paris. La reine Marie-Antoinette vient d'être

décapitée, ainsi que vingt et un députés Girondins. Louis-Médéric Moreau de Saint-Méry,

un ancien député de la Constituante, âgé de quarante-neuf ans, appartient à cette même

famille sociale et politique. Il se sent menacé et décide de rallier Le Havre avec sa famille,

en vue de s'exiler aux Etats-Unis.

C'est à bord de la Sophie, un brick de 180 tonneaux, basé à Portland et armé par neuf

hommes d'équipage sous le commandement du capitaine Lowther, qu'il trouve un passage.

Il embarque avec une nombreuse parentèle son épouse et leurs deux enfants, sa soeur

Mme Dupuy, ses trois enfants et leur domestique, son beau-frère Baudry Deslozières et sa

femme, soeur de Mme Moreau de Saint-Méry, leur fille et leur domestique. A la famille il

faut encore ajouter trois amis : Mlle de Marie, le capitaine malouin Goisnard, et M. Brière,

un jeune Martiniquais. Soit un groupe de seize passagers. Moreau - dont la relation du

voyage a été publiée aux Etats-Unis en 1913, mais est restée inédite en France - précise

que le prix du billet est de 250 francs pour les domestiques et de 375 francs pour les autres

passagers, mais que le vin n'est pas compris.

Le matin du samedi 9 novembre, Moreau se rend à bord de la Sophie pour s'inquiéter de

l'heure du départ. Il est reçu assez fraîchement par le capitaine Lowther, qui lui objecte

que les vents sont contraires et que le samedi est un "jour par lequel les équipages

américains n'aiment pas commencer une traversée" Qu'il revienne donc lundi! Contrarié

par ce contretemps car il craint une arrestation, Moreau rentre à l'auberge où il a pris

pension avec sa famille dans l'attente du départ. Fort heureusement, à 2 heures de l'après-

midi, alors qu'ils sont à table, un marin de la Sophie vient les avertir que le brick va

appareiller et qu'il est déjà sorti du bassin. Rassemblant en toute hâte leurs affaires, les

passagers se dirigent vers le port, emportant avec eux le reste de leur déjeuner - gros

mangeur, Moreau cultive son embonpoint et le souci de la nourriture est omniprésent dans

son témoignage.

Une fois larguées les amarres, les fugitifs n'en sont pas pour autant à l'abri des soucis.

Alors que le navire est déjà en rade du Havre, une délégation de la municipalité vient à

bord vérifier les papiers des passagers. Ils disposent tous de passeports et d'autorisations

de quitter le territoire national délivrées par les commissaires de la Convention. Pourtant,

estimant que le jeune Dupuy, neveu de Moreau, est en âge d'être conscrit, bien qu'il soit

à dix jours de ses vingt ans, les contrôleurs le font débarquer pour vérification d'identité.

La Sophie tire des bords devant le port pour attendre le jeune homme. Quelques heures

plus tard, un canot le ramène à bord.

Dans la soirée, le navire peut enfin prendre le large. Hélas ! le vent souffle du secteur

Ouest et le brick doit louvoyer pour sortir de la Manche. Précisant que novembre est "le

mois le plus dangereux à la mer", Moreau ajoute avec ironie que "la saison la plus

épouvantable reste tout de même le règne de la Convention!" Tourmentés par une forte

houle, les passagers souffrent du mal de mer. Mais ils le supportent stoïquement, trop

heureux d'avoir pu quitter la France à temps. Ils apprendront par la suite que, dès le

lendemain de leur départ, des gendarmes sont arrivés de Paris avec ordre de les arrêter

et de les ramener à la capitale pour y être jugés!

Les émigrés entonnent un Te Deum en quittant le Vieux Continent

Les vents contraires obligent le navire à relâcher sur la côte anglaise, d'où il appareille le

18 novembre. La traversée débute alors réellement et les passagers entonnent un vibrant

Te Deum pour remercier le Ciel de les avoir sauvés de la guillotine. Au sortir de la Manche,

la mer est grosse. Le capitaine Lowther met le cap sur le Nord des Açores. Moreau critique

vivement cette décision, car, si cette route est la plus courte, c'est aussi la plus éprouvante

en raison des mauvaises conditions météorologiques que l'on risque d'y rencontrer. Il

rappelle à ce propos que les paquebots français qui ralliaient naguère New York au départ

de Lorient passaient par le Sud des Açores, afin de bénéficier des alizés.

Le 3 décembre, vingt-quatrième jour de traversée, une déferlante pénètre dans la descente

de la dunette restée entrouverte. Les couchettes des passagers sont trempées, mais ceux-

ci sont désormais amarinés et ils ont bon moral. Chacun espère que la traversée sera

courte. Les optimistes parient sur une cinquantaine de jours; plus réaliste, le capitaine

Goisnard leur raconte avoir mis quatre-vingt-seize jours pour franchir l'Océan l'année

précédente. Mais, au dire de Moreau, les paquebots américains ont un faible fardage et

remontent bien au vent, même s'ils sont souvent mal gréés. Il précise qu'ils sont en général

solidement construits, bien que les bois d'outre-Atlantique soient de moins bonne qualité

que ceux d'Europe. En conséquence, il conseille aux futurs passagers de s'informer de la

date de construction du navire — 1791 pour la Sophie — et de l'état de son gréement.

Par ailleurs, il s'avoue séduit par le confort et la décoration de la chambre de son navire,

qui comporte des glaces, des rideaux, des meubles d'acajou, un poêle en cuivre et des

tapis, ces derniers étant cependant retirés durant la traversée, "car c'est une coquetterie

de port" Un logement très cosy où Moreau s'étonne "d'apercevoir un trou pratiqué pour

satisfaire des besoins que l'odorat redoute et qui est placé près des fenêtres à tribord" Et

notre aristocrate d'ajouter: "La propreté blâme ces usages et son peu de commodité fait

toujours désirer des bouteilles."

Alors qu'ordinairement les passagers sont logés dans l'entrepont, la famille Moreau

bénéficie d'une cabine particulière de quatre couchettes donnant sur la chambre, et

bénéficiant ainsi de la chaleur du poêle. Les enfants dorment à bâbord, le garçon en haut,

la fille en bas; les parents se partagent la couchette inférieure tribord, celle du dessus

étant affectée au rangement d'une partie des bagages. Sans doute ces couchettes ne sont-

elles pas équipées de planches antiroulis, car, dans les premiers jours du voyage, le navire

s'étant brusquement couché sur tribord, la jeune Aménaïde a été éjectée de son lit et s'est

retrouvée dans celui de ses parents.

L'imprévoyance des équipages américains les amenant

parfois à manquer de vivres au milieu d'une traversée,

Moreau recommande aux futurs voyageurs de

demander au capitaine, avant l'appareillage, la liste

des provisions du bord et, au besoin, d'en vérifier le

contenu. La Sophie avait ainsi embarqué de l'eau et du

biscuit pour cinq mois, mais la majeure partie en sera

consommée en deux mois et demi. Toujours soucieux

des plaisirs de la table, notre émigré conseille

également de surveiller la manière dont sont

protégées les provisions contre l'humidité et les rats et

de vérifier si le capitaine a bien embarqué du beurre, de l'huile, du sel, du poivre, du

vinaigre, des oeufs et du sucre en suffisance. Et qu'on se méfie des promesses d'un beau

poulailler ! Mal protégée contre les embruns dans des cages posées sur la dunette, la

basse-cour de la Sophie se réduit en peau de chagrin : quatre-vingts volailles, soit le tiers

du cheptel, rendent l'âme dès le début du voyage, et le poulet ne figure plus au menu à

partir du 13 décembre, soit dès le trente-cinquième jour de mer.

Le coq d'une saleté repoussante n'était pas précisément un cordon-

bleu

Constituée essentiellement de boeuf salé et de biscuit, la nourriture du bord paraît bien

frugale à un passager aussi gourmand que Moreau. "On y mange à quatre repas, précise-

t-il. Le premier est le déjeuner vers 7 ou 8 heures du matin, le dîner entre midi et 2 heures,

le goûter à 6 heures et le souper vers 8 heures. Le premier repas est toujours accompagné

de thé et c'est cette feuille aimée à la passion par les Américains qui fait tout l'apprêt du

troisième. Le boeuf salé, du beurre, des oignons, du fromage et des pommes de terre font

les frais du reste, et il est assez commun que, dans les intervalles des repas et même la

nuit, les officiers reviennent à ces mets simples. La boisson ordinaire est l'eau, que le boeuf

salé fait désirer. Quand on a du rhum on en met dans le thé et l'on s'en sert aussi pour

animer un peu l'eau. L'équipage lui-même use largement de thé et le sucre n'est point

épargné."

Il est donc fortement conseillé aux futurs voyageurs, pour pallier les carences d'un tel

régime, d'apporter leurs provisions personnelles. A lire Moreau, on a le sentiment que la

nourriture est le souci majeur des passagers de la Sophie (ce qui n'étonnera aucun marin).

Il est vrai que le cuistot, un certain Ned, a été engagé comme... calfat au départ de

Charlestown. Promu au rang de coq à l'escale du Havre, il n'est pas précisément un cordon-

bleu. "Je ne sais à quelle heureuse épreuve le capitaine l'avait soumis pour préférer de lui

donner le dernier titre, s'interroge Moreau, mais il me le vanta beaucoup au Havre. Je suis

tenté de croire que l'examen d'un capitaine américain en matière de cuisine n'est pas

sévère. Autrement, il faudrait croire que les talents sont très capricieux, car Ned ne nous

offrait dans son chef-d'oeuvre qu'une de ces pièces dont une gargote un peu achalandée

n'eût pas voulu faire courir le risque à sa réputation." Pour couronner le tout, ce cuisinier

est d'une saleté repoussante

et porte à la jambe un ulcère

purulent fort peu

appétissant. Cette plaie a

pris de telles proportions

qu'elle le gêne pour se

déplacer; c'est ainsi que le

malheureux aura toutes les

peines du monde à venir à

bout d'un début d'incendie

qui s'était déclaré dans sa

cuisine.

Devant l'incapacité du coq, le

capitaine Goisnard, qui a une

certaine expérience en la

matière, décide de prendre

les choses en main. La

cuisine, située sur le pont,

étant peu praticable par gros

temps en raison du roulis et

des déferlantes qui l'inondent fréquemment, c'est sur le poêle de la chambre que le Malouin

officie. Il y fait mijoter de succulentes soupes à l'oignon, ou une spécialité des pêcheurs de

Terre-Neuve appelée turlutine*, un bouillon de biscuit de mer à la graisse de boeuf salé.

Mais il se taille surtout un grand succès avec ses crêpes bretonnes au sucre, flambées au

brandy, aux oeufs, ou aux quatre épices. Les passagers s'amusent à les faire sauter sur la

poêle, en offrent généreusement à tout l'équipage, tandis qu'une délicieuse odeur se

répand dans tout le navire.

Souhaitant varier l'ordinaire par du poisson, Goisnard invite les marins à pêcher. Pour les

y encourager, il dispose au pied du grand mât un panneau prévenant l'équipage que toute

prise de plus de deux pieds de long sera récompensée. En vain. N'ayant pu vaincre

"l'indolence américaine par l'appât d'une récompense" le Malouin envisage de pêcher lui-

même, jusqu'au moment où il réalise qu'il n'y a à bord ni fil de pêche ni hameçons.

De son côté, le capitaine Lowther cuisine certaines douceurs américaines, telles que

puddings et ricespounds, un gâteau de riz avec des oeufs, de la farine, des raisins secs,

des épices et de l'eau de fleur d'oranger "embarquée comme un préservatif aux maux de

nerfs" Autant d'ingrédients que la gourmandise des passagers épuise rapidement.

Dix jours durant, à compter du 24 janvier, le navire est aux prises avec des coups de vent

contraires. Les sabords de la chambre sont obturés par des panneaux, la plongeant dans

une sinistre pénombre qu'une petite lampe à huile tente vainement d'atténuer. Car il reste

juste assez de chandelles pour les besoins de l'atterrissage — les feux de route ne sont

pas allumés durant la traversée. La situation est aggravée par la fumée du poêle, qui

manque d'air lorsque les paquets de mer obligent à fermer le capot. Réfugiés dans leurs

"cabanes", sorte de châlits accrochés aux cloisons du navire, les passagers doivent souvent

manger froid, sans même pouvoir se réchauffer avec de l'alcool, dont la provision est

épuisée.

La pénurie d'alcool considérée comme un cas avéré de détresse

"Ce fut durant ces dix jours de grands tourments

que nous nous trouvâmes privés de toute liqueur

spiritueuse, raconte Moreau. Le brandy du

capitaine avait coulé dès les Açores par le peu de

soin à garantir du roulis les grands flacons où il

était dans des :aisses, le reste était bu." On en

déduit que les passagers se sont livrés à de

copieuses libations pour arroser leur départ et se

réconforter. Moreau affirme qu'il ne boit

Drdinairement que de l'eau, mais que celle du bord

a un goût et une odeur qui la rendent imbuvable,

ce qui l'oblige, à son corps défendant selon lui, à

boire de l'alcool. Il précise au passage qu'il n'en est

pas de même pour son ami Goisnard, ni pour sa soeur, Mme Dupuy, qui, eux, ne peuvent

se passer de vin ni d'alcool! Le Malouin avait d'ailleurs embarqué sa provision personnelle,

mais il l'avait hâtivement partagée avec ses compagnons de voyage. "[Cet alcool] aurait

pu, non pas satisfaire, mais consoler un Breton, si sa générosité et l'espoir d'une traversée

ordinaire n'avaient pas servi de base à ses calculs trompeurs."

L'insupportable pénurie amène les passagers à demander au capitaine de prélever

quelques bouteilles sur la cargaison de vin appartenant à un négociant du Havre. "Les lois

maritimes du Congrès, ajoute avec humour notre juriste, permettent de toucher à la

cargaison en cas de détresse, et notre détresse était avérée." Malheureusement, l'état de

la mer empêche, durant plusieurs jours, d'ouvrir le panneau de cale. Quand arrive enfin

l'embellie, on se précipite dans la soute à la recherche des précieuses bouteilles, mais elles

restent introuvables. La déception de Goisnard est à son comble: "[Il] n'avait plus son

embonpoint fleuri, avait combattu contre la faim avec courage, mais l'affreuse nécessité

de ne boire que de l'eau étonnait son âme et avait changé ses traits." A défaut de vin, on

découvre finalement un lot de paniers contenant des bouteilles de liqueur. Le spiritueux se

révèle de piètre qualité, mais il contribue toutefois à remonter le moral des passagers, qui

s'en servent notamment pour flamber des crêpes.

Très soucieux

de sa petite

santé, Moreau,

le naturaliste,

nous fait part

des problèmes

intestinaux

dont il souffre

après avoir bu

de l'eau de pluie

recueillie lors

d'un grain:

"Après les vives

douleurs de la

constipation,

état presque

général de ceux qui voyagent par mer et à laquelle je suis toujours très sujet, il était

affligeant d'éprouver des étreintes et une évacuation qui amène la prostration des forces.

[...] J'avais heureusement une poudre stomachique spécialement destinée aux

relâchements produits par les eaux très vives, comme celle de la Seine, et aux débilitations

d'estomac, que l'on a décorée du nom de poudre de Saint-Germain, du nom de cet homme

dont la singularité a été très connue et qui égayait sa vie joviale par le récit d'aventures

auxquelles il donnait plusieurs siècles, prétendant presque, comme Pythagore, qu'il avait

assisté au siège de Troie."

Pour l'atterrissage, les marins américains s'en remettent au Gulf Stream

Moins fantaisiste que les fables du comte de Saint-

Germain, le récit de l'émigré français fait souvent

état de l'insouciance des marins américains. Il

s'étonne, par exemple, que ces derniers dépensent

leurs gages à terre avant le départ au lieu de

s'acheter des vêtements chauds. Il observe aussi

que, malgré les risques d'incendie, une lampe reste

allumée jour et nuit dans le poste d'équipage. Il

remarque surtout les négligences du capitaine en

matière de navigation. Le loch étant rarement utilisé,

nul ne connaît les distances parcourues. Par ailleurs,

la Sophie fait route au gré de la direction du vent et

non en suivant un cap compas, l'habitacle de ce

dernier étant d'ailleurs rarement éclairé la nuit.

Comment tenir une estime dans ces condifions? A en

croire le Français, qui a plus d'un voyage

transatlantique à son actif, nombre de navires

américains traverseraient même l'Océan sans sablier

ni chronomètre à bord. Il est vrai que, selon lui, pour

l'atterrissage sur les côtes de leur pays, les

navigateurs du Nouveau Monde s'en remettraient au seul Gulf Sream, qui normalement

doit les mener à destination. Il préfère quant à lui se fier au changement de couleur de la

mer et à l'apparition des oiseaux, signes avant-coureurs de la terre pour les marins

européens.

En conséquence, Moreau invite les futurs passagers à s'inquiéter des instruments de

navigation et des documents nautiques embarqués, à vérifier que le compas est bien

éclairé et que le loch est mis à l'eau, et à demander régulièrement la position du navire,

faute de quoi de nombreux capitaines américains négligeraient pendant plusieurs jours de

faire le point. Pour la sécurité de la traversée, il conseille aussi de vérifier avant le départ

la présence à bord de l'outillage nécessaire aux réparations de la coque, du gréement et

de la voilure. Remarquant que les voiles de la Sophie étaient en fort mauvais état, il signale

que nombre d'entre elles étaient en lambeaux avant un mois de navigation. Comme le

navire n'a embarqué ni toile de rechange, ni fil à voile, les réparations seront faites avec

les moyens du bord, notamment en utilisant une pelote de ficelle appartenant au fils de

Moreau et la toile de la reliure du journal de bord...

Et le Français de conclure: "Rien n'était plus effrayant que l'aspect de ce bâtiment où la

pourriture et [le danger de] rupture de différentes parties de son gréement étaient évidents

et où l'oeil perçait de toutes parts à travers les voiles. Ah! qu'avec une semblable

insouciance on est loin de devoir prétendre à dompter un fougueux élément et à tenir un

rang parmi les peuples commerçants !" En revanche, l'observateur français ne tarit pas

d'éloges sur la fermeté des officiers américains à l'égard de leurs équipages. Selon lui, les

sévères punitions infligées en cas de manquement seraient d'autant mieux acceptées que,

contrairement à leurs collègues français, ces officiers n'hésitent pas à participer à la

manoeuvre, ce qui augmente leur autorité.

Les longues

traversées sont

toujours

éprouvantes pour

les passagers dès paquebots à voiles. Selon Moreau,

il leur faut "embarquer gaieté, courage et patience

et peut-être plus que cela encore, une invariable

résolution de tout immoler au désir de vivre en bon

accord avec tous les individus du vaisseau." A bord

de la Sophie, tous les moyens sont bons pour

occuper le temps et entretenir la bonne humeur.

C'est ainsi que le fils de Moreau ne cesse de jouer du

violon, même au coeur des pires coups de vent, accompagné à la guitare par M. Goisnard.

Quant à sa fille, elle chante à longueur de journée et se plaît à dessiner sur la table du

carré. Son père semble même très fier d'un croquis de la déesse Junon qu'Aménaïde a

offert au capitaine Lowther et que celui-ci a accroché à l'une des cloisons de la chambre.

Pour combattre l'oisiveté, Moreau donne des leçons d'anglais à son fils et à son neveu,

auxquels vont bientôt se joindre son beaufrère et MM. Goisnard et Brière. Les cours ont

lieu chaque jour, sauf quand le mauvais temps l'interdit à cause du roulis et de l'obscurité

due à l'obturation des sabords.

La plus horrible tempête de ce jour-là fut l'abolition de l'esclavage

Le 14

février,

quatre-

vingt-dix-

septième

jour dè mer.

La Sophie se

trouve par

34 degrés de

latitude

Nord, encore

très au Sud

de New

York. Le

navire se bat

une nouvelle

fois contre

un coup de

vent.

Moreau - qui

a inséré

dans son récit des événements dont il n'a eu connaissance qu'à son arrivée -écrit : "Au

nombre des plus horribles tempêtes de ce jour-là, il faut compter le décret de la Convention

qui abolit subitement l'esclavage dans les colonies." Ancien avocat à Saint-Domingue, où

il a vécu plusieurs années, il est en effet un fervent partisan du maintien de l'esclavage

malgré ses convictions libérales.

Le brick tente sans succès de remonter au vent. Il tire des bords carrés, se retrouvant

plusieurs fois à la hauteur du redoutable cap Hatteras, du moins selon l'estime du capitaine,

car la couverture nuageuse ne permet pas de faire le point. Ce même jour, les passagers

sont distraits par une troupe de dauphins et, au soir, ils peuvent observer une éclipse de

lune. Moreau, l'ami des sciences, confronte alors l'heure de ce phénomène à celle

mentionnée dans l'almanach pour Paris et en déduit une longitude approximative, qui situe

le navire à l'Ouest des Bermudes. "Presque tout le monde, commente-t-il, m'avait érigé en

bon astronome parce que je faisais espérer une arrivée prochaine."

Le 16 février, la sous-barbe maintenant le beaupré se brise dans un coup de tangage. Un

des officiers se glisse sous l'étrave pour effectuer la réparation. Celle-ci est à peine

terminée quand survient une avarie de barre, également réparée avec les moyens du bord.

Durant plusieurs jours, le vent passe du Nord au Sud, obligeant le navire à piquer tantôt

sur New York, tantôt sur Charleston, en Caroline du Sud. Le découragement gagne les

passagers, leur santé s'altère, notamment celle de Mlle de Marle qui, "malade avant même

de sortir des jetées du Havre, n'a pas cessé de vomir et est réduite à une extrême faiblesse"

Les Français sont à bout et demandent au capitaine de rallier le port le plus proche. Ils font

état du mauvais temps, des vents contraires, de leur fatigue, du manque de vivres, du

confinement des cabines, des couchettes trempées et, pour couronner le tout, d'une

invasion de poux!

A ces doléances, le capitaine oppose les intérêts de son armateur et les siens propres. S'il

ne poursuit pas sa route jusqu'à New York, il sera accusé d'incapacité et risque de perdre

son commandement. Il lui faut de plus, selon les usages maritimes en vigueur, obtenir

l'accord de l'équipage, faute de quoi le salaire des marins devra être payé durant l'escale.

Le le' mars, alors que l'on se partage solennellement sur le pont les derniers biscuits de

mer, la terre fait enfin son apparition. Mais les vents sont toujours contraires et le gros

temps menace. De guerre lasse, le capitaine jette l'éponge et donne l'ordre de laisser

porter pour faire route sur Norfolk, en Virginie. A cette nouvelle, tout comme ils l'avaient

fait à la sortie de la Manche, les passagers entonnent un Te Deum.

La Sophie mouille en baie de Chesapeake après

cent vingt jours de mer

Le 5 mars, la Sophie se

présente à l'entrée de la

baie de Chesapeake, dans

l'attente du pilote. Celui-ci

ne se manifestant pas, elle

pénètre en baie dans le

sillage d'un autre navire. La

brume et les imprécisions

de la carte amènent le

capitaine à relâcher pour la

nuit en rade de Hampton,

sous le cap Comfort.

Plusieurs bâtiments de

guerre se trouvent déjà

mouillés à cet endroit. Le

lendemain, à 7 heures du

matin, un canot arborant le

pavillon tricolore se

présente à la coupée de la

Sophie. Les voisins de mouillage sont des navires français ! Ils sont venus à Norfolk pour

escorter, sur la route du retour, le convoi des réfugiés de Saint-Domingue après le sac du

Cap-Français en juin 1793.

Emus par l'état sanitaire déplorable des passagers et de l'équipage de la Sophie, les marins

français leur apportent des vivres : 20 livres de viande de boeuf frais, une dame-jeanne

de bon vin de Bordeaux, quelques livres de sucre raffiné, 30 livres de pain et une demi-

livre de chocolat. "On se jetait avec voracité sur tout, écrit Moreau, et tandis que M.

Goisnard prenait le costume nécessaire pour préparer des grillades, on dévorait le pain et

le sucre." Seule ombre au tableau, la santé de Mlle de Marle continue de se détériorer, au

point que l'on craint une issue fatale.

Un pilote monte à bord et l'ancre est levée pour remonter vers Norfolk. La brume tombe à

nouveau sur la Chesapeake et il faut avancer prudemment en sondant. A deux reprises, le

navire s'échoue. Officiers et matelots injurient le pilote, dont "l'indolence se peignait

jusqu'à la lenteur de son parler", mais ces insultes ne le tirent pas de son flegme. Le 7

mars, les passagers peuvent enfin poser le pied sur la terre américaine. Mlle de Marle

n'aura guère le temps de s'en réjouir: elle décède la semaine suivante. Quant au narrateur,

il conclut son récit par un bilan de santé personnel. Il pesait 186 livres au départ - "sur la

balance de la raffinerie de M. Duval, maire de Barfleur" -, et ne pèse plus que 134 livres à

l'arrivée, "ce qui constatait que dans une traversée de cent vingt jours, j'avais perdu 52

livres de mon poids, ce qui était très apparent à ma maigreur, au creux qu'avait mon

ventre, au lieu de sa rotondité ordinaire, déchet qu'accompagnaient des jambes enflées"

L'ami de Talleyrand expulsé du territoire américain

Louis-Médéric Moreau de Saint-Méry passe plus de quatre ans aux Etats-Unis. Il ouvre une

librairie à Philadelphie, magasin qui deviendra le lieu de ralliement de tout ce que la ville

compte d'exilés français. La fréquentation de certains de ces émigrés - dont Talleyrand,

qui sera son ami le plus cher lui vaut bientôt d'être accusé par le président Adams de porter

atteinte à la sécurité des Etats-Unis. On lui reproche notamment d'avoir participé à un

complot visant à la récupération de la Louisiane par la France. Devenu indésirable sur le

territoire américain, il est expulsé au titre de l'Allen Act. La France et les Etats-Unis étant

alors en rupture de relations diplomatiques, il est prié d'embarquer sur un "parlementaire"

c'est-à-dire un navire américain ayant l'autorisation de se rendre dans un port de la nation

ennemie pour y porter des missives.

C'est ainsi que Moreau se rend à Newcastle, dans la baie de la Delaware, pour y prendre

place à bord de l'Adraste, en compagnie de sa femme, de ses deux enfants ainsi que de

son beau-frère Baudry, son épouse et leur fille. Il précise que son passage sur ce bâtiment

est gratuit, mais que, pour bénéficier d'un logement donnant sur la chambre, il lui faut

payer 72 dollars par personne et qu'il doit en outre prévoir la nourriture pour toute la

traversée.

L'Adraste appareille de Newcastle le jeudi 23 août 1798 à minuit. Les souffrances endurées

par les exilés français à l'aller leur paraîtront vite des broutilles en regard des soucis que

leur réserve le retour. En effet, c'est contre une épidémie de fièvre jaune que cette fois ils

vont devoir se battre. L'un des passagers est déjà décédé la veille du départ et, dès le

surlendemain, le fils de Moreau est gagné à son tour par la maladie. Son père le soigne

tant bien que mal avec de l'ipécuana, une plante médicinale normalement destinée à

soigner la dysenterie. Deux jours plus tard, l'état de santé de l'enfant semble s'améliorer.

Mais le 27, l'épidémie s'étend : l'une des filles d'un Canadien-Français appelé Pépin,

décède, tandis que son frère est frappé à son tour, ainsi qu'un autre passager. Trois jours

plus tard, alors qu'un coup de vent secoue le navire, ce malade est mis en quarantaine sur

le gaillard d'avant, par crainte de la contagion. Le malheureux meurt quelques heures plus

tard, ou du moins est supposé mort, car selon Moreau, on n'a pas attendu que son décès

soit réellement constaté pour jeter son corps à la mer. Cette nuit-là, un nommé Bénard,

originaire de Saint-Malo, "homme bien né et bien élevé, excellent violon", avec qui Moreau

partagea son ravitaillement, est foudroyé par une attaque d'apoplexie. Ce dernier qualifie

cette apoplexie de "vineuse" ayant constaté qu'il avait immodérément puisé dans sa

réserve de vin et d'alcool. Il semble même regretter sa compassion pour cet être sans

ressources en qui il a découvert un ivrogne.

Cependant que l'Adraste cingle à travers les bancs de Terre-Neuve, la fièvre jaune pour

suit son oeuvre. Le corps d'un ancien colon de Saint-Domingue est jeté à la mer, ainsi que

celui de la seconde fille Pépin, et celui d'un autre passager. Etant censé avoir guéri son fils,

Moreau est considéré comme "un grand Esculape" Malheureusement, faute de

médicaments, il ne peut faire preuve de ses talents auprès d'autres passagers et la liste

des victimes s'allonge. Le 15 septembre, une jeune fille de dix-huit ans décède dans

d'atroces souffrances. Cinq jours plus tard, sa soeur cadette subit le même sort.

Le 21 septembre, à 8 heures du matin, l'Adraste est abordé par la frégate anglaise Phaeton.

Apprenant la présence à bord de la fièvre jaune, l'officier s'enfuit précipitamment. Le navire

américain parvient enfin en vue de l'embouchure de la Gironde. Malgré les huit morts

déclarées, les formalités de santé paraissent rapidement réglées. Un pilote monte à bord

le 1er octobre et conduit l'Adraste à Bordeaux. Moreau conclut le récit de cette dramatique

traversée en précisant que sa chère Aménaïde, digne fille de son père pour la gourmandise,

a gloutonnement dévoré à l'arrivée une bavaroise au lait qui lui a occasionné une forte

indigestion !

Bibliographie: Louis-Médéric Moreau de Saint-Méry, Voyage aux Etats-Unis de l'Amérique,

1793-1798, Yale University Press. 1913.

CHASSE-MARÉE 192 • 55

INSERE 06/08/16 BOEKEN LIVRES BOOKS ENLEVE 06/09/16

“Offshore Wind Energy. Building for the future”

B O E K B E S P R E K I N G door : Frank NEYTS

Bij de Nederlandse uitgeverij Flying Focus noteren we de uitgave van een prachtig fotoboek “Offshore Wind

Energy. Building for the future”. Flying Focus’ maritieme luchtfotograaf Herman IJsseling vliegt regelmatig de

fascinerende wereld van offshore wind industrie en is bevoorrechte getuige van alles wat er op dat vlak op de

Noordzee en de Ierse Zee gebeurt. De bouw van windturbineparken op zee lijkt niet te stuiten, met talrijke projecten

in uitvoering of op de tekentafel. Een collectie van zijn meest recentste foto’s geven een mooi beeld van deze zeer

eigen wereld, een wereld grotendeels onbekend bij het grote publiek landrotten. Ook met deze tweede editie van

“Offshore Wind Energy. Building for the future” slaagt Herman IJsseling erin de meeste aspecten van deze

‘buitengaatse’ activiteiten weer te geven. Het moet gezegd, het boek biedt in de eerste plaats een beeld van de

meest recente projecten en evoluties op dat vlak.. Engelstalige tekst! Net als alle uitgaven van Flying Focus, een

echte aanrader! “Offshore Wind Energy. Building for the future” (ISBN 978-90-79716-15-9) werd op landscape

format met harde kaft uitgegeven en telt 96 pagina’s. Het boek kost 29,50 €. Aankopen kan via de boekhandel of

rechtstreeks bij Flying Focus BV, Postbus 55, 1790 AB Den Burg, Nederland. Tel. +31 (0)222 728128, Fax +31

(0)222 728111, e-mail: info@flyingfocus..

INSERE 06/08/16 DOSSIER ENLEVE 06/09/16

How IMO effectively tripled ship-borne CO2 emissions in 13 years

Last revision: 2011-04-27

Jack Devanney

Center for Tankship Excellence, USA, djw1@c4tx.org

Sometimes we forget what we are trying to do. What's the real goal in reducing CO2

emissions? The answer is reducing or halting global warming. Reducing CO2 is only a

means to that end.

The Second IMO GHG Study (GHG2) has a very important but little noticed chapter entitled

Climate Impact.1 It's really the only place in this seminal study which talks about the real

goal. The chapter points out that as of 2007, ship emissions were cooling the planet. This

conclusion was the result of the negative radiative forcing of the aerosols in ship emissions

—— mainly SO2 which oxidizes to the aerosol, sulfate (SO4) — dominating the positive

radiative forcing of the CO2 in ship emissions. Radiative forcing (RF) is an attempt to

quantify the impact of a particular pollutant on the earth's heat balance by estimating its

equivalent in additional energy per second hitting the earth's atmosphere. The units are

watts per meter squared. It's not easy to do, but Chapter 8 makes a pretty good attempt,

based on what we knew in 2009.

GHG2 finds that as of 2007, the net effect of ship-borne emissions was equivalent to a -

0.072 W/m2. This perhaps surprising result is generated mainly by the strong cooling effect

of SO2. Ships emit only about 2% as much SO2 as CO2, yet the cumulative emissions of

SO2 have a current RF of -0.097 W/m2 while those of CO2 have a current RF of +0.049

W/m2 .2 Up to now, a ton of SO2 is very roughly a 100 times more effective cooling agent

than a ton of C02 is a heating agent.

As GHG2 points out, we need to add all sorts of caveats to this finding:

1. The RF numbers are subject to large errors and uncertainties, especially the indirect

(cloud) effect of aerosols such as SO4.

2. The residence times in the atmosphere of aerosols is enormously different than that of

CO2. For example, sulphates have a half-life in the atmosphere of about 10 days, while

CO2 has a half-life measured in centuries. GHG2 points out that, if we stopped producing

anything from ships today, the effect of the aerosols we've already put into the atmosphere

would die out much sooner than the CO2, and the net RF from this past pollution would

turn positive around 2050. To put it another way, if we did nothing about any of S, CO2 or

NOx, the long term build up of CO2 will eventually dominate and the net RF will turn

positive in 350 years.3 The fact that shipping emissions are currently cooling on net is not

an excuse for doing nothing about CO2.

3. The difference in residence times also creates spatial differences in the net RF. CO2 lasts

so long it can be regarded as being pretty evenly spread all over the globe. Aerosols are

concentrated in the region where they are produced which in the case of shipping is focused

in the mid to low northern latitudes.

GHG2 estimates that as a result the net effect from shipping is a positive RF at the poles,

which turns negative at about +/-60 degrees and has a minimum of an impressive -0.23

W/m2 at about 28N.

Despite all the caveats, we can be quite confident that in 2007, ship emissions were on net

a cooling factor for the planet. Very recently, James Hansen has argued compellingly that

the indirect (cloud) effect is at the upper end of the numbers used by GHG3 or higher.4

Furthermore, point (2) can be turned around to say, if we reduce SO2 and NOx emissions,

we will see the heating impact much sooner than the cooling effect if we were to reduce

CO2. Finally, point (3) can be read to mean that shipping is heating up the Arctic and

Antarctic slightly but strongly cooling the northern hemisphere hurricane belt.

So what have we done?

1. Imposed strict restrictions on NOx. As of 2011, for all sizable engines NOx emissions

had to be reduced by about 20% which forces about a 2% increase in CO2 and prevents

further improvements in CO2 efficiency when better materials allow higher peak

temperatures. In 2016, NOx is supposed to be reduced by a factor of 5 in the Emissions

Control Areas which include pretty much all the heavily traveled coastlines in the northern

hemisphere out to about 200 miles. In reducing NOx we have both reduced cooling and

increased heating.

2. Virtually banned SO2 emissions. Under present IMO regulations, the max allowable

sulfur in BFO will go from 4.5% in 2007 (really no limit) to 0.5% in 2020. We will lose

essentially all the -0.1 W/m2 from sulfur. In the near term, this is roughly equivalent to

tripling ship-borne CO2 emissions in little more than a decade. Thanks to the thermal

inertia of the planet, it will take a while for this loss to show up in global temperatures. But

if we go out 50 years, this loss of cooling will result in about a 0.05C increase in global

mean temperature.5 A twentieth of a degree might not seem like a lot, but Hansen et al

argue that it will result in a 1 meter rise in sea level.6

3. And we generated a substantial increase in refinery CO2 emissions. For a medium quality

crude such as Urals, Stockle and Knight estimate going from 4.5%S to a mix of 3.5% and

1.5%S fuel oil, will increase CO2 emissions for a 200,000 BPD refinery from about 4000

tpd to about 5000 tpd, or from about 0.8 tons CO2/per ton of BFO to about 1.0.7 Since

combustion of a ton of fuel generates about 3.1 tons of CO2, a 0.2 ton per ton increase at

the refinery is equivalent to about a 7% increase overall. 0.5%S will be much tougher. In

fact, it is not at all clear we can feasibly convert all resid to low sulfur fuel.

Meanwhile we have done nothing about CO2, except propose an unsafe, absurdly

inefficient, and nearly totally ineffective index called EEDI.8 The problem is that it is

relatively easy to reduce SO2, and easier to reduce NOx than CO2. So that's what we do.

There are good reasons to be concerned about NOx and SO2 other than global warming.

NOx is the key factor in smog and smog is not good for human health, certainly not in

concentrated form. SO2 produces acidification of forests can change the biological make-

up of fresh water lakes, and has its own health effects. CTX is not saying we should forget

about these impacts. They must be considered, but also we must consider and think

rationally about the cooling benefits of these emissions.

Ships have an interesting and nearly unique property when they are regarded as aerosol

injectors: they can inject their aerosols a long way from population centers. NOx for

example has a half-life in the atmosphere of about a day. If a ship is more than a couple

of days upwind of a population center, the smog cost of the pollution is near zero; but we

still get the full cooling benefit. Sulfur's a little tougher but still there are large areas of the

ocean where SO2 emissions will have little societal impact in terms of acidification, etc, but

we still get the full cooling benefit, that is, 100 to possibly 160 tons worth of CO2 for every

ton of SO2.

In the past, we have legislated each form of pollution separately. A rational approach would

consider them together, and synchronize the reductions. If we monitored stack gas

emissions, as suggested in Direct Taxation of Stack CO2 Emissions, we could develop ship

location dependent regulation which takes into account the relationship between the

pollutants.

What we are doing now is just about the worst possible approach to global warming.

1 Marintek et al, Second IMO GHG Study, 2009-04-09, MEPC 59/24/Add.1, Annex 14,

Chapter 8.

2 The other major ship-borne pollutant NOx also has a net negative RF. Ships put out about

0.5% as much NOx as CO2, but that relatively small amount of material both creates ozone

with a positive RF of +0.026 W/m2 and reduces the powerful greenhouse gas methane

with a negative RF of -0.033 W/m2. The net effect of -0.007 W/m2 is an order of magnitude

smaller than SO2 and CO2 but not negligible. Up to now, a ton of NOx is about a 28 times

more effective cooling agent than a ton of CO2 is a heating agent.

3 Fuglestvedt et al, Shipping Emissions from Cooling to Warming of Climate, Environmental

Science and Technology, Vol43, No 24, 2009.

4 Hansen, J, et al, Earth's Energy Imbalance and Implications. Hansen of course is the man

who called the world's attention to global warming.

5 Fuglestvedt et al, Shipping Emissions from Cooling to Warming of Climate, Environmental

Science and Technology, Vol43, No 24, 2009., Figure 2.

6 Hansen, ibid, p 14.

7 Stockle and Knight, Impact of low-sulphur bunkers on refineries, PTQ Catalysis, 2009, p

27-31. IPIECA came up with similar figures for additional refinery CO2, plus a 38 billion

dollar additional capital cost for EU refineries alone. See Global environmental impact and

marine fuel supply impact of proposed options to revise Marpol Annex VI, BLG 11/5/14,

2007-02-09. These dollars represent real resources and of course more emissions in the

manufacturing and construction process.

8 Devanney, J, EEDI Absurdities Center for Tankship Excellence, 2011. Devanney, J, EEDI

Won't Work Center for Tankship Excellence, 2010.

1 Marintek et al, Second IMO GHG Study, 2009-04-09, MEPC 59/24/Add.1, Annex 14,

Chapter 8.

2 The other major ship-borne pollutant NOx also has a net negative RF. Ships put out about

0.5% as much NOx as CO2, but that relatively small amount of material both creates ozone

with a positive RF of +0.026 W/m2 and reduces the powerful greenhouse gas methane

with a negative RF of -0.033 W/m2. The net effect of -0.007 W/m2 is an order of magnitude

smaller than SO2 and CO2 but not negligible. Up to now, a ton of NOx is about a 28 times

more effective cooling agent than a ton of CO2 is a heating agent.

3 Fuglestvedt et al, Shipping Emissions from Cooling to Warming of Climate, Environmental

Science and Technology, Vol43, No 24, 2009.

4 Hansen, J, et al, Earth's Energy Imbalance and Implications. Hansen of course is the man

who called the world's attention to global warming.

INSERE 08/08/16 NIEUWS NOUVELLE NEWS ENLEVE 08/09/16

10 year warranty on Ecolock for FSRU in China

In the second half of 2015 application of Ecolock started on a newbuild Floating Storage

and Regastification Unit (FSRU) in China. This is the second project carried out for EXMAR

nv, after the application on the Caribbean FLNG in 2013.Like the first project, the FSRU is

built in blocks. These blocks are coated individually before assembly, leaving only the weld

seams and the areas inaccessible due to the support blocks to be painted after the barge

is assembled. The Ecolock system consists of a single, homogenous covering of the steel.

Painting over weld seams after the blocks have been assembled is very easy. It leaves a

smooth finished surface and the erection joint paint blends in perfectly with the As with all

Ecolock applications, a trained and qualified paint inspector is on site monitoring the entire

preparation and application to ensure adherence to the specifications at each step of the

process and to assist with any problems that may arise. This is essential for a coating that

is intended to last the life of the ship.

Ecolock comes with a warranty as long as it is standardly applied and if the coating is

maintained according to the specifications. Ecolock is an extremely tough and durable

coating designed to remain in excellent condition for 15 - 25 years without drydocking,

repair or replacement. Ecolock can be cleaned underwater as often as needed to meet the

UWILD and weight requirements of FPSOs, drill ships and other offshore vessels. Ecolock

is the result of continual R&D on offshore hull coatings since the 1990s.Application of

Ecolock can be done at newbuild or, to replace another coating, in drydock after the vessel

has been in service. The newbuild option is ideal. In either case the surface preparation

requires a profile of at least 75μm and white or near-white steel (SA 2.5 or better). Once

the preparation has been carried out and inspected, Ecolock can be applied rather rapidly.

No primer or other type of coating is required. Just two or more coats of Ecolock each of

500μm with an overcoat time of about three hours minimum and no maximumEcolock is

completely non-toxic. It is a hard, impermeable coating which even the toughest barnacle

will not penetrate. This is in direct contrast to antifouling or foul-release coatings. Barnacles

and other fouling organisms attach and penetrate those coatings right through to the steel

permitting the start and spread of corrosion. In the case of Ecolock the barnacles, coral

and other fouling organisms can be removed completely by divers using special equipment,

leaving no trace and restoring the coating to its original condition. And because it is non-

toxic, it is safe to clean the Ecolock coated hull when needed for UWILD or simply to reduce

the weight when too much fouling has accumulated. This can be done even in sensitive

waters. The application on the FSRU is scheduled to be finalized later this year with a

planned delivery of the unit not much after.

For more information contacts us at +32 3 213 53 18 or via info@subind.netcoating of the

rest of the hull.

INSERE 10/08/16 DOSSIER ENLEVE 10/09/16

Most anchor losses are avoidable

The average claim cost for a loss of anchor has grown steadily since 2012, according to

The Swedish Club.*

Lost anchors are among the top five claims costs, and are the root cause of many

groundings and collisions. Almost half of the reported lost- anchor cases are due to

environmental conditions, such as weather, currents and water depth, while one third are

related to operational issues.

So what are the reasons for these anchor losses? DNV GL, Gard and The Swedish Club

decided to jointly investigate this issue and started to look into their damage records for

the last five years related to lost anchors.

Over the past few years, the three organisations have observed increasing losses of

anchors and anchor chains. This topic was also addressed in 2011, but after a couple of

years of improvements, the past two years showed a negative trend again, with rising

numbers of reported anchor losses and associated costs.

The loss of an anchor is often associated with significant additional damage, due, for

example, to collisions and groundings, and the increasing cost of recovering and replacing

the lost anchor. DNV GL's observations indicate that a high percentage of the anchors are

lost during the first five years of a ship’s life. This points to possible issues with equipment

quality, wrong installation or a potential lack of familiarisation with the equipment. In 36%

of the reported cases, both the anchor and chain were lost, and tankers and bulk carriers

had the highest loss frequency than other ship types.

First and foremost, the study revealed that most cases are avoidable. Second, it

demonstrated that an increased awareness of safe anchoring operations and preventive

maintenance procedures was necessary.

The study started off by asking questions such as: Why have so many ships lost their

anchors? Is it because of manufacturing problems? Were the accidents a consequence of

crew mistakes? Or was the cause a lack of relevant procedures or the crew simply ignoring

the procedures?

Early on in the project, three key observations were made:

- A lack of awareness about the maximum environmental loads for the anchoring

equipment.

- A lack of awareness about the critical maintenance issues for anchors, chains and

windlasses.

- Generally poor seamanship and a lack of proper safe-anchoring procedures. IACS unified

requirements for anchoring equipment are based on anchoring in sheltered conditions. The

environmental loads are 2.5 m/s current, 25 m/s wind and no waves. Under these

conditions, the ratio of the length of chain paid out to the water depth (scope) is assumed

to be at least 1:6. Thus, depending on the ship size, the chain cable length must be

sufficient for anchoring in maximum water depths of between 25 m and 64 m.

The windlass should as a minimum be

able to lift the anchor and three lengths

of anchor chain, which equals 82.5 m.

This is apparently not common

knowledge among many seafarers

resulting in ships frequently anchored

in unsheltered, deeper waters where

there is significant wave impact.

Excessive environmental loads

represent about half of the direct

causes of lost anchors.

Three critical components have been

reported as a direct cause of many of

the losses:

- The D-shackle connecting the anchor

to the anchor chain.

- The windlass brake bands.

- The windlass motor.

When ordering new ships, shipowners are encouraged to consider their trading pattern and

anchoring locations based on defined limitations. They are recommended to increase the

specification for their anchoring equipment to reflect their actual trading pattern. Shipboard

personnel need to be aware of the environmental limitations for safe anchoring operations

related to winds, currents and waves.

Next, safe-anchoring shipboard procedures relevant for the ship’s equipment should be

developed and properly implemented. Another factor is that, during routine inspections,

there should be an increased focus on key components, such as securing the D-shackle,

the wear and tear on the swivel and chain and the proper adjustment of the brake band.

And last, it is of vital importance that Masters are encouraged to always put the safety of

the vessel before commercial interests. All these factors are low-hanging fruits for

shipowners to use to improve their anchor-loss statistics.

The report from the study divides the main causes of lost anchors into two categories –

technical issues and operational issues - and emphasizes that they are both of equal

importance.

Technical issues

Technical issues account for half of the anchor losses.

D-shackle

securing pin-

The most

critical detail is

the D-shackle

connecting the

anchor to the

chain. The D-

shackle is often

found

remaining at

the end of a

chain with the

bolt missing

when an

anchor is lost.

The D-shackle

bolt is locked in

place by a tapered spline pin, which is secured by a lead pellet hammered into a dovetail

recess. Without the securing pellet, the pin falls out and the anchor is lost.

A similar problem can also be encountered for Kenter shackles. A mitigating action could

be to inspect the D-shackle connection at regular intervals.

Swivel- Several cases of the swivel detaching due to excessive wear and tear have been

reported. If the swivel is not functioning properly, the chain may twist and cause secondary

bending of the anchor shackles. The key challenges for the swivel are corrosion and

mechanical wear.

Anchor chain - General wear and tear on the anchor chain must be carefully monitored.

The maximum allowable reduction accepted by class societies is 12%, but if the anchoring

equipment is used in exposed waters it is recommended to replace the anchor chain earlier.

The studs, which are there to maintain the shape of the anchor links, may come loose or

fall out. This will seriously weaken the chain and need to be rectified in compliance with

class requirements when discovered. Cases have been witnessed involving the

unauthorised welding of loose studs, which may seriously weaken the chain's strength.

Chain stopper - Normally, ships are equipped with chain stoppers that secure the anchor

while at anchorage. When a chain stopper is present, the design load for the windlass

brakes may be reduced from 80% to 45% of the chain's minimum breaking strength.

Hence, if the ship is anchored without the chain stopper being engaged efficiently, the

loads on the windlass brakes can become excessive. Damage to the chain stopper can

involve excessive wear or a missing securing pin for the guillotine bar. Excessive wear of

the edges of the guillotine bar or pawl (for a tongue type stopper) could prevent the proper

securing of the chain.

Windlass - The windlass motor is designed to lift three lengths of anchor chain, or 82.5 m,

together with the anchor. For ships with a large freeboard, the maximum anchoring depth

is about 60 m. Many anchors have been lost due to either anchoring in too deep waters or

recovering the anchor during heavy weather, both causing the windlass motor to fail due

to overload.

The other main problem is failure of the windlass brakes due to excessive corrosion, wear

and tear. When the brake band linings become worn, the winch's braking capacity is

reduced. It is essential that the tensioning of the brake bands is adjusted in accordance

with the maker’s instructions. It is recommended to alternate the use of port and starboard

anchors to avoid excessive wear or corrosion on one side. It is strongly recommended to

regularly check the wear down of the brake band linings and adjust or renew the brake

bands when found necessary.

It is essential to properly secure the anchor when at sea to prevent both any loss of anchor

and excessive vibrations which may lead to the D-shackle detaching. Broken claws, hooks,

etc, of cable tensioners should be renewed and not repaired by welding.

Key takeaways

In short, here are some key takeaways related to technical failures:

■ Check the anchor and chain carefully when in dry-dock for wear and tear.

■ Check the securing of the D-shackle pin as often as possible.

■ Replace the swivel and forerunner when renewing the chain cable.

■ Do not buy secondhand anchors or chains without certificates.

■ Watch out for fake certificates. The price may be an indication.

■ Adj ust the brake band when the lining is worn. Read the instructions.

■ Replace the brake lining when required, without delay.

■ Consider having a stainless steel brake drum surface.

■ For new, large ships: consider increasing the size of the windlass.

■ Check the condition of all devices for holding the anchor tight in the hawse pipe.

Operational issues

Anchoring is considered by many seafarers to be a challenging exercise, and about one

third of the anchor losses are related to operational issues, according to The Swedish Club.

The state of engine readiness, weather conditions, forecast, anchorage location, anchor

holding power – all these factors have to be taken into consideration.

Preparing to anchor -Planning the anchoring is an important part of good seamanship and

should start with an evaluation of the traffic in the area, the congestion at the anchorage

itself and any pipelines or cables in the vicinity of the anchorage. Then the water depths

must be taken into account. It is always important to pay attention to the weather

conditions and these should be closely monitored during the anchorage. The criteria for

aborting the anchoring should be clearly defined by the Master. In addition, the nature of

the seabed has a significant effect on the anchor holding power and good holding ground

is assumed for the minimum anchor weight required by class.

Dropping of the anchor - The anchor team must be called to stations and the master must

determine in advance the side on which the anchor will be used. The standard instructions

to the anchor team must cover manning, communications and the orders used for anchor

operations. Any deviations from standard procedures need to be communicated up front.

The vessel speed must be reduced to nearly zero when the anchor is dropped. There are

three ways of letting anchors go - ‘From the brake’, ‘Pay out and drop’ and ‘Lowering by

the windlass’- and they are suitable for different environmental conditions.

At the anchorage - The weather forecast must be monitored continuously and the

anchorage must be left in time if heavy weather is approaching. When the anchor is laid

out, the chain stoppers and brakes should be engaged to secure the chain and the gear

must be disconnected from the motor. When the vessel stays at anchor for a long time,

the current and wind may swing it around the anchor, and in such cases the ship should

be re-anchored from time to time.

Good position control at regular intervals is required when at anchor. Fixed bearings

provide a good indication of whether the vessel is still securely at anchor. Most GPS

receivers are equipped with an anchor alarm and some have LCD plotting with a track

storage opportunity, which will indicate if the ship starts to drag the anchor.

Heaving the anchor - Heaving an anchor in strong winds and high seas is a challenging

exercise. The key is to monitor the environmental conditions and leave the anchorage in

time before adverse conditions put the operation at risk. Good practice is to manoeuvre

the ship towards the anchor to minimise the tension in the chain. Close cooperation

between the bridge and the deck team monitoring the tension in the chain is essential,

especially if the waves and ship motions pick up.

The key is to limit the tension in the chain using good seamanship. Under no circumstances

can a drifting ship be allowed to pull the anchor chain out of the windlass with the hydraulic

motor engaged, as this may cause the engine to explode.

Preparation for a voyage - The anchor should be properly secured to the hawse pipe to

prevent it from being lost during the voyage. Excessive slack may also cause ‘hammering’

on the ship hull and the loss of the D-shackle securing pin. Secured anchors have to be

put on tight brakes, the chain stoppers may be engaged as an extra safety precaution, and

the chain should be further secured by lashings with turnbuckles or other similar fasteners.

The windlass clutch has to be disconnected from the gear at sea to avoid the risk of

damage.

A summary of the concerns regarding operational issues:

■ Lack of experience.

■ Not recognising a dangerous situation.

■ Poor maintenance.

■ Lowering the anchor while the vessel is at speed.

■ Staying at anchor during rough weather.

■ Not maintaining or properly adj usting the windlass brake and brake linings.

Regulatory framework - The International Association of Class Societies (IACS) publishes

Unified Requirements (UR), which are minimum technical requirements adopted by IACS

members, as well as recommendations. Those which are relevant for the anchoring

equipment are UR A1 Shipboard Anchoring Equipment, Recommendation No 79, which

provides guidance on anchoring equipment in service, and Recommendation No 10, which

provides guidance on anchoring equipment for small and special ships and on the design

and testing of anchor windlasses. IACS is currently reviewing its requirements and

recommendations concerning anchoring.

*Tanker Operator is indebted to DNV GL’s Eva Halvorsen for her assistance in compiling

this article.

INSERE 12/08/16 NIEUWS NOUVELLES ENLEVE 12/09/16

Panama Canal: Deck Cooling During Transit

cargoes with flashpoints of less than 18C, to cool their main decks with water by means of

the on-deck water sprinkler system or any other means available in order to prevent

automatic activation of their pressure relief valves during transit.The cooling of the main

deck shall be performed between 1000 and 1600 hours while the vessel is underway at

Gatun Lake or Gaillard Cut, or at anchor in Canal waters. However, this procedure should

be stopped while the vessel is transiting through the locks or is in the vicinity of the locks,

and when Canal deckhands are on board.If this procedure fails to prevent automatic

activation of pressure relief valves it may be necessary to reduce the pressure by manually

opening pressure relief valves. This shall be done only after the Master has ascertained the

following: · The situation has been reported to the ACP’s Canal Port Captain on duty

through the pilot on board or the the Canal signal stations at Flamenco or Cristobal when

there is no pilot on board. · All necessary actions have been implemented to prevent

exposing ACP personnel to vapors. · Shipboard and nearby ignition sources have been

controlled Compliance with the above measures will enhance the safety of Canal

operations, as well as Canal customers and reduce or eliminate possible disruptions in

transit scheduling.

Source: ACP

INSERE 14/08/16 DOSSIER ENLEVE 14/09/16

L'histoire d'Anvers est toute en splendeurs et en catastrophes. Point de milieu.

Toutes les aventures politiques et toutes les mésaventures s'y donnent rendez-vous.

Cependant, le climat y est tempéré, le fleuve généreux et facile. Ni les inondations, ni les

ouragans, ni les épidémies ne viennent, comme les plaies d'Egypte, infecter ce séjour.

Comme le Nil, l'Escaut est généreux de tous ses dons. Mais au lieu que le premier

conquérant venu tient le Nil par la source, c'est á son embouchure que quelque rival établi

en Zélande, et soutenu par une Union d'Utrecht, peut étrangler l'Escaut. Aussi Anvers,

répétons-le, est tributaire de la politique ; le sujet de cet ouvrage ne se peut concevoir

autrement.

On pense qu'une colonie de Bas-Saxons campait, au commencement du VIIe siècle. sur la

rive droite de Scaldis ou Escaut, au lieu-dit «werp» ou «werf». Ce mot désigne une simple

jetée, un remblai. «Antwerpen» veut dire tout bonnement «á la jetée». Une digue

construite par des moines, un bâtiment fortifié, dénommé Steen, et voilà le premier

Anvers, celui des premiers âges. Saint Amand, le moine aquitain, y avait bâti un temple

chrétien. Les Normands, remontant le Scaldis ou Escaut sur leurs «dragons» ou «drakkars»

et leurs «serpents» ou «snekkars», premières coques véritables avec quille, couples,

bordés, détruisirent le Steen et saccagèrent l'église et le bourg (837).

Anvers, aussitôt, s'endort d'un sommeil qui dure cent cinquante ans.

Othon 1er la ressuscite et reconstruit le vieux Bourg, les murailles, le château. Un siècle

plus tard, l'enceinte devient trop étroite et au XIIIe, quand Bruges, Ypres et Gand

rayonnent sur l'Occident, elle recule encore ; elle s'élargit trois fois. Déjà, Anvers est port

de transit. Les caravanes d'Orient y déchargent leurs produits destinés aux mers du Nord.

On y trouve, en 1318, les premières galéasses vénitiennes et, en 1324, des commerçants

génois. Ce fut une ville de la Hanse teutonique, comme Hambourg, Brême, Lubeck,

Londres, ville de marchands de l'Est, réglant leurs comptes en Livres de Esterling ou

Sterling. Les ducs de Bourgogne lui préférèrent vainement Bruges, leur capitale politique.

Quand Charles Quint transporta sa cour à Malines et à Bruxelles, Anvers eut pour hinterland

tous les Pays-Bas réunis. D'autant que le port de Bruges s'ensablait rapidement. Alors les

Hessois bâtirent leur maison, et les Hanséatiques eurent bientôt la leur.

De ces splendeurs, gardons le souvenir qu'elles méritent, avec un juste sens de la mesure.

Ces hommes des océans savaient biaiser, toutes voiles hautes remonter le vent, et

louvoyer ; les voisins des rivages homériques avaient appris, en courant l'Atlantique, ce

que les Vikings connaissaient déjà ; voiles carrées, accrochées à ces pièces de bois

transversales qu'on appelle vergues ; bateaux ronds, aussi lourds que possible. Les galères

vénitiennes, venues de leur Levant, avec leurs rameurs, avaient adopté les façons du

Ponant, oû les mauvais temps sont longs et continus, compliqués de trombes. Plus tard,

quand la vapeur viendra, elle remettra en honneur les jolies coques effilées, fendant la

lame. Mais avant l'âge de la chaudière et du moteur il fallait bien qu'Anvers se contentât

de bateaux ronds.

Le Prince, qu'il fût Duc de Bourgogne ou Empereur Charles V, ne taxait pas la navigation

sur l'Escaut, ce grand poumon de ses états. L'époque des petites divisions féodales était

terminée ; un grand état unitaire vivait. Point de taxes. Il n'en fallait pas plus pour que le

grand port brabançon prît un essor formidable. C'est le temps où les Portugais

révolutionnent toutes les lois des trafics maritimes. Christophe Colomb, traversant

l'Atlantique des Canaries aux Lucayes, avait donné l'exemple. Traversée facile d'ailleurs,

au vent arrière. Bartholomé Ruy, Vasco de Gama et Magellan étaient de bien autres géants.

Alizés du Nord, alizés du Sud, ils les avaient tous passés, doublant le Cap Horn, défiant le

géant Adamastor chanté par Camoëns. Par le Cap des Tempêtes, ces hommes de Lisbonne

et des Algarves arrivèrent aux Indes, les vraies, les orientales, proches de Cipangu, le

Japon actuel, cependant que d'autres Portugais, ayant reconnu le Brésil et la Patagonie,

débouchaient dans le Pacifique et retrouvaient cette Asie que, depuis Agammemnon, roi

d'Aulide, nous connaissions vaguement. Agammemnon n'allait pas en Asie uniquement

pour reconquérir la jolie Hélène, mais bien pour y régler une certaine question des Détroits

que nous appelons question d'Orient, et qui rappelle singulièrement celle des péages sur

l'Escaut.Mais, par Singapour et Ceylan, avec nos Portugais, revenons à Anvers.

Les caravelles portugaises et espagnoles ont bouleversé toute la vie économique. Mystique

et rapacité se combattent, comme Dieu et Mammon, au coeur de ces marins

«conquistadors», partis de Palos de Moguer «comme un vol de gerfauts hors du charnier

natal». Internationaux, ils sont soumis aux jugements d'Oléron et de Damme. Les

Espagnols étaient moins bons marins, mais prodigieusement courageux. Les Hollandais

vinrent ensuite, savants connaisseurs de l'Océan. Les Anglais vinrent les derniers. Des

Flamands, on parle moins. Injustement d'ailleurs. C'étaient des batailleurs et des

travailleurs et l'esprit d'entreprise ne fleurit pas moins chez eux. L'Escaut demeure leur

royaume et Anvers leur capitale, dès lors déjà métropole des arts et de la science autant

que du commerce.

Et quelle capitale ! C'est chez elle que Plantin, en cette prestigieuse fin du XVIe siècle,

installe ses presses et sa casse, que Rubens un peu plus tard va rayonner. Abraham

Verhoeve, petit-fils du maître graveur Abraham Verhoeve, y nait en 1575, y est

imprimeur, y épouse la fille d'un éditeur de cartes à jouer et, en 1605, obtient des

Archiducs Albert et Isabelle l'autorisation d'imprimer des nouvelles de leur guerre aux

Provinces Unies. Ces «Nieuwe Tydinghen» parurent pendant 16 années sans interruption.

Quand Théophraste Renaudot, médecin à Paris, inventa la «Gazette» pour le

divertissement de ses malades, l'Anversois, habitué aux tragédies, donnait des nouvelles

de la guerre.

Dans le port, formé de la rade, de quais rudimentaires et de canaux, il y a parfois plus de

2000 navires. Scribani rapporte que, pendant la semaine sainte de 1581, une seule marée

amena devant Anvers une flotte de 4o bâtiments de mer, composée de galères vénitiennes,

de caraques génoises et de caravelles espagnoles et portugaises.

Et cependant Gilles Hooftman, négociant, armateur, savant, ami de Guillaume d'Orange et

de Thomas Gesham, mécène qui subsidie l'édition du premier atlas scientifique, le

Theatrum Orbis Terrarum d'Abraham Ortelius (1570), y arme ses navires qui rapportent le

saumon de la Mer Blanche, le beurre et le fromage du Nord, l'huile et le vin de la

Méditerranée, le sucre, les dattes, le cuir du Maroc et de la Barbarie. Les magasins étaient

situés au Werf, en face du débarcadère actuel des navires du Congo, et ne disparurent

qu'à la construction des quais de l'Escaut. Esprit singulièrement représentatif de la

Renaissance, quoique Calviniste, il légue 50.000 ducats aux catholiques pauvres de la ville.

Et à côté de lui tant d'autres, les Haro, les Van Dale, les Schetz, les Ximenes, tous

négociants et armateurs, expédiant de véritables flottes aux Canaries, au Cap Vert, au

Congo, en Angola, exportant l'argent venu d'Allemagne, les dinanderies d'Ardenne, le zinc

de la Calamine, les verroteries et les armes liégeoises, les draps anglais, les tissus d'or

d'Italie, l'eau de vie de Hollande, les livres imprimés à Anvers, et ramenant l'ivoire, l'or, le

poivre, la cire, les cuirs, et aussi des diamants, et des esclaves — ces esclaves noirs qui se

vendent par «tonnelada» de trois adultes, ou cinq adolescents ou six petits enfants.

De tous ces trafics, le plus typique, celui des diamants, est resté spécifiquement anversois,

centré encore dans un quartier de quelques rues qui respirent l'Orient, et où grouille la

colonie yiddish, roumaine, moscovite, des diamantaires qui dans leurs poches ont

continuellement des sachets de papier remplis de mille feux.

La forme initiale de la société commerciale c'est alors la famille. Ainsi naissent des

dynasties commerçantes, qui essaiment partout leurs comptoirs et leurs filiales, et qui

souvent parlent d'égales à égales avec les dynasties régnantes toujours impécunieuses.

Charles Quint, Philippe II voient l'apogée d'Anvers, ville internationale, dont l'essor est né

des libertés qu'on ne lui a pas encore enlevées. Mais on imagine aisément, dans ce milieu

prodigieusement bourgeois, l'effet produit par les premiers troubles religieux du XVIe

siècle. Les maisons étrangères se ferment. On parlait toutes les langues à Anvers ; voici

qu'on ne parle plus que flamand et français. Voici bien pire encore : la politique s'en mêle.

En l'an 1572, Guillaume d'Orange, maître des provinces du Nord, a créé délibérément un

incident de garnison, banal en apparence, immense par ses résultats. Il a construit une

flottille, montée par ses «Gueux de Mer», qui s'emparent du petit port de la Brielle, au

Nord de la Zélande, près de l'actuel Hoek van Holland. Point stratégique incomparable : le

Hollandais, de ce nid de cormorans, domine les bouches de trois fleuves, Escaut, Meuse et

Rhin. Philippe II dépêche contre lui Alexandre Farnèse. Car il s'agit bien d'une guerre

européenne. Nous sommes en 1579. Les Etats de Hollande, d'Utrecht et de Zélande

concluent entre eux l'Union d'Utrecht, charte des Provinces-Unies, naissance de la

République. Farnèse reprend Anvers à Marnix de Sainte Aldegonde en i 585, mais ne va

guère plus loin. La République nouvelle des Provinces-Unies n'est pas encore reconnue en

droit international. Mais elle existe. On devine qu'entre le Nord et le Sud, entre Pays-Bas

espagnols et Pays-Bas indépendants une guerre de sécession va commencer, et qui

pourrait durer des années.

Mais elle ne durera pas. Le sort en a décidé déjà. Farnèse se heurte, au Nord, á ce que

nous appellerions en langage moderne un front continu ou un rideau de fer. Limbourgeois,

Brabançons, Flamands, on en trouve certes des deux côtés de la ligne ; frères de race, de

culture, parfois de religion, mais que la politique sépare. La politique aussi est seule à

couper l'Escaut au lieu dit Lillo, demeuré aux mains des Hollandais. Le fleuve, jusque-là,

appartient à Philippe II. Au-delà il sera désormais aux Provinces-Unies. En ce lieu innocent,

prés, marais, saules taillés courts, deux religions se font face, et deux intolérances.

Mais la guerre est évidemment bien plus ruineuse pour les Etats du Sud, qui sont industriels

et expédient vers le Nord leurs produits fabriqués, que pour ceux du Nord. Ceux-ci,

fromagers, fermiers à blé et pêcheurs, envoient à Anvers leur viande sur pied et leur

poisson. Les Hollandais se bornent à interdire la navigation anversoise à Lillo. Les bateaux

anversois y parviennent tranquillement et là, un bateau hollandais s'empare de leur

chargement. Les Anversois vivent. Mais le port d'Anvers est mort. La contrebande

naturellement s'en mêle. En 1609, quand la paix revient, seuls les plus anciens du pays

peuvent encore décrire la splendeur de la belle époque. Quarante-cinq années de troubles

politiques et de marasme financier. Trente-sept années de guerre. Tel est le tribut

qu'Anvers paie au Destin. Et ce n'est qu'un commencement.

La trêve est courte. Dès 1625, Philippe IV interdit tout commerce avec l'ennemi. Car le

Hollandais n'est désormais que l'ennemi. L'Europe est déjà ce casse-tête chinois où' la

guerre des tarifs succède à la guerre tout court. Le Hollandais riposte aussitôt par un

«Placard de Rétorsion». Ce pugilat va se prolonger, faisant de la frontière un paradis pour

les fraudeurs. Tout blocus, d'où qu'il vienne, favorise leur industrie et la sévérité des

contrôles n'aboutit qu'à faire hausser les prix plus follement. Et voilà l'Escaut entièrement

fermé par deux décisions parallèles dont la première en date émane des Pays-Bas

méridionaux.

En 1630, singulière crise du logement, il y a, à Anvers, 3000 maisons à vendre ou à louer.

Après mille péripéties, dont la Paix de Munster de 648 ne fut qu'un épisode, l'Escaut est

fermé. Ille demeure pendant toute la période qu'il est convenu d'appeler l'Ancien Régime.

Napoléon supprime la frontière hollando-belge, crée un royaume de Hollande, qu'il annexe

à son tour à l'Empire. En revanche, il décide contre l'Angleterre le blocus continental. Rôle

immense, rôle prodigieux pour les Villes de la Hanse dont Anvers, la plus proche des côtes

de Grande Bretagne, «pistolet braqué sur le coeur de l'Angleterre», est la plus éminente.

Ce n'est pas pour rien que, dès 1810, les Anglais tentent un débarquement dans l'Ile de

Walcheren. Le blocus, à mesure qu'il se développe, laisse partout place à des fissures, à la

fraude, vieil instinct inhérent au coeur humain et qui, d'Ostende à Koenigsberg, se

développe délibérément. C'est pour lutter contre elle que Napoléon annexe la Hollande,

militarise Dantzig. Peine perdue. C'est le blocus qui l'entraîne en Espagne et en Russie,

vers l'inconcevable aventure. L'héritage de la Révolution le contraint à garder Anvers et

c'est à cause d'Anvers qu'il se condamne à la guerre perpétuelle.

A peine libérée de l'Empire, la ville devient propriété d'un nouveau Guillaume d'Orange qui,

cette fois, réunit sous un même sceptre Anvers et Amsterdam. Quand la rupture se fait,

en 183o, les marchands amstellodamois ne protestent que mollement. Au fond, cette

interne concurrence ne leur plaisait qu'à moitié. L'Escaut demeure à eux puisqu'ils en

tiennent l'embouchure et qu'ils y réclament un péage. Celui-ci ne sera racheté qu'en 1863.

L'expansion de la Belgique industrielle assure à son port national une prospérité

grandissante. Quel sort lui réservent les deux prochaines guerres mondiales ?

Paradoxe historique extraordinaire, Anvers, place forte, enceinte fortifiée, réduit national,

chef-d'oeuvre de Brialmont, Anvers où le Roi et le Gouvernement, dès la fin d'août 1914,

se sont repliés, Anvers surgit saine et sauve de la bataille de quatre ans. L'armée belge la

quitte intelligemment au moment voulu, et l'épopée se déroulera sur l'Yser, tandis que le

réduit national délaissé, avec son port désolé mais intact, demeure à l'écart. C'est que

l'Allemagne alors ne désire pas faire la guerre à la Hollande, dont la neutralité finit par

servir à tout le monde. Car la Hollande gardait toujours l'embouchure du fleuve et Anvers

ne fut ni base de sous-marins, ni champ de bataille.

Une même chance imprévue sauve la ville de 1940 à 1944. Cette fois Hitler envahit

délibérément la Hollande, et aussi la France jusqu'aux Pyrénées. Les sous-marins sont

construits et radoubés à La Rochelle, Saint Nazaire ou Brest. Anvers est maintenant trop

proche du cœur de l'Angleterre ; le pistolet braqué devient vulnérable à son tour. Imagine-

t-on la métropole belge subissant le sort de Nantes ou de Lorient ? Elle y échappe grâce

aux méandres de l'Escaut et retombe pour quatre nouvelles années dans la morne

somnolence des anciens âges. O nouvelles surprises ! Elle ne fut bombardée qu'après sa

libération, et cette fois par les Allemands, criblant de leurs obus d'abord, de leurs armes

de représailles V1et V2 ensuite, la ville, le port, les Anglais qui, accourus par terre, faisaient

de l'antique «werf» des premiers Saxons, un débarcadère militaire essentiel. Aux

«drakkars» et aux «snekkars» succédaient maintenant les «Liberty Ships», permettant à

Montgomery d'enlever Hambourg quand les Russes s'installaient à Koenigsberg. Churchill

était venu en 1914. Il y revint en 1945, après la victoire.

Dans l'impitoyable évolution du monde moderne, des vieux souvenirs d'autrefois et de

naguère, il est peu resté. On visite encore avec émotion la maison nommée le Paradis, où

naquit Jacob Jordaens, l'hôtel que se construisit Pierre Paul Rubens, devenu un musée à

sa mémoire. Le Steen, la Halle aux Bouchers, les églises, l'atelier où travailla Plantin restent

autant de glorieux vestiges du passé. Mais même les types populaires d'il y a cinquante

ans, du temps où débutait la Compagnie Belge Maritime du Congo, ont disparu. Seuls les

très vieux anversois se souviennent de ce petit peuple de santons groupés autour de Notre

Dame, comme en Provence autour de la crèche, marchands du dimanche offrant en vente

des fleurs, des boîtes d'allumettes, rémouleurs loqueteux faisant grincer leurs pierres à

aiguiser, fouilleurs de poubelles, vendeuses d'oranges et de citrons. Les marionnettes

faisaient des tours merveilleux — chassées hélas ! par les «movies». La Place de Meir, la

Place Verte, toutes proches du fleuve, sous le vol des mouettes hivernales, évoquaient

indiciblement le Strand londonien avec son lumineux contraste de luxe et de misère

gaîment acceptée. La Garde Civique, gloire du 19e siècle bourgeois, y défilait aux grands

jours, rappelant la Yeomanry et les Beefeaters. Les cercles de la haute société, la

«Concorde», la «Philotaxe», dans leurs hôtels cossus, groupaient des messieurs graves et

haut cravatés, commentant les événements qui en français, qui en anglais, rarement en

flamand. José Tinchant, planteur du Mexique, avait créé pour eux en 1865 la première

usine cigarière.

Aujourd'hui la foule immense du peuple ouvrier se passionne pour les tournois de football

et les concours de pigeons. La bourgeoisie s'occupe de musique, de théâtre, de philatélie,

de gastronomie. Tous s'intéressent à la peinture. Le grand Rubens est toujours là. Son

ombre préside aux cortèges somptueux. Un autre anversois, Peter Benoit, compose en

1875 la Rubenscantate. Toute fête anversoise est d'abord une fête de la couleur.

Il était impossible de conter l'histoire d'une compagnie de navigation, sans ce court aperçu

du milieu où ses bateaux naissent, prennent leur départ, et, chargés de cargaisons,

reviennent, leur mission terminée, se faire radouber pour de nouvelles expéditions.

Seuls existaient, quand la Compagnie Maritime Belge fut fondée, les anciens quais, de trois

kilomètres et demi de long, datant de 1882/ 1885. L'écluse du Kattendyk les limitait au

Nord. Au Sud, ils allaient jusqu'à 600 mètres en amont de l'écluse de la Batellerie. Leur

édification ne s'était pas accomplie sans sacrifice. Le vieux «Werf» ou «Werp» avait disparu

dans ce massacre, et une partie du quartier au pied de l'antique Steen. Les bassins

portaient des noms significatifs : Bonaparte, Guillaume, Asie, Bassin aux Bois, Bassin de

la Campine. Plus au Nord il y avait les bassins Lefebvre et Amérique. Cinq cales sèches,

toutes récentes. Deux écluses, dites Bonaparte (1811) et Kattendijk (1850).

Veut-on l'image du chemin parcouru en un demi-siècle ? Les bassins couvraient, en 1895,

une superficie de 70 Ha. Ils dépassent aujourd'hui les 400 Ha. Les quais d'accostage étaient

longs de18 Km. Ils atteignent cette année 47 Km.

4710 navires de

mer de 5.300.000

tonnes nettes

Moorsom

accostaient à

Anvers en 1895. En

1937 c'étaient

13.000 navires

jaugeant

25.000.000 tonnes.

Le chemin de fer

suivait cette courbe

croissante avec une

logique naturelle.

La Belgique, pays

de transformation

industrielle, pays

de salaires bas, de

prix bas, de

commerce libre,

usine énorme,

exportait par

Anvers les trésors

de sa sidérurgie.

Cependant Anvers

devenait, pour le

continent

occidental,

l'entrepôt des

céréales de La Plata

et des huiles

minérales de

l'Amérique du

Nord. Ainsi

naquirent de

nouveaux magnats

anversois. Leurs

bateaux partaient

chargés de machines, d'outils, de fers, de verres, et revenaient chargés de café pour

Prague et Vienne, de laine pour la Pologne et pour le grand marché de Leipzig. La Suisse

avait un port, Anvers. L'hinterland anversois couvrit le nord de l'Italie, une bonne part de

l'Europe Centrale ; l'industrie électro-chimique de la France méditerranéenne prenait ce

même chemin. Ville des grands départs, Anvers fut capitale de l'émigration vers les

Amériques. 115.000 émigrants s'y embarquèrent dans la seule année 1913. Dans la

hiérarchie des pavillons, le Britannique l'emportait de loin.

Aujourd'hui comme au XVIe siècle, on parle toutes les langues autour du Steen. Mais au

lieu du portugais, c'est l'anglais qui domine. Les Allemands avant 1914 s'y étaient établis

comme chez eux. Après 1919 leur flot se rejeta sur Rotterdam. La ville demeure, à travers

tout, hanséatique, mi-anglaise, mi-brabançonne. C'est à Anvers que l'économiste Gresham

dégagea la formule «La mauvaise monnaie chasse la bonne». Tête de pont britannique,

entrepôt, plaque tournante de l'Occident, elle demeure à la fois capitale et victime de

l'équilibre européen. Rien ne se passe entre l'Angleterre et l'Allemagne qui lui soit étranger.

Enfin en 1895, le génie d'un grand Roi en fit le port d'attache d'une ligne congolaise. De

l'embouchure de l'antique Scaldis, des bateaux sous pavillon belge s'élancèrent vers

l'antique Zaïre, que nous appelons Congo.

INSERE 14/08/16 BOEKEN LIVRES BOOKS ENLEVE 14/09/16

Het Haven Schandaal

B O E K B E S P R E K I N G door : Frank NEYTS

Bij uitgeverij De Geus verscheen onlangs “Het Haven Schandaal”. Frank de Kruif tekende

als auteur.Het boek brengt een meeslepend verhaal over verregaande

belangenverstrengeling, ogenschijnlijke corruptie, chantage en grensoverschrijdende

ambitie.30 augustus 2004 was een zwarte dag voor de haven van Rotterdam; de directeur

van het Havenbedrijf Rotterdam, Willem Scholten, werd op non-actief gesteld. Scholten

had, zonder zijn politieke bazen daarover te informeren, voor 180 miljoen euro aan

garanties voor bankleningen aan zakenman Joep van den Nieuwenhuijzen gegeven. Dat

kwam pas aan het licht toen verschillende onderdelen van de onderneming van Van den

Nieuwenhuijzen failliet gingen en de banken hun geld opeisten.Frank de Kruif schreef een

spannende reconstructie van deze geruchtmakende affaire.

“Het Haven Schandaal” (ISBN 9789044535808) telt 287 pagina’s, werd als softback

uitgegeven. Het boek kost 19.95 euro.

Aankopen kan via de boekhandel of rechtstreeks bij Uitgever De Geus BV, Postbus 1878,

4801 BW Breda, Nederland. Website www.degeus.nl.

INSERE 16/08/16 DOSSIER ENLEVE 16/09/16

Taking the confusion out of tank cleaning

Maritime service supplier Wilhelmsen Ships Service (WSS) has reviewed the state of

current tank cleaning regulations and offered advice on how to keep tank cleaning safe,

simple, and effective.

Regardless of whether it is the result poor preparation, lack of kowledge, time constraints

or adequate equipment, an unsatisfactory tank clean can become very costly, very quickly.

Extra time in port, additional labour and chemicals, added surveyor charges, and in the

worst cases - demurrage claims, can turn what should be a routine exercise into a laborious

and dreaded task.

To make matters worse for owners and operators, the issues affecting the tank cleaning

process are amplified by the increasingly vigorous ad-hoc cleanliness standards currently

being demanded by charterers and cargo owners. Often over-zealous and in many cases

totally unnecessary, when it comes to the actual chemistry of contamination, there is

unfortunately no officially-defined, universal set of cleanliness standards at present.

Instead, there are just two, very broad and de-facto criteria covering the various tank

cleaning requirements currently demanded by charterers.

First - Water White Standard. This means the tank is visually clean, dry and odour-free. A

suitable standard for CPP/vegetable oils, this standard does not involve a wall wash test.

Second - High Purity Standard (HPE). This is required for sensitive cargoes, such as

products applied in food processing (Food Grade) or in pharmaceutical production (USP),

where any contamination is unacceptable. All active solvents, such as chlorinated

hydrocarbons, glycol ethers, light alcohols, for example, methanol, ketones such as

acetone and many hydrocarbons like hexane also require the HPE.

In addition, many chemical companies require the HPE because the application of the

product during processing is very sensitive to contamination.

Though there are guidelines on the procedures and typical level of cleanliness required by

the HPE for each and every product available, many companies have additional, off-spec

requirements.

Creating unwanted confusion for cleaning crews and posing considerable problems when it

comes to demurrage claims, these ad-hoc requirements are why bodies, such as

Intertanko, are eager to establish a new, detailed set of cleaning standards.

An ongoing initiative aimed at creating an industry wide set of rules, its acceptance is by

no means guaranteed. So, for now we’re stuck with the existing pair of standards and the

numerous company-by-company and cargo-bycargo variations demanded by charterers.

In spite of this, with detailed planning, preparation and access to some basic information

on the cargo’s properties and the conditions inside and outside the tanks, tank cleaning

should become a matter of routine. Systematic, efficient and completed quickly to the

required standard, whatever that may be. No rejections, hold-ups, incidents or accidents.

Knowing the properties of the products you’re discharging and loading, along with

understanding how they interact with each other and with the surface of your tanks is

obviously key. However, learning this from scratch can seem a daunting prospect, hence

the ongoing success of supercargo specialists. But in practice, the vast majority of

commercially traded cargoes and their associated tank cleaning processes can comfortably

be managed in-house with access to a specific cargo-handling database, such as Miracle

or Milbros, and just a little basic knowledge on the major product groups, as outlined

below:

Water-soluble or water-miscible substances are easy to clean with water. In

addition, the solubility of such substances might increase at higher temperatures.

While the use of a cleaning agent is not required, it can help reduce cleaning times.

High melting point - Such products should be washed at a temperature of 15-20

deg C above melting point. During washing there should be no ballast water or cold

cargoes adjacent to the tank to be cleaned. Special attention must also be given to

liquid and vapour line systems to avoid freezing/solidification at cold line segments.

Beginning the tank cleaning process as soon as possible after discharge is strongly

recommended.

High viscosity - These products should be washed at higher temperatures. In

general the viscosity is closely related to the temperature and will decrease at

higher temperatures. During washing there should be no ballast water or cold

cargoes adjacent to the tank to be cleaned. As with products with a high melting

point, washing should begin as soon as possible after discharge.

High vapour pressure/boiling point - Products with a high vapour pressure (higher

than some 50 mbar at 20 deg C) can be removed from the tank by evaporation. As

always, during ventilation, special care must be taken to prevent the risk of

explosion (flammable products) and emissions (toxic vapours).

Polymerisation - The initial wash of products that tend to polymerise should be

carried out with cold (ambient) water. Washing with hot water results in polimeric

residues being left in tanks and lines, meaning an incredibly difficult clean-up job.

Evaporation of volatile substances - Cargoes consisting of mixtures with different

vapour pressures should neither be cleaned by evaporation, nor pre-washed hot.

The evaporation of the light substances from a mixture could result in non-volatile

residues, which are very difficult to remove.

Isocynates - These must never come into contact with water, not even the residues,

because the reaction product and insoluble urethane (plus CO2) are very difficult to

remove. Such products must be washed with a suitable solvent that does not

contain any water.

Reaction with oxygen - Drying and semidrying vegetable and animal oils react with

oxygen to form a varnish-like polymeric film. This is very difficult to remove from

bulkheads. Since heat increases the speed of the reaction the initial washing of

these products must be done with water at ambient temperature and as quickly as

possible.

Reaction with hard water - Formed by the calcium and magnesium present,

seawater, for example, has a very high water hardness. This poses no problem for

most products, but fatty acids and vegetable oils with a high free fatty acid content

will form white sticky residues if they are cleaned with a water of a high water

hardness.

Smell - Minor residues of a smellproducing cargo left in lines, valves and pumps

(including pump cofferdams) can contaminate a sensitive cargo. To neutralise the

smell of some chemicals (eg Acrylate, Nitrobenzene or Pygas) the use of a smell

killer may be recommended.

Along with product knowledge, an understanding of just how the conditions in and outside

tanks can affect a cleaning job is vital for consistently successful cleaning:

Temperature is one of the major parameters in any tank cleaning procedure and it must

be monitored and managed carefully. The temperature in the cargo tank can be

significantly influenced by the surrounding conditions, including outside temperature,

seawater temperature, ballast conditions, and the temperature of adjacent cargoes.

Deviations from the desired operating temperature can affect the entire tank or just parts

of the tank, typically around bulkheads, tank bottoms or tank walls. Two common results

are freezing, due to lower than allowed temperature, and polymerisation/drying due to

higher than allowed temperature.

The Tank Surface - Having managed the surrounding conditions, focus should turn to the

surface of the tanks. Their composition and condition can have significant implications for

the cleaning process.

Stainless steel - Corrosion can occur if there is surface contamination. Both pickling and

passivation are chemical treatments applied to the surface of stainless steel to remove

contaminants and assist the formation of a continuous, passive chromium oxide film.

Pickling and passivation are both acid treatments and neither will remove grease or oil. If

the steel is dirty, it may be necessary to use a detergent or alkaline cleaning before pickling

or passivation.

Zinc silicate coating - An anti-corrosive paint system made from zinc dust, with certain

additives and a binder. The high levels of zinc dust produce a zinc-zinc metal contact

resulting in cathodic protection, similar to that obtained from galvanising. However, zinc

coatings are inherently porous, presenting a variety of cleaning problems. It is believed

that the cargo migrates into the pores and capillaries, similar to fluid adsorption processes.

Zinc coatings have a good resistance against solvents, but are not resistant to strong acids

and bases.

Epoxy coatings - Pure epoxy, phenolic epoxy and isocyanate epoxy form cross linkages

resulting in relatively good resistance to a greater range of cargoes. Epoxy systems are

usually resistant to some weak acids and strong alkalis and do not absorb oil-like

substances. They are, however, prone to absorbing some solvent-like cargoes, which is

caused by swelling and subsequent softening of the coating.

After transporting aggressive cargoes, the coated tank has to be ventilated until the cargo

has been desorbed (released) from the coating film, which results in hardening and

decreased swelling. This can take several days, depending on the type of cargo, type of

coating and film thickness. Water may not be used for cleaning until this ventilation process

is finalised, otherwise, the water can lead to blistering and subsequent serious damage of

the coating.

The more solvency power a cargo has, the more cargo residues could still be present in

the coating. This could lead to either contamination of the next or subsequent cargoes, or

breakdown of the coating film.

Seeking common ground About five years ago, INTERTANKO decided to take a closer look at tank cleaning, one of

the key competitive differentiators in the chemical tanker industry. Its conclusion - cleaning

technology and competency had almost reached a peak.

“Tank cleaning is where companies try to establish a competitive edge,” said Ajay Gour,

INTERTANKO’s chemicals and vetting expert and regional manager for the Indian Sub-

Continent, Middle East and Africa. “This is where they can claim to be better than the

competition. But the majority of ship operators are all experienced, and the technology

and methodology are pretty much the same across the board. Cleaning chemicals have

seen some significant advances, but where we found the biggest change was not in

cleaning, but in tank testing.”

Testing technology has improved immensely, Gour said, but operators have not necessarily

been the drivers behind improvements. “There are many different external influences,

including scientific community, and testing today can measure levels of cleanliness far

beyond the original requirements for the same cargoes,” he said.

Ever more sensitive testing methods beg the question - should tanks be as clean as

possible? Or just sufficiently clean?

INTERTANKO studied cases emanating from Houston, a major chemical tanker hub.

“We looked at over 250 different listings,” Gour recalled. “We found that there were various

cleaning standards and varying results for the same cargo with the same end-use. There

was evidence that resources were being wasted in over-cleaning, including manpower,

energy, time, chemicals and the resulting emissions were excessive.”

In response, INTERTANKO proposed a simplified set of standards in order to bring the high-

flying cleanliness requirements back down to sea level. “Product manufacturers realise that

they have been pushing unduly stringent standards, and they understand that this is a cost

driver. In a number of cases, small deviations will not push the cargo off-spec,” Gour

maintained.

A working group of chemical tanker operators, owners, charterers, and manufacturers is

in the early stages of reviewing existing standards, not for tank cleaning, but for tank

cleanliness. “We are not telling anybody how to clean in order to achieve a certain

standard,” Gour stressed, “just advising on what standard they need to clean to.”

Nor do the proposed standards advise on how to test. “For example wall washing,” Gour

said. “It’s been around for a long time, but it has its weaknesses. It gives only a snapshot,

not the status of the entire tank.” INTERTANKO’s aim was not to single out wall wash tests,

or any other particular method, the organisation said.

“We are simply trying to refine cleanliness standards,” Gour explained, “to make sure they

are appropriate for today’s needs. High sensitivity testing is feeding anxiety in cargo

owners and charterers, and our intention is to ensure quality while improving efficiency in

the use of resources.”

Regarding the timeline for change, Gour’s advice to owners and operators- watch this

space! “The process is set in motion, and the first draft of new guidelines should be

presented by the end of 2016,” he said. “For this to happen, though, operators, shippers,

and cargo buyers must all be on board. The drafting process will be used to quantify the

overall benefits, but the end result should be that the goalposts are fixed for everybody.”

INSERE 18/08/16 NIEUWS NOUVELLES NEWS ENLEVE 18/09/16

Why Naval Academy students are learning

to sail by the stars for the first time in a decade

By : Andrea Peterson

Peter Hogan was surprised at how heavy the sextant felt in his hand when he squinted

through its eyeglass this week, the first time he had ever held one. For centuries, sailors

used sextants to plot their location on the trackless sea, lining up stars in the sky to find

their own place on EarthHogan is a sailor, too — a midshipman at the U.S. Naval Academy

in Annapolis, surrounded by some of the most advanced geolocation technology ever

devised. But even though GPS can pinpoint Hogan and his shipmates on the most remote

oceans on the planet, the Navy is once again teaching them the ancient art of celestial

navigation

The U.S. Naval Academy brought celestial navigation, a means to find your way at sea

without technological support, back to their curriculum after a decade-long hiatus. F That’s

because batteries run out, systems get hacked, and even advanced technology can be

balky. In a pinch — or in a war — sailors need something to fall back on. And stars and

sextants have been working pretty well for hundreds of years. So the Naval Academy

started teaching its sailors how to navigate ships by looking to the heavens again this

academic year. The training was dropped altogether in 2006.“I thought that we had

computers and all that for navigation,” Hogan, 20, a Charleston, S.C., native said this week

during a class on the subject. But amid concerns about cyberattacks and new weapons

that can shut off the electricity of a ship or a plane, the Naval Academy made celestial

navigation a requirement for third-year students.“Redundancy is the best policy,” said Lt.

Alex Reardon, who taught three sections of the class. Especially because, when it comes

to a Navy ship on the open seas, “we’re typically alone in what we do.”

That could be a major problem in the event of a cyberattack, said Salvatore Mercogliano,

an assistant professor focused on naval history at Campbell University and a former

merchant mariner.“The big concern the Navy has is that some sort of event takes out the

GPS system — that somehow a nefarious group or nation is able to disrupt it — and all of

the sudden you have no means to cross the Atlantic or the Pacific because the system that

you’ve come to rely on doesn’t work anymore,” Mercogliano said. The fear of cyberattacks

did not factor into the decision to resume celestial navigation training at the Naval

Academy, said Lt. Commander Kate Meadows, a naval public affairs officer. But Reardon

cited such risks as one of the reasons why students need the class.Those students clearly

had those threats in mind: When Reardon opened his class by asking them why they

thought the Naval Academy brought celestial navigation training back, one said

cyberattacks and another EMPs — electromagnetic pulses that could be weaponized to

knock out power. “Especially if you’re in a wartime scenario, maybe the GPS or the

satellites are shot down — radar isn’t working or jammed — and you’re forced to go dark,

so you can’t use your electronics,” then celestial navigation might become invaluable to a

ship needing to figure out its location, Hogan said. But it’s not just that sort of nightmare

scenario that could cause a ship’s high-tech gear to stop working, Reardon said. During

one of his recent tours out at sea, flooding in his vessel’s generators caused the whole ship

to lose power — and while some systems had battery backups, they don’t last forever, he

said.“It was a little bit scary not being very comfortable with celestial navigation and being

in that situation,” Reardon said.Of course, power problems aren’t limited to the Navy, noted

David Raymond, the deputy director of Virginia Tech’s IT Security Lab. He recalled when

he was deployed in Iraq with the Army back in 2005, his base had regular power outages

— sometimes just because people forgot to put fuel in the generators. So they always

made sure to have paper maps tracking operations pinned to the walls in addition to the

digital ones projected onto screens.“You just couldn’t always trust you were going to have

power — and if you lose power, you lose all of your computers,” said Raymond, a former

West Point instructor.A power loss on the open waters could be even more consequential

because Navy ships are generally isolated at sea. A wrong turn could mean the difference

between sailing in safe waters or those owned by Iran or North Korea.

In fact, over-reliance on emerging navigation tech has resulted in Navy disasters in the

past. In 2013, a naval minesweeper called the USS Guardian went aground on a World

Heritage site coral reef near the Philippines thanks in part to a digital chart that misplaced

the obstacle and its navigation team relying “exclusively on electronic fixes derived from

GPS” to guide them while failing to heed lighthouses, according to a Navy report on the

incident.Such problems, as well as the threat of losing access to high-tech tools altogether,

are why basic celestial navigation training is important for sailors, said Mercogliano, the

Campbell University professor. “We shouldn’t get too comfortable with our technology —

there should always be an ability to double check,” he said.Indeed, for much of human

history, seafarers long looked to the sky for guidance. Even Homer’s Odyssey referenced

using the stars to stay on course, with the goddess Calypso telling Odysseus to keep “the

Bear” — the constellation Ursa Major — on his left-hand side during part of his voyage in

the fictional epic.In the 1700s, sailor started using a device known as a sextant to track

their position using the heavens. Sextants use a series of mirrors and a sliding arm to help

measure the angle between celestial bodies and the horizon. Those measurements, the

precise time they were taken, nautical almanacs, and a series of complex calculations,

allow sailors to triangulate their location even when far out at sea.

Newer technologies have all but replaced the humble sextant. During World War II, the

U.S. began using land-based radio beacons known as the LORAN system to help guide

ships. And the space race helped further celestial navigation’s decline: The Navy sponsored

the development of the first operational satellite navigation system, dubbed TRANSIT,

which went into active service in 1964 — providing navigation assistance for naval

submarines and surface vessels. But TRANSIT was retired in the mid-’90s after the Air

Force completed the modern GPS system, which uses dozens of satellites circling the globe.

GPS pinpoints a location by measuring how long it takes for messages from at least three

of the satellites to arrive at a receiver — almost akin to an automatic version of the sextant

measurements and calculations navigators once did by hand, but using satellites instead

of the stars. And GPS can nail down an exact spot within meters, while even a skilled

celestial navigator may be off by several miles, Reardon said. GPS remains one of the most

critical tools on the high-tech bridges of Navy ships. And given the limited training in the

Naval Academy course — three hours of lectures and classroom exercises — the

midshipmen who go through Reardon’s class probably won’t be plotting courses via the

stars right away.“These classes teach you the theory behind it very well,” said Hogan, but

actually using a sextant out in the field would be another set of challenges. “I think you

could go through a whole year of class just trying to learn that.”The Navy at large also

stopped training its fleet on celestial navigation in 2006 but restored lessons for navigator

and assistant navigator officers in 2011, said Meadows, the naval public affairs officer. It’s

in the process of rebuilding a curriculum for some enlisted ranks, she said, as well as

setting up pilot courses within some ROTC programs.And there may be at least one other

fringe benefit for sailors: It may give them extra appreciation for the nighttime views when

out at sea. “You just have stars from horizon to horizon — there’s really nothing like it,”

Reardon said.

Source: The Washington Post

INSERE 20/08/16 DOSSIER ENLEVE 20/09/16

Charterers Held to Have Lost Right to Cancel Where Revised Loadport Orders Given

The charter, on BPVOY3 form, provided that subject to the provisions of clause 24, the

vessel would proceed to “1/2 safe port(s) Black Sea excl Bulgaria, Romania, Turkey”.

Clause 17 provided for a laycan period of 1 to 3 April 2003. Clause 24 provided inter alia

as follows regarding revised orders:

“If after any loading or discharge port or place has been nominated Charterers desire to

vary such port or place, Owners shall issue such revised instructions as are necessary at

any time to give effect to Charterers’ revised orders

Facts Charterers nominated Tuapse as the first loadport, then three days later gave a

revised nomination of Batumi. The vessel’s estimated time of arrival at Batumi was after

the cancelling date, and on that basis Charterers purported to cancel the charter. Owners

accepted that cancellation as a repudiatory breach and claimed damages.

Arbitrators’ findings Owners’ claim succeeded. The Tribunal found that after a revised

order had been given under clause 24, the cancellation provisions of clause 17 ceased to

apply. Specifically, they did not apply to the revised loadport of Batumi. Even if the right

to cancel had survived, Charterers could not cancel where the re-nominated loadport was

one which the vessel, at the time of the re-nomination, could not have reached by the

cancelling date (as was the case here).

Charterers appealed on two issues: (i) whether the clause 17 right to cancel survived a re-

nomination of the first loadport under clause 24; and (ii) if so, whether they were in any

event not entitled to cancel where at the time of re-nomination, the vessel’s ETA for the

re-nominated port was after the cancelling date.

Findings on appeal

Charterers’ appeal was dismissed.

On the first issue, whilst Charterers had a strong argument based on the commercial value

of the cancelling clause, Owners’ position was stronger. Owners cited the commercial

undesirability of losing the certainty of an irrevocable nomination while remaining exposed

to cancellation rights. The parties could, if they had wished, have drafted an express clause

which allowed the cancellation rights to survive, but they had not.The Court also found an

inconsistency in Charterers’ case. They accepted that an initial loadport nomination could

not be given so late that it would cause the vessel to miss the cancelling date, however

they contended that a re-nomination under clause 24 was not fettered in this way. This

undermined Charterers’ contention that clause 24 was intended to equate a re-nominated

first loadport with an originally nominated first loadport, and to confer on them in respect

of the former all of the entitlements conferred on them under the charter in respect of the

latter.As regards the second issue, the Court considered whether, once the original

nomination was made, the vessel was obliged to proceed both to that original port and as

if any other port within the charter range might be substituted. It determined that this

approach would be both uncommercial and unsatisfactory. When the original nomination

was made, that port became the contractual loadport and Owners were entitled to proceed

on that basis unless and until a re-nomination was made. The parties had a duty of

cooperation, which meant that where the vessel proceeded in accordance with the charter,

Charterers could not cancel if they made a substitute nomination for a port which the vessel

would not be able to reach until after the cancelling date.

Comment This case exemplifies the importance of carefully considering the charter terms

before taking drastic steps such as cancellation. It is essential to consider the charter as a

whole, and whether the default position under one clause is affected by the operation of

another in certain circumstances. The reciprocal, commercial relationship between the

parties appears to have been key to the Court’s decision in this case, with a focus on both

the fact that the parties could have agreed an express clause to cover this factual scenario

if they had wished to, and on the duty of the parties to cooperate under the charter terms

which were agreed.

Source: Reed Smith

INSERE 22/08/16 BOEKEN LIVRES BOOKS ENLEVE 22/09/16

“Goud en Indianen”

B O E K B E S P R E K I N G Door : Frank NEYTS

Bij uitgeverij Walburg Pers verscheen net “Goud en Indianen. Het journaal van

Hendrick Brouwers expeditie naar Chili in 1643”. De publicatie werd bezorgd en

ingeleid door Henk den Heijer. Begin 1643 vertrok een vloot onder bevel van Hendrick

Brouwer vanuit Recife naar het zuiden van Chili. De schepen waren van extra geschut

voorzien, hadden bouwmaterialen voor een fort aan boord en waren bemand met 650

zeelieden en soldaten. Delen van West-Afrika en Brazilië waren al in het bezit van de West-

Indische Compagnie en de verovering van Chili moest het sluitstuk worden van een

Nederlands imperium op het zuidelijk halfrond.

Johan Maurits van Nassau, de gouverneur van Nederlands-Brazilië, had het initiatief tot de

expeditie genomen. Hij wilde een bondgenootschap sluiten met de indianen van Zuid-Chili

die eerder tegen de Spaanse veroveraars in opstand waren gekomen. Samen met hen

hoopte hij de rijke zilvermijnen van Potosi in de Andes te veroveren.Eind april 1644

bereikten de Nederlanders het eiland Chiloë waar zij Spaanse doelen aanvielen en

indiaanse bondgenoten aan boord namen voor de bezetting van de noordelijker gelegen

stad Valdivia, het einddoel van de reis. Brouwer stierf echter voordat het einddoel was

bereikt. Door tactloos optreden van zijn opvolger Elias Herckmans tegen de indianen

mislukte de expeditie. Herckmans leidde de terugtocht naar Recife waar de schepen een

jaar na hun vertrek voor anker gingen. De aanval op Zuid-Chili was niet het gedroomde

sluitstuk van een Nederlands imperium op het zuidelijk halfrond maar luidde de neergang

van Nederlands-Brazilië in.Het tijdens de reis bijgehouden journaal, de daarin opgenomen

brieven over de communicatie tussen de schepen en de verhoren van gevangen genomen

Spanjaarden en indianen, geven een uniek inzicht in het verloop van deze vrijwel

onbekende expeditie.

“Goud en Indianen” (ISBN 9789462490529) telt 344 pagina’s, werd als hardback

uitgegeven. Het boek kost 44.22 euro. Aankopen kan via de boekhandel of rechtstreeks

bij Uitgeversmaatschappij Walburg Pers, Postbus 4159, 7200BD Zutphen. Tel.

+32(0)575.510522, Fax +31(0)575.542289. . In België wordt het boek verdeeld door

Agora Uitgeverscentrum, Aalst/Erembodegem. Tel. 0032(0)53.78.87.00, Fax

0032(0)53.78.26.91, www.boekenbank.be , E-mail: admin@agorabooks.com

INSERE 22/08/16 NIEUWS NOUVELLES NEWS ENLEVE 22/09/16

CO2 footprint of maritime vessels to be recorded worldwide

By John Stansfield,

The German Shipowners’ Association (VDR) endorses the resolution adopted by the

International Maritime Organization (IMO) to make it mandatory in future for all vessels to

record their CO2 emissions.“In Paris, the community of states reached a consensus in

December on climate protection targets within national borders – now the IMO member

states have adopted the same policy for vessels sailing the global seas,” said Ralf Nagel,

Chief Executive Officer of the VDR. “The fact that all states on the IMO Marine Environment

Protection Committee (MEPC) have adopted the mandatory CO2 data collection policy

despite the controversial discussion involved once again underscores the ability of the IMO

to act as a global legislator for maritime shipping.”CO2 footprint of maritime vessels to be

recorded worldwide The resolution provides for shipping companies to transmit data on

fuel consumption, distances travelled and the number of operating hours of their vessels

via the respective flag state of the ships to the IMO in London for evaluation purposes. “It’s

important first of all to have the CO2 data of all ships collected and analysed by the IMO.

Only if we have sound, solid data does the discussion really make sense regarding suitable

objectives and measures to reduce the already low CO2 footprint of maritime shipping even

further,” said Nagel.The official acceptance of the addendum to the International

Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships (MARPOL) by the MEPC in October is

considered to be a mere formality.Mandatory climate protection regulations already apply

to maritime vessels today. According to the relevant rules, newbuilds will need to meet

ever increasing efficiency standards step by step and will be using 30% less fuel per ton-

kilometre from the year 2025. Additional factors are parameters laid down for energy-

efficient ship operation.Maritime vessels are the most efficient means of transport

available. With ships reflecting an average age of nine years (world fleet: 14 years),

German shipping companies are reported to have one of the world’s most modern maritime

fleets.

Source: The German Shipowners’ Association

INSERE 24/08/16 Historiek Historique Historic ENLEVE 24/09/16

Projet de réorganisation de la marine militaire belge en 1855 (partie 1)

Peu à peu tout s'est organisé en Belgique, l'armée, la magistrature, le génie civil,

l'enseignement ; seule la marine militaire a été en se désorganisant.

Forte en 1830, de deux brigantins de 8 canons et de quatre goulottes canonnières de 7,

elle porta insensiblement son effectif à 14 navires en mettant à flot 8 canonnières

sabordées par les Hollandais après la reddition de la citadelle d'Anvers. Cette escadrille

distribuée dans l'Escaut, faisait la police du fleuve, visitait les navires, réprimait la fraude,

observait les quarantaines, venait en aide aux navires du commerce et fournissait aux

armateurs un grand nombre d'excellents matelots.

Ce fut l'apogée de la marine Belge. Elle comptait alors 84 bouches à feu, 36 officiers et

760 matelots de diverses classes ! Elle avait en outre des espérances et des illusions. Rien

ne manquait donc à son bonheur. Mais il n'était pas dans sa destinée de vivre et de

prospérer longtemps. Avec l'âge de ses bâtiments arriva l'époque de sa décadence. Les

brigantins et les canonnières, devenus irréparables, furent vendus comme bois à brûler et

la flottille de l'Escaut se trouva bientôt réduite à une petite goélette de 12 canons, la Louise

Marie et à un brick de 10 canons le Duc de Brabant.

Ces deux navires constituent encore en ce moment notre unique force maritime et Dieu

sait dans quel état ils se trouvent (a). La Louise Marie construite par le commerce en 1838,

a subi deux fortes réparations et sera bientôt condamnée à prendre ses invalides.

Ce navire par sa conformation n'est destiné; qu'à recevoir une artillerie de parade.

Si dans une circonstance que nous ne voulons pas prévoir, il était attaqué par la plus petite

goélette de guerre d'une autre nation, son infériorité deviendrait évidente par un échec.

Or s'il n'y a pas de déshonneur à être vaincu par un ennemi supérieur, il est toujours

honteux de baisser pavillon devant un plus faible que soi, car on ne justifie jamais une

défaite par l'imperfection de ses moyens de défense.

La Louise Marie et le Duc de Brabant, de l'aveu d'un homme compétent (b) « ne

ressemblent pas plus à des bâtiments de » guerre européens, que la Jonque chinoise ou le

Prao malais. »

Les canons qu'ils portent ne peuvent pas servir et leurs équipages sont dans un état plus

fâcheux encore. Depuis la suppression partielle du corps de la marine: en 1849, on a dû

recourir aux moyens les plus irréguliers pour maintenir ensemble les éléments dispersés

de ce corps et lui donner une apparence de vie. Afin de soulever seulement un coin du

voile qui cache tant de misères, nous indiquerons à l'aide de quels expédients on réussit à

mettre chez nous un navire de l'Etat à même de prendre la mer.

Pendant plusieurs voyages faits par la Louise Marie à la côte d'Afrique , il a fallu engager

des matelots de la marine marchande et pour assurer ce recrutement défectueux, le

commandant du navire a été obligé de se soumettre à des exigences en opposition directe

avec les lois et les règlements de la marine militaire. Ainsi les matelots ne voulant

s'engager que pour la durée d'une campagne, refusaient de prendre l'équipement

réglementaire et exigeaient que pour les exécutions de discipline le code pénal du

commerce leur fut exclusivement appliqué. Grâce à la conduite prudente des officiers, cette

dernière condition n'a jamais donné lieu à des difficultés sérieuses ; mais il est aisé de se

rendre compte des graves inconvénients qui devaient résulter de la première. A l'arrivé

d'un navire de guerre Belge dans un port étranger, ce navire devenait pour les marins et

les autorités locales, un objet de risée par l'exhibition d'un assemblage de costumes

multicolores dont on ne trouverait , il faut bien le dire, d'exemple qu'à bord des corsaires

et des écumeurs de mer. Nos officiers, se sont plaints de devoir paraître ainsi dans les

ports militaires des autres nations, et nous comprenons parfaitement cette honorable

susceptibilité. Du moment que les couleurs Belges flottent sur un bâtiment de l'Etat, il faut

que ce bâtiment soit convenable et que rien n'y prête au ridicule.

Le Gouvernement et les chambres doivent donc se hâter de mettre un terme à la parodie

navale qui se joue depuis 10 ans en Belgique, parodie ou d'honorables officiers

malheureusement sont forcés d'accepter un rôle et dont l'éclat burlesque rejaillit sur la

nation toute entière.

Il y a deux manières d'atteindre ce but : c'est de supprimer la marine ou de la réorganiser.

De là cette question que nous prenons la liberté de soumettre à la législature :

« Faut-il que la Belgique ait des bâtiments de guerre, ou peut » elle s'en passer. Dans

l'affirmative, réorganisez, dans le cas contraire supprimez la marine. »

On est en droit de soutenir l'une et l'autre thèse, mais nous ne comprenons pas, qu'on ne

soutienne ni l'une ni l'autre, ou en d'autres termes qu'on veuille conserver ce qui existe :

un fantôme de puissance navale qui n'est pas même propre à effrayer les peaux rouges du

Guatemala ou les peaux noires de la côte d'Afrique.

Quant à nous, bien que nous n'ayons pas l'honneur d'appartenir à la marine, notre

conviction est que la Belgique doit avoir une flottille de bâtiments de guerre pour garder

Anvers, défendre l'Escaut , surveiller les côtes , protéger la pêche nationale et favoriser

dans une juste mesure, les relations de la Belgique avec les contrées lointaines.

Nous tâcherons de l'aire passer cette conviction dans l'esprit de nos lecteurs, et ce ne sera

pas une entreprise aisée car le gouvernement et les chambres ont tant négligé cette pauvre

marine qu'on a fini par la croire tout à fait inutile. Ses propres officiers, témoins de cette

impression défavorable et jugeant l'avenir sur le passé, ne sont pas bien certains eux-

mêmes, qu'ils pourraient rendre encore des services.

Eh bien, ce découragement et ces préventions nous ne nous arrêteront point. La vérité, à

la flin, toujours triomphe et sans avoir la ridicule prétention de nous poser on réformateur,

nous avons assez de confiance dans la bonté de la cause que nous défendons, pour espérer

que l'époque n'est pas éloignée, où un citoyen belge pourra regarder sans rire un bâtiment

de notre marine militaire. Il ne tiendra pas à nous que cette époque n'arrive promptement

et ne soit féconde en résultats heureux.

II

La grande commission militaire instituée par la chambre en 1851 a traité toutes les

questions relatives à l'organisation de la force publique et de la défense nationale, toutes

excepté une seule : la question de la marine.

Cette lacune importante a passé d'abord inaperçue et on n'a commencé à s'en préoccuper

qu'après l'achèvement des travaux d'Anvers. Il est facile d'en expliquer la raison. Quand

on examine tout ce que le génie militaire a créé depuis quatre ans pour la défense de notre

métropole commerciale, on est heureux de penser qu'une agression sur cette place du côté

de la terre, rencontrerait des difficultés presque insurmontables, l'armée assiégeante fut-

elle double et triple de la nôtre. Mais cette conviction rassurante fait place à un tout autre

sentiment, quand on se demande quelle résistance Anvers pourrait offrir à une attaque

navale.

Avec la meilleure volonté du monde, en effet, on ne peut admettre que les forts du Bas

Escaut et les batteries au nord de la place seraient capables d'arrêter une flotte de

bâtiments à vapeur. Le Gouvernement lui-même ne s'est pas fait illusion sur ce point et

on doit grandement lui tenir compte des mesures qu'il a prises depuis quelques années

pour améliorer l'état de choses existant.

Le fort de la Tête de Flandre et les batteries casematées de St-Michel et de St—Laurent

forment déjà un bon dispositif de défense à la gorge de la place (c). Mais quelque précieuse

que soit la garantie de pouvoir combattre efficacement des vaisseaux ennemis embossés

devant les quais, on n'aurait qu'une sécurité insuffisante si l'on était privé des moyens de

contrarier la marche de ces vaisseaux à partir de la frontière. Lorsqu'on n'est pas bien sûr

d'écraser une flotte au point d'arrivée, il est prudent de l'arrêter au passage. Ce sera

toujours le plus efficace et le plus rassurant de tous les moyens de défense :

malheureusement c'est aussi le plus difficile à organiser.

Les ingénieurs qui se sont occupés de cette question, ont indiqué deux modes applicables

à toutes les circonstances où il s'agit de protéger une ville située au fond d'une rade ou sur

le bord d'un fleuve : c'est 1° d'établir de distance en distance des batteries sur les deux

côtés du chenal, et 2° de concentrer toutes les batteries en avant du point à défendre, de

manière à ce qu'elles croisent leur feu sur la zone où l'assaillant est obligé de s'embosser

pour opérer l'attaque. Le premier moyen n'inspire plus guère de confiance depuis le

passage des Dardanelles par l'amiral Duckworth et la brillante expédition de Roussin contre

Lisbonne. Il est facile, au reste, de se rendre compte de l'inefficacité du tir des batteries

échelonnées contre une flotte qui peut défiler devant elles avec une grande vitesse et

quelquefois au milieu de l'obscurité.

La puissance de l'artillerie est bien grande, au contraire, lorsque ses moyens sont

accumulés devant les points où l'attaque doit avoir lieu. Cette puissance a été constatée

par les dommages qu'essuya la flotte de l'amiral Parker devant Copenhague, en 1801, et

par l'inutile tentative des Anglais sur Constantinople en 1807.

Les Russes ont tenu compte de ces divers résultats en fortifiant, à l'aide de batteries

concentrées, les rades de Cronstadt, de Sweaborg et de Sévastopol.

Ces trois ports ont acquis par là une valeur défensive telle, que les flottes réunies de la

France et de l'Angleterre n'ont pas même osé les attaquer, bien que les tours en granit,

des Russes offrent une grande surface à l'action des projectiles.

On obtiendrait un résultat analogue chez nous, si l'on complétait les défenses de l'Escaut

devant Anvers, non par des tours maximiliennes à plusieurs étages, mais par une

formidable batterie rasante établie dans le coude du fleuve, entre la place et le fort du

Nord (d). Cette batterie, croisant ses feux avec celles du fort d'Austruweel, agrandies et

complétées, produirait un effet d'autant plus terrible que les casemates seraient peu

élevées au-dessus de l'eau et qu'on les aurait couvertes, ainsi que les batteries Saint-

Michel et Saint-Laurent, par des masques en terre ne laissant en prise que le pourtour des

embrasures.

Ce dispositif de défense, toutefois, ne donnerait une garantie absolue que si l'on pouvait

toujours être prévenu à temps de l'approche de l'ennemi. Or, pour éviter les surprises et

les attaques brusques d'une place située au fond d'une rade, il n'y a pas d'autre moyen

que d'occuper en avant une ou plusieurs positions où il soit possible d'arrêter l'ennemi

assez longtemps pour avertir les défenseurs de la place. Ces positions, dont le rôle a

quelque analogie avec celui des grand'gardes et des avant-postes d'armée, doivent être

échelonnées de manière à pouvoir se communiquer des signaux par le canon. Leur but est

de donner des avertissements et de surveiller les abords de la position centrale. H faut

donc qu'elles offrent assez de résistance pour empêcher les reconnaissances et les

sondages de l'ennemi, et qu'elles aient en outre le moyen de s'éclairer au loin par des

légers bâtiments de guerre.

Nous possédons sur l'Escaut deux forts, ceux de Lillo et de Liefkenshoek, qui rempliraient

parfaitement ce rôle de postes d'avertissement, si on améliorait l'état de leurs défenses

(e).

Le fort St-Marie et le fort Philippe situés à égale distance des premiers et de la ville,

pourraient servir de postes de soutien et de seconde ligne de défense ; mais le fort St-

Marie est plus faible encore que celui de Lillo et le fort Philippe n'existe plus qu'à l'état des

vestiges. Aussi le gouvernement se propose-t-il de demander à la Chambre un crédit pour

améliorer l'un et pour relever l'autre. C'est une idée excellente à laquelle nota

applaudissons vivement. Lorsqu'elle aura été réalisée, il suffira de quelques mesures

complémentaires pour mettre Anvers à l'abri d'une attaque navale. Parmi ces mesures

nous indiquerons les suivantes :

1° Relier les forts à la ville au moyen d'un télégraphe.

2. Établir à proximité de chaque batterie un foyer de lumière électrique, pourvu d'un

réflecteur mobile, â l'aide duquel on pourrait projeter des faisceaux lumineux dans toutes

les direclions, découvrir les vaisseaux à plus de 2,000 mètres pendant les nuits obscures,

et les désigner aux coups de l'artillerie de terre. Afin de priver l'ennemi du mémo avantage

et de l'induire en erreur sur la position de nos embrassures, on mettrait ces phares à

quelque distance, sur le côté des batteries.

3° En temps de guerre, mouiller dans les passes les plus importantes quelques vieux

bâtiments prêts à être sabordés.

4° On pourrait aussi couler au fond des passes, et de préférence dans les endroits où les

bâtiments doivent ralentir leur vitesse, des caisses métalliques remplies de poudre. Pour

mettre le feu à ces mines submergées, on se servirait de la pile qui alimenterait le phare

et le télégraphe électrique.

Mais toutes ces mesures de précaution et de défense seraient incomplètes s'il n'y avait pas

entre les forts et la place une petite (lutine pouvant observer l'ennemi, éclairer les abords

de chaque position, jeter des troupes sur les points menacés, recueillir les détachement

qui doivent se replier, transporter du matériel et des vivres d'un endroit à l'autre, établir

enfin une liaison convenable entre les avant-postes et le réduit de la défense.

Cette flottille pourrait servir encore à transporter de la rive gauche sur la rive droite, les

troupes qui en cas d'invasion devraient faire leur retraite sur Anvers par la tête de Flandre.

Pour ce service comme pour l'armement et l'approvisionnement des forts, il serait

dangereux de compter sur les vapeurs du commerce. Non-seulement on n'aurait pas

toujours des bâtiments de ce genre à sa disposition, mais leur tirant d'eau variant de 10 à

15 pieds, on ne pourrait pas s'en servir pour accoster les forts ou débarquer des troupes

sur les digues.

La défense de l'Escaut et le service des positions échelonnées sur ce fleuve exigent donc

impérieusement des navires spéciaux.

Eu égard à cette considération et au rôle que la marine militaire Belge devrait pouvoir

jouer, nous pensons qu'il serait nécessaire de la renforcer par l'adjonction de trois avisos

à vapeur et de six canonnières à hélice. Les avisos porteraient 8 bouches à feu du calibre

de 60 et les canonnières 4 canons obusiers de 0,27m. Tous ces bâtiments auraient un

tirant d'eau assez faible pour leur permettre de franchir à mi- marée les nombreux bancs

de l'Escaut et les passes interdites aux navires ennemis. La légèreté et la mobilité devraient

être leurs qualités essentielles.

Ce n'est pas sans nécessité que nous proposons de donner aux canonnières des moteurs

à hélice. Si elles ne pouvaient marcher qu'à la voile leur action, par suite des marées, serait

paralysée 12 heures sur 24 ; elles manqueraient donc en grande partie leur but, qui est

de pouvoir agir en tout temps et en tous sens.

Les canonnières prendraient position en avant des forts à Saftingen ou plus bas si on le

jugeait nécessaire ; les autres bâtiments se tiendraient à proximité de Lillo et tous

ensemble auraient pour mission d'éclairer les abords do nos positions défensives, de

retarder autant que possible la marche des vaisseaux ennemis, et de contrarier les

débarquements que l'on pourrait faire hors de la portée des forts.

Mais l'objet principal de notre marine serait de barrer l'Escaut. Le siège de Sevastopol a

fait voir toute l'efficacité de ce moyen de défense. Sans la résolution instantanée que prit

l'amiral Russe d'obstruer la rade, il est certain que les alliés seraient entrés dans la place

le lendemain de bataille de l'Alma.

Il ne faudrait pas toutefois tirer de ce fait des conséquences trop absolues. Un barrage

n'est un obstacle sérieux que lorsque ses extrémités sont appuyées à des forts solides.

Ainsi les files de pilots que les chinois établirent en 1840 dans la rivière de Canton pour

arrêter les vaisseaux anglais ne furent d'aucune utilité parce qu'elles n'avaient point de

défenses latérales. Sous ce rapport nous serions dans des conditions tout autres s'il

s'agissait de défendre l'entrée de l'Escaut après la restauration totale des forts. Entre Lillo

et Liefkenshoek on pourrait établir un premier barrage parfaitement appuyé. Entre St.

Made et Philippe un second barrage ne serait pas moins bien situé ni moins facile à défendre

et, si on en avait le temps et les moyens, un 36 barrage pourrait être avantageusement

établi au Nord de la place, dans le voisinage du fort Ferdinand.

Cela étant nous demanderons qui feraient ces barrages et comment on les ferait si l'on

n'avait pas une marine militaire.

Les gens superficiels diront peut-être qu'il suffirait, au moment du danger, de couler dans

les passes l'Escaut un certain nombre de bâtiments du commerce. Mais c'est là une bien

pauvre raison. Eu quatre heures une flotte à hélice peut franchir l'intervalle qui sépare

Anvers de l'embouchure de l'Escaut. De sorte que l'on aurait à peine fait sortir des bassins

les navires destinés à barrer la passe de Lillo, que déja l'ennemi serait embossé devant les

quais de la ville (f).

L'amiral Russe chargé de la défense de Sevastopol avait aussi des bâtiments du commerce

sur lesquels il aurait pu mettre la main et quoique ces bâtiments ne fussent pas aussi

éloignés du barrage que le seraient les nôtres, il n'eut que le temps de couler ses propres

vaisseaux, tant il est vrai que dans une défense contre la marine tout doit être prèt à une

action rapide, instantanée.

Si donc nous voulons être sûrs de pouvoir au moins barrer à temps une de nos passes, il

faut que notre marine se tienne constamment sur les lieux et qu'après avoir épuisé tous

les moyens ordinaires de résistance elle se coule plutôt que de courir la chance d'arriver

trop tard avec des bâtiments du commerce.

Voilà quel rôle elle doit jouer et quel service elle est appelée à rendre.

Plus on améliorera la défense de l'Escaut et plus la nécessité d'une flottille se fera sentir.

Le gouvernement qui s'occupe avec sollicitude de la première de ces questions ne peut pas

négliger la seconde.

Déjà, parait-il, on a fait étudier la question de savoir si des batteries flottantes dans le

genre des Canonnières-Casemates inventées par les Anglais ne pourraient point suppléer,

pour la défense rapprochée d'Anvers, les batteries fixes que l'on voulait établir sur les

quais. C'est un premier pas vers la réorganisation de la marine ; on fera bientôt les autres,

nous en sommes certain, parce qu'il est logique et nécessaire qu'on les fasse.

Jamais nous ne comprendrons la défense d'un fleuve et d'une rade sans bâtiments de

guerre. Que l'on soumette cette question à une assemblée de généraux, d'ingénieurs, de

marins, et tous prononceront dans le même sens.

Il faut donc à la Belgique une marine militaire. Ce n'est plus une question ; c'est un

axiome !

(a) Nous ne comptons pas au nombre des bâtiments de la marine les malles-postes à l'aide

desquels le gouvernement Belge a depuis 1847 exploité le transport de la correspondance

du Nord avec la Grande-Bretagne.

(b) De la marine militaire : brochure publiée tout récemment par un officier de la marine

Belge

(c) Ce dispositif devait être complété par une batterie de 1.3 pièces, à construire sur le

Werf ; mais l'opposition du commerce d'Anvers a fait abandonner ce projet.

(d) Cette batterie casematée devrait être de 50 à 60 bouches à feu de gros calibre. En

arrière, il faudrait construire un logement pour les artilleurs, chargés du service des pièces.

Sans cette précaution, la défense pourrait, dans certains cas, éprouver des retards

fâcheux. Au reste la nécessité de cette batterie ne se fera plus sentir quand la ville aura

été agrandie vers le Nord. On peut en effet combiner les fortifications nouvelles de manière

qu'un des fronts longe l'Escaut dans la partie du coude où la batterie dont il s'agit devrait

être construite.

(e) Il manque dans ces deux forts des batteries à l'épreuve de la bombe. Celui de Lillo

devrait avoir en outre un réduit et des logements pour la troupe.

(f) Nous raisonnons dans l'hypothèse d'une surprise de nuit ou de jour, genre d'attaque

qu'il faut toujours admettre quand il s'agit de la marine. Or dans cette éventualité nous ne

croyons pas avancer une hérésie militaire en affirment que l'artillerie des forts n'arrêterait

pas la marche d'une flottille de bâtiments à vapeur.

A suivre

Jean Claude Liénart

INSERE 26/08/16 DOSSIER ENLEVE 26/09/16

Responsible cargo tank cleaning –washing water analysis (Part 1)

In my previously published article entitled ‘Preparing Chemical Tankers for

Cargo Operations’, the key discussion points were centred on the wall wash inspection and

how it essentially has two very distinct purposes.*

These are-

1) To allow load port surveyors to determine cargo tank suitability prior to loading chemical

cargoes.

2) To allow vessels to monitor tank cleaning operations both to a visually clean and

chemically clean standard.

The main concerns raised, covered the weaknesses and flaws associated with the wall wash

inspection process per se, which undoubtedly influence the validity and veracity of the

results to such a degree that one has to ask whether the process actually justifies the

means? Particularly when one considers the growing number and increasingly demanding,

pre-loading inspection specifications being implemented by cargo interests, prior to loading

more and more chemical cargoes. Even more so, when it is accepted and understood that

each time a wall wash sample is undertaken, at least one person is exposed to one of the

most dangerous aspects of the oil/chemical business; namely confined space entry (CSE).

The title of this discussion, split into two parts, reflects the relationship between the wall

wash inspection and the extreme dangers of CSE and aims to present ‘washing water

analysis’ as an alternative, more responsible, cargo tank inspection process. A process that

is primarily and inherently safer because it significantly reduces the need for CSE during

tank cleaning operations, but at the same time, a process that also provides far more

representative data relating to the cleanliness of the cargo tanks and cargo lines, which is

something the wall wash inspection can never achieve.

We all have a responsibility of duty and care and if the primary requirement for a vessel

to pass a wall wash inspection is commercial benefit, then surely alternatives to the wall

wash inspection must be more aggressively investigated?

The basics

The principle is very simple. All cargo tank cleaning processes are a series of steps that

when combined together, are designed to successfully remove traces of previous cargo

from the surface of any given cargo tank.

Each cleaning step has a defined role that on its own, may not necessarily remove all of

the previous cargo, but when combined with other cleaning steps, will allow for its complete

removal. Knowledge of which tank cleaning operations require the use of elevated or

ambient washing water temperatures and/or cleaning chemicals and which prior cargoes

may still be retained in the lining of the cargo tank after completion of the tank cleaning

operation, is needed, but the vessels’ owners have always been responsible for acquiring

this knowledge and expertise and this responsibility does not change.

The success of any tank cleaning operation is directly related to knowing that each step of

the process has been successfully executed. Until now, identifying the presence (or lack

of) of trace levels of the previous cargo on the surface of the cargo tanks, has only been

possible using human entry in conjunction with either a visual or wall wash inspection,

after the tank cleaning step has been completed and the cargo tank suitably gas freed and

dried.

By using a scanning UV spectrophotometer, such as the L&I WAVE II, to scan washing

water samples in the UV region of the light spectrum, it is now possible to accurately

identify trace levels of previous cargo residues in the washing water; meaning that when

the washing water no longer contains these residues, the cargo tank can be considered as

clean.

As already alluded to, it should be understood that the early steps of many tank cleaning

operations are unlikely to completely remove all traces of the previous cargo, so the key

to a successful operation is to identify when each cleaning step is complete, before moving

on to the next, recognising that each of the steps do have a limitation.

Interpretation of the washing water data allows the vessel to clearly identify the point at

which each cleaning step is no longer being effective, which is the trigger to initiate the

next cleaning step; all of this, without having to put people inside the cargo tanks.

The process of monitoring all cargo tank cleaning procedures essentially becomes a ‘live’

operation, without the need to stop cleaning, cool down/gas free the cargo tanks and

expose a crew member to CSE in order to carry out a visual or wall wash inspection.

Experience has already demonstrated that monitoring tank cleaning operations in this

manner, generates significant time savings on tank cleaning procedures that have been

historically used with good success.

For example, if a tank cleaning step suggests washing for four hours with hot water and

after four hours cleaning with hot water, the cargo tank is determined to be clean (by

visual or wall wash inspection), why should the efficiency of that specific cleaning step be

questioned, because it has clearly been successful?

But what if the same level of cleanliness could be achieved after only two hours of cleaning

with hot water?

In the absence of using washing water analysis, the only way of checking would be to stop

the cleaning after two hours, cool down, force ventilate until the cargo tank was gas

free/dry and inspect. If it was then subsequently identified that the cargo tank was not

clean and required additional cleaning, more time and more personnel would be required

to re-start the process, heat the water and cargo tank back up to temperature and continue

the cleaning.

In other words, visually checking that a four hour cleaning step is actually effective, may

end up taking six or eight (or more) hours to complete, meaning there is no real advantage

in trying to optimise any tank cleaning procedures, using the visual/wall wash inspection

techniques.

Dynamic process

In direct contrast, washing water analysis is a dynamic process that takes a maximum of

a couple of minutes from drawing the sample, analysing it and comparing it with the

previous sample in order to see if the cleaning is complete or whether the cleaning step

needs to be changed; during which time, tank cleaning proceeds as normal.

The benefits are immediate and quite obvious:

■ Optimised tank cleaning procedures, which directly leads to -

■ Significantly reduced man entry into the cargo tanks.

■ Preservation of crew rest hours.

■ Real time savings.

■ Reduction in fuel (and often cleaning chemical) consumption.

■ Removal of over-cleaning which is proven to accelerate the wear and breakdown of the

vessels hardware, including but not limited to, cargo tank coating, pumps and lines.

The considerable reduction of CSE has massive safety implications that run through the

core of this discussion, but it should be noted that this benefit also has a very positive

influence in the management of rest hours for the seafarers.

Monitoring tank cleaning by physical cargo tank entry is not only dangerous, it also takes

a great deal of time and when tank cleaning operations are often managed by the vessels’

Chief Officer and a very limited number of crew members, the effective use of all the

personnel is critical. As noted, analysis of any washing water sample takes only minutes

to complete, which creates more time for executing tank cleaning step changes, (shifting

of tank cleaning machines and hoses, connecting and re-connecting lines and flanges, etc),

which have to be carried, regardless of how the cleaning is being monitored.

This ability to positively influence the efficiency of procedures during tank cleaning is also

significant, because it has to be recognised that no two tank cleaning procedures are the

same, even if the same vessel is cleaning from the same last cargo.

The influence of earlier prior cargoes, the temperature of the washing water, the size and

type of the cargo tank, the condition of the lining, the functionality of the tank cleaning

equipment, etc can all vary from one day to another, yet the washing water analysis

remains constant.

A spectrophotometer only sees what it sees, and if there is a higher concentration of

benzene in the washing water one day compared to the same cleaning another day, there

is always a reason for this, which actually enables the vessel to identify potential problems

that may otherwise go unnoticed.

At this point, it should be at least acknowledged that this deviation from industry accepted

tank cleaning guidelines could create legal challenges in the future, particularly in the event

of arbitration where the tank cleaning on board the vessel is generally accepted as being

the best indicator of conformance with the requirements of a ‘diligent’ crew.

The industry accepted guidelines are just that -’guidelines’ - and in the authors opinion,

any vessel monitoring tank cleaning by means of washing water analysis should not be

penalised, if the cleaning carried out is somehow construed as being less than one of the

published guidelines.

That said, the fact that washing water analysis gives the vessel the ability to confirm that

the cargo lines are also free from the previous cargo, could actually be seen as a proactive

step to reduce the risk of cargo contamination, meaning washing water analysis could

become more of a legal norm in the future?

*This is the first part of an article written for Tanker Operator by Guy Johnson of L&I

Maritime (UK). The second part will be published in the March issue of Tanker Operator.

INSERE 28/08/16 NIEUWS NOUVELLES NEWS ENLEVE 28/09/16

“Good preparation is essential to effective kidnap response management”

Stuart Edmonston, Head of Loss Prevention at UK P&I Club, together with Hellenic War

Risks and Terra Firma Risk Management, highlights the importance of preparation in

kidnap response management for shipping companies operating in West Africa“ As the

report by Oceans Beyond Piracy revealed, the total number of kidnaps for ransom during

2016 in the Gulf of Guinea has already surpassed the total number of incidents recorded

by the International Maritime Bureau (IMB) for 2015. Consequently, shipping companies

must ensure that ship owners, shipping management, Company Security Officers and

crew members have access to experienced and professional advice regarding kidnap

response management.“ Owners can make serious mistakes, with potentially dire human

and financial consequences if they attempt to negotiate with kidnappers on their own, or

if they engage advisers who do not have the requisite experience and expertise. Bespoke

training for ship owners, shipping management, CSOs and crew should focus on:

-Ensuring crews understand the risks of kidnap in the region professionally advised, and

their families will receive the support they need

-Training seafarers, if they are kidnapped, to behave in a way most likely to ensure their

safety and quick release

-Giving shipping companies the information and tools they need to be in the best possible

position to respond to a kidnap

-Offering the necessary psychological support to crew following the resolution of a

kidnapping “Seafarers in Gulf of Guinea waters should be prepared for a kidnap at all

times. For instance, if they take medicines regularly they should always carry a stock on

their person. Companies might also consider positioning anti-insect repellent and

lightweight mosquito nets on the bridge or on deck so that crew, if taken hostage, can

try to take them with them as they are forced to leave the vessel.

“It is important that training for crews covers more than just kidnap survival. Crew

confidence will be enhanced if, before they depart for their voyage, they are able to discuss

the threat with their families accurately and honestly. Seafarers should also make their

families aware of what they should not do. For example, they should not answer any calls

from kidnappers.

“Families ought to be persuaded to continue their normal life as far as possible and to have

confidence that the company will do all it can to negotiate a release of the hostages as

soon as possible. “With appropriate training and preparation, companies can ensure their

crisis management teams and communicators have up-to-date knowledge, workable

policies and the right people in the right places, both at sea and onshore, to respond

effectively to a kidnap.

“Good preparation often means that a company recovers more quickly and more

completely than would otherwise be the case, and further appropriate ‘post incident’

management can minimise the financial and operational impact, as well as ensuring the

crew are appropriately looked after. Prudent management of the release, repatriation and

‘post incident’ support will benefit crew, ship owners and underwriters. In many cases the

entire crew have returned to sea with the same company, with the confidence that, having

been supported through the toughest of times, the company will continue to act in their

best interests.”

Source: UK P&I Club

INSERE 30/08/16 DOSSIER ENLEVE 30/09/16

Responsible Cargo Tank Cleaning – Washing Water Analysis (part 2)*

The ability to monitor tank cleaning ‘live’, without putting people into the cargo tanks is

clearly the greatest strength of this process.

Other strengths are directly related to the optimisation of all tank cleaning procedures that

as mentioned earlier, would otherwise not be possible to achieve without washing water

analysis. If indeed it were possible to reduce a four hour hot water washing cycle to two

hours, this is not just a one-off time saving of two hours; it is potentially a two hour time

saving per cargo tank, which quickly adds up, particularly when one considers how many

times chemical tankers clean with hot water every month.

The fuel savings naturally follow, but this is not just savings in US dollars, there is a very

real and positive reduction in carbon dioxide emissions:

For example:

Each hour of hot water washing can consume as much as 0.6 tonnes of HFO or MGO

(in the boiler and the auxiliary engines).

From published literature, combustion of 1 tonne of HFO releases about 3.2 tonnes

of CO2..

So each hour of hot water washing burns 0.6 tonnes of fuel, which in turn frees 1.9

tonnes of CO2 into the atmosphere.

Saving two hours of hot water washing per tank therefore saves 1.2 tonnes of fuel

and reduces CO2 emissions by 3.8 tonnes.

Saving two hours of hot water washing in 10 cargo tanks saves 12 tonnes of fuel

and reduces CO2 emissions by 38 tonnes.

Saving two hours of hot water washing in 10 cargo tanks once every month saves

144 tonnes of fuel and reduces CO2 emissions by 456 tonnes per year.

Saving two hours of hot water washing in 10 cargo tanks once every month in a

fleet of 12 vessels saves 1,728 tonnes of fuel and reduces CO2 emissions by

5,472 tonnes per year.

Hot water washing is an integral part of all tank cleaning operations, but it is expensive in

many ways, not just monetary, and needs to be effectively and safely controlled.

Similarly, the use of cleaning chemicals can also be far more carefully controlled and again,

this has the potential to reduce the environmental impact of the vessel by limiting the

amount of detergents discharged to sea. All tank cleaning chemicals are regulated by the

IMO in terms of their impact on aquatic life, but it goes without saying that if cleaning

chemicals are not required for a specific cleaning operation, or they can be used at a lower

concentration, the environmental benefits are absolutely evident. Equally, if a cleaning

chemical can be used for more than one cargo tank, then this will reduce the amount of

waste detergents discharged overboard. Monitoring the use of cleaning chemicals can only

be carried out using washing water analysis for the same reasons noted earlier.

The following graph is taken from a zinc silicate coated chemical tanker cleaning from ultra-

low sulphur diesel using a water based detergent:

It becomes evident from the washing water analysis that the most significant cleaning

effect occurs during the early stages of the chemical recirculation, but thereafter, there is

little or no benefit of continuing the cleaning beyond three hours. In this specific case, the

vessel from which this information was derived, always cleaned for six hours (historically),

but on the strength of this data, has subsequently cut the time for chemical recirculation

in half, without losing any cleaning efficiency.

This is another way of saying that one of the key strengths of washing water analysis is

environmental impact and this should not be over-looked.

The first potential weakness could actually result in a significant commercial strength.

As noted, washing water analysis is, and really can only ever be, a live process. In other

words, it is carried out by the vessel’s crew at sea, meaning there is little or no scope for

independent verification of the process. This could be seen as a weakness or stumbling

block if, as suggested at this start of this discussion, washing water analysis is to be used

as a replacement for the traditional, existing pre-loading inspection processes, which are

presently carried out by the independent inspection companies.

Indeed, there has been fairly vocal disagreement of this process from one of the main

international inspection companies, which is not completely unexpected when it is accepted

that inspecting tankers prior to loading is part of the inspection companies’ core business.

But when one considers that a wall wash inspection endorses confined space entry, at the

same time providing no guarantee that a vessel can load the next nominated cargo without

risk of contamination, the dissent of the inspection companies is probably more driven by

loss of revenue, rather than a real desire to protect the loaded cargo.

In reality, if washing water analysis can be used in preference to wall wash analysis, to

determine that a vessel is load ready, there are huge benefits to be gained by the very

companies who employ (and therefore pay for) the independent inspections - the cargo

interests.

That said, and as suggested in the introduction to this discussion, it could be perceived as

a quantum leap to present “washing water analysis” as an alternative cargo tank inspection

process, when one considers how entrenched the wall wash inspection is in the chemical

market. But it is not that far-fetched when the undeniable and irreparable flaws of the wall

wash inspection are recognised and accepted. It cannot be denied that the wall wash

inspection has been a major part of the chemical tanker business for decades, but just

because it has been around for many years, does not make it more valid or less unsound.

The simple fact of the matter is that the wall wash inspection is a random, nonreproducible,

legally worthless, spot test, generally taken from the lower 2-3 m of the cargo tank, very

often using a solvent that in many cases bears no resemblance to how the loaded cargo

might react or interact with the inside of the cargo tank and thus having little influence on

whether the loaded cargo will become contaminated or not.

Washing water analysis may not be the perfect solution, but it is far more representative

of the entire cargo tank and cargo line system and it is also more robust in so much that

the sampling process is reproducible. There are of course limitations, as follows, and these

need to be recognised, but the same limitations generally apply equally to the wall wash

inspection, so there is actually no change in responsibility or liability with regard to the

quality of the shipped cargo.

First, cargoes that are known to be absorbed and retained into cargo tank linings need to

be carefully considered. That said, one of the most effective ways of removing cargo

residues that are absorbed into linings is to evaporate them by increasing the temperature

inside the cargo tank, usually using hot water.

The vast majority of cargoes that are retained in the linings are volatile and at least partly

soluble in water, making them readily detectable in the washing water, which at least gives

scope to identify whether the cargo is being removed or not.

Looking at the wall wash inspection and how it is used to identify the presence of retained

previous cargoes, it has to be accepted that one of the main flaws of the wall wash is the

contact time of the solvent on the bulkhead.

In most cases, the contact time is so small that the wall wash sample cannot extract the

cargo residues that are retained in the linings. In other words, a successful wall wash

sample does not necessarily mean the lining is free from the prior cargo, which in the worst

case may give a false-positive to cargo interests that the next cargo can be loaded without

risk of contamination.

The absorption and retention of prior cargoes into cargo tank linings is a complex area of

the chemical tanker business that needs sound understanding rather than acceptance of

an inspection process that is actually not appropriate.

Second, additional consideration needs to be given to cargoes that have a very low UV

response, because clearly, washing water analysis is reliant on being able to identify the

presence of trace levels of previous cargo residues using UV spectroscopy. In such cases,

there are generally alternative checks that can be carried out. The most common group of

cargoes that have a very low UV response are inorganic acids and alkalis, but of course

such cargoes are characterised by their pH in water, meaning the UV scan can be effectively

replaced by pH measurement. When the washing water is pH neutral, it can be considered

as free from the previous cargo and the cargo tank can be considered as clean.

Moreover, cargoes that are inherently insoluble in water also tend to have a low UV

response because the concentration of that cargo in the water is so low. But in the majority

of cases, solubility increases in hot water and it is found that even cargoes, such as mineral

oil have sufficient solubility in hot water to be identifiable.

The following graph represents the final 30 mins of cleaning from mineral oil with hot fresh

water and shows clearly the decline in UV response down to a point where after 30 mins,

there is no longer any trace of the mineral oil cargo:

In this case, the cargo tank was visually inspected after the completion of the hot water

washing and found to be free from oil. The use of washing water analysis to confirm that

a cargo tank is free from an Annex I cargo is an added benefit, especially if that cargo tank

needs to be cleaned further to load an Annex II cargo.

This article is not the forum to discuss this subject, which the author accepts is a moot

point, but there are cases of vessels cleaning cargo tanks from Annex I to Annex II using

washing water analysis to provide additional information to MARPOL, that the cargo tanks

and lines are free from oil.

The wall wash inspection also suffers from solubility of the previous cargo into the wall

wash solvent. Methanol is the most commonly used solvent, because it is readily available,

relatively inexpensive and it has the ability to dissolve both organic and inorganic residues.

But there are limitations, which in the worst cases, will again manifest themselves as a

false positive wall wash result, giving cargo interests inaccurate information.

Contrary to the above example of cleaning from mineral oil, when cleaning from cargoes

that are partly or completely soluble in water, the UV response is generally far more

pronounced and the opportunity to monitor tank cleaning without entering the cargo tanks

is significant.

This first example is taken from a stainless steel vessel cleaning from styrene monomer:

According to one of the main industry standard tank cleaning guidelines, cleaning from

styrene monomer to a wall wash standard requires a minimum cleaning of:

1. Two hours ambient seawater washing.

2. One hour seawater washing at 50 deg C.

3. Twenty mins ambient freshwater washing.

4. Optional recirculation with chemicals based on preliminary wall wash results.

The following data shows the washing water analysis which demonstrates that after 62

mins of cleaning, there was less than 1 ppm styrene monomer in the cargo tanks and lines

from COT 4P.

The vessel saved a minimum of 1 hour 18 mins compared to the industry standard

guideline, before going on to successfully load/discharge a cargo of MEG fibre grade.

The next example is taken from a vessel with epoxy phenolic coated cargo tanks cleaning

from fatty acid methyl ester (FAME) to ethyl acetate.

According to another of the main industry standard tank cleaning guidelines, cleaning from

FAME to a high purity standard requires a minimum cleaning of:

1. Two hours seawater washing at 50 deg C.

2. One hour chemical recirculation at 50 deg C.

3. Two hours seawater washing at 60 deg C.

4. Twenty mins ambient freshwater washing. In this case, the following data

also shows how the vessel was able to clean much quicker than the

recommendation of the industry guideline:

The first graph represents the initial washing with seawater at 50 deg C:

At this stage, the data shows the following key points:

1. After 30 mins washing with seawater at 50 deg C, there is still a significant

amount of previous cargo in the washing water.

2. After 45 mins washing with seawater at 50 deg C, the amount of previous

cargo has been reduced.

3. After 60 mins washing with seawater at 50 deg C, the amount of previous

cargo in the washing water is almost the same as it was at 45 mins,

suggesting that this cleaning step is no longer effectively removing the

previous cargo residues.

Even though the cleaning guideline suggested washing with seawater for two hours at 50

deg C, the washing water data shows that this is actually not necessary, because the

maximum efficacy of washing with seawater at 50 deg C has been reached at one hour.

This is the trigger that the vessel can use to switch from one cleaning step to the next,

without having to stop the cleaning and put people inside the cargo tanks. Without washing

water analysis, this would not be possible.

The vessel then moved onto step 2 of the cleaning, which involved recirculation with a

water based detergent for one hour at 50 deg C; thereafter, the vessel started washing

out with clean seawater at 60 deg C. The red line on the following graph represents the

quality of the washing water 15 mins into this washing out cycle:

It is quite apparent that the quality of the washing water has deteriorated.

Washing out with seawater at 60 deg C was on going and another sample was taken 30

mins into the cleaning step:

It is now very apparent that the washing water contains no traces whatsoever of the

previous cargo and indeed, the observed ‘flatline’ essentially means that the quality of the

washing water leaving the cargo tank is the same as the quality of the washing water

entering the cargo tank. In other words, the tank should be clean at this stage. The tank

was then washed out with hot freshwater to remove the seawater residues and was

confirmed to be clean to load the next cargo by visual inspection, at which time, the cargo

tank was also mopped and dried.

Only one person entry per cargo tank per cleaning operation was needed.

Future Potential

If it is accepted that washing water analysis can be used as a more than viable alternative

to internal/wall wash inspection procedures, the benefits are shared equally between

charterers, suppliers and operators.

1) Reduced CSE for vessels’ crews - As noted this is one of the primary objectives.

Without washing water analysis, a typical tank cleaning operation may involve four or five

separate requirements for one person (or multiple people) to enter each cargo tank.

If this can be reduced to one person entry per cargo tank per tank cleaning operation,

there is immediately a 75 – 80% reduction in CSE. There are now owners and commercial

operators of chemical tankers involved with the carriage of high purity, sensitive, chemical

cargoes who have adopted this process, without any negative impact on the operation of

the vessel.

2) No pre-inspections at other/lay-by berths - It is common practice, particularly in the

larger ports where there are multiple loading/discharging terminals, that many

charterers/shippers require a vessel to be ‘pre-inspected’ before berthing for loading.

Presumably this is recognition of the scenario that if a vessel fails the load port inspection

there is an instant delay, which immediately has a knock-on effect on the logistics of that

terminal and the schedule of the vessel at the cargo receivers’ facilities.

But it is also becoming apparent that many shippers/suppliers actually have safety

procedures in place that treat loading terminals on a par with the chemical manufacturing

plants, where interestingly, CSE is largely prohibited. Clearly, this means it is no longer

feasible to have persons (vessels’ crew, surveyors, terminal representatives) entering the

cargo tanks whilst the vessel is alongside.

In such cases, if there was no preinspection, the vessel would not be able to start loading,

but just because the inspection is being carried out ‘somewhere else’ (at anchorage or a

lay-by berth) does not make CSE any safer. One could say that this somehow endorses

CSE as being ‘acceptable’ if the endorser cannot see it taking place? CSE can never be

considered as acceptable. What is far more acceptable is having the vessel confirm that

the cargo tanks are load ready at sea, using washing water analysis, thus removing the

need for any preinspection prior to loading.

3) No cargo tank entry when the vessel is alongside - As noted above, many terminals now

prohibit person entry into the cargo tanks whilst the vessel is alongside the loading jetty.

But as long as the cargo interests demand internal cargo tank inspections, they are

exposing their third party partners (the cargo surveyors) to unsafe practices.

In order to justify this, cargo interests must take out additional insurance to cover the

surveyors, because it is clearly recognised that cargo tank entry is unacceptably hazardous

above and beyond what a cargo surveyor would otherwise be expected to carry out in the

course of his/her daily work.

Again, by negating the need for independent cargo tank inspection, the safety risks (and

insurance requirements) are completely removed.

4) Much improved logistics for the cargo suppliers/significant reduction in ‘time alongside’

for the vessels - Cargo interests already know the value of ensuring that a vessel is load

ready prior to berthing alongside the loading jetty, which is one of the reasons why the

pre-inspection was introduced.

The same benefits are achievable without the pre-inspection and knowledge that any vessel

can come alongside, connect and start loading without delay, allows the shipper to schedule

the jetty with far greater confidence, particularly if that jetty is fully occupied. Moreover,

the receiver can be better informed when the cargo will be delivered, which essentially

provides far greater control of the entire logistics chain. There are now real examples of

vessels saving days (not hours) using this process, which is additional earning potential for

the vessels’ owners, charterers and also the shippers. This is not biased towards one part

of the chain, the potential is shared equally.

5) Nitrogen - From January 2016, the industry is implementing new rules relating to cargo

tank inerting with nitrogen. It needs to be understood that whilst these rules will enhance

the safety of the carriage of flammable cargoes, the risks associated with CSE are only

likely to escalate. There will be real cases where a vessel presents for loading and is being

inspected with some cargo tanks empty, some cargo tanks cleaned, some cargo tanks

loaded and all cargo tanks potentially containing nitrogen. Nitrogen is colourless and

odourless and does not give second chances. One small mistake of inspecting the wrong

tank, could be fatal.

In the author’s opinion, washing water analysis has the potential to completely reshape

tank cleaning in the future, putting the focus onto quality measurements, rather than

historical success. Vessels will be empowered to develop more efficient cleaning

operations, which have less impact on the environment and of course are significantly safer

for the vessels’ crews.

As with current practices, the ultimate responsibility for the quality of the loaded cargo,

falls onto the owner of the vessel, regardless of whether the cargo tanks are not

independently inspected, inspected from deck level only, internally inspected or wall

washed. As long as the vessel is responsible, give the responsibility to the vessel.

Of course, it is not always that simple. The (increasing) reliance on pre-inspection is stifling

innovation and in many cases pushing vessels to breaking point, because it is now common

to see wall wash specifications that are stricter than the quality of the cargo being loaded.

Charterers still seem to have blind faith in the wall wash inspection, even though it can

now be proven that passing the wall wash does not guarantee that the next cargo will be

loaded and discharged on specification.

Moreover, for the growing number of charterers who have a strong enough relationship

with the shipowner to endorse washing water analysis in place of internal cargo tank

inspections, it can equally be proven that sensitive chemical cargoes can be successfully

loaded and discharged without having to pass the wall wash inspection.

If one fatality can be avoided because washing water analysis was used to replace a pre-

inspection and the cargo can still be accepted by the receivers, then the process is

undoubtedly a success; which ultimately begs the final question: Which has a higher price?

Cargo or life?

*This concludes the two -part article written by Guy Johnson, Director, L&I Maritime (UK) Ltd; Tel +44 1909 532003;

Email - guy.johnson@limaritime.com

INSERE 30/08/16 BOEKEN LIVRES BOOKS ENLEVE 30/09/16

Oesterpassie

B O E K B E S P R E K I N G door: Frank NEYTS

Naar aanleiding van de tentoonstelling ‘Oesterpassie”, deze zomer in het Nationaal

Visserijmuseum Oostduinkerke (deelgemeente van de badplaats Koksijde aan de Belgische

Kust), heeft de Stichting Kunstboek, in samenwerking met dit zelfde visserijmuseum en

het gemeentebestuur van Koksijde een buitengewoon interessant boekje uitgegeven onder

de gelijknamige titel. Vanaf het moment dat de mens oesters kon proeven, was hij meteen

verkocht. Al sinds de oudheid maken de unieke biologie, de onvergetelijke smaak, de

vermeende geneeskrachtige eigenschappen en de erotisch geladen symboliek van de

oester een enigmatische maar bijzonder gewaardeerde delicatesse. Op het einde van de

19de eeuw hadden de platte ‘Royales d’Ostende’ of ‘Ostendaises’ de reputatie de

allerfijnste te zijn. Het hoeft dus niet te verwonderen dat deze zilte zaligheden onmisbaar

waren op de menukaarten van de toenmalige jetset.

‘Oesterpassie’ neemt de lezer mee op een zintuiglijke verkenning van de intrigerende

‘Ostrea edulis’. Van de Romeinse excessen tot het bord van de cisterciënzermonniken, van

de smakelijke geschiedenis van de roemrijke ‘Ostendaise’ tot de erotische connotaties in

kunst en literatuur.‘Oesterpassie’ (ISBN 978-90-5856-520-4) werd op handig formaat

als hardback uitgegeven en telt 97 pagina’s. Het boekje kost 19,95 euro en aankopen kan

via de boekhandel. Het boekje werd uitgegeven door Stichting Kunstboek, Legeweg 165,

B-8020 Oostkamp, België. Tel +32 (0)50.46.19.10, Fax +32 (0)50.46.19.18, E-mail:

info@stichtingkunstboek.com.

INSERE 01/09/16 NIEUWS NEWS NOUVELLES ENLEVE 01/10/16

The quest for the unmanned ship

Projects across Europe to develop technologies that could pave the way for the

development of unmanned vessels are gaining in funding and support, while one of the

earliest projects on the subject draws to a close and reports its findings

Rolls-Royce is to lead a new two year €6.6 million project that it says could pave the way

for the introduction of autonomous ships, as one of a number of projects investigating the

feasibility of the future introduction of unmanned vessels.

The Advanced

Autonomous

Waterborne

Applications

Initiative, a

project funded

by Tekes

(Finnish

Funding Agency

for Technology

and

Innovation),

will produce the

specification and preliminary designs for a range of advanced ship solutions in the area of

unmanned vessel operation.

The project will bring together universities, ship designers, equipment manufacturers, and

classification societies to explore the economic, social, legal, regulatory and technological

factors which need to be addressed before autonomous ships can become a reality.

This will include an examination of research carried out to date before exploring the

business case for autonomous applications, the safety and security implications of

designing and operating remotely operated ships, the legal and regulatory implications and

the existence and readiness of a supplier network able to deliver commercially applicable

products in the short to medium term.

The technological work stream, which will be led by Rolls-Royce, will encompass the

implications of remote control and autonomy of ships for propulsion, deck machinery and

automation and control, using, where possible, established technology for rapid

commercialisation.

The project will run until the end of 2017 and will combine the expertise of academic

researchers from Tampere University of Technology; VTT Technical Research Centre of

Finland Ltd; Åbo Akademi University; Aalto University; and the University of Turku.

Other maritime industry stakeholders, including NAPA, Deltamarin, DNV GL and Inmarsat,

are also set to take part.

The Rolls-Royce Blue Ocean team, which works on research and development of future

maritime technologies, says it has developed a range of autonomous ship concepts as well

as new designs for various ship types, which will be investigated during the project.

“Rolls-Royce has extensive experience of successfully coordinating multi-disciplinary teams

developing complex technologies,” said Esa Jokioinen, head of the Blue Ocean Team at

Rolls-Royce.

“We bring a world leading range of capabilities in the marine market to the project including

vessel design, the integration of complex systems and the supply and support of power

and propulsion equipment. We are excited to be taking the first concrete steps towards

making remote controlled and autonomous ship applications a reality.”

Norway weighs in

In addition to the work Rolls Royce is doing, researchers in Norway are also getting in on

the act, with the Department of Engineering Cybernetics at the Norwegian University of

Science and Technology (NTNU) leading a new KnowledgeBuilding Project for Industry that

will study collision avoidance for advanced ships.

The AUTOSEA project is sponsored by the Research Council of Norway, with DNV GL,

Kongsberg Maritime and Maritime Robotics as industry partners.

The project intends to focus on automated situation awareness using sensor fusion to

reduce the risk of collisions between ships and vehicles when an increased level of

autonomy is introduced.

To improve detection capabilities for small and close-range objects, the AUTOSEA project

will, in addition to conventional maritime radar, include sensor types not normally used for

such purposes in the shipping sector, like cameras, infrared technology and LIDAR.

The project partners note that, for the systems to be successful, it will be necessary to

resolve conflicts between sensors, and to interpret and support decisions in situations of

ambiguity. An increased degree of autonomy for oceangoing vehicles also needs to comply

with the COLREGs.

"The last decade has witnessed a substantial progress towards increased autonomy both

for land vehicles, aerial vehicles, and underwater vehicles. However, ocean surface vehicles

represent a different context and more complex challenges that requires substantial

research," said Edmund Brekke, associate professor at the NTNU’s Department of

Engineering Cybernetics.

"The primary objective of the research project is to gain competence and knowledge of

multi-sensor data fusion, in order to provide a solid foundation for the qualification of

autonomous marine technology."

The project is divided into four areas: sensor fusion, collision avoidance, system

architecture, and experiments. Sensor fusion involves detection and tracking of moving

objects during navigation and manoeuvring using imaging sensors, while collision

avoidance will investigate both proactive and reactive methods of staying out of harm's

way.

The system architecture will consider reliability, handling of erroneous data and adaptation

of strategies from the automotive and aerospace industries.

Experiments will be used to validate and demonstrate COLREGs-compliant navigation and

control, and to assess detection capabilities using different sensors.

MUNIN

With these two projects officially in their early stages, one of the early unmanned vessel

research initiatives, MUNIN, is now drawing to a close.

The concluding event for the MUNIN autonomous ship research project has already been

held, with the results of three years of research to be published at the end of August.

The final project event at the University of Technology of Hamburg-Harburg introduced the

results achieved so far to the project partners through a series of presentations and live

demonstrations.

MUNIN, led by Fraunhofer CML, began in September 2012, and brought together eight

European partners from Germany (University of Applied Sciences Wismar, MarineSoft,

Fraunhofer CML), Norway (MARINTEK, aptomar), Sweden (Chalmers University), Iceland

(Marorka) and Ireland (University College Cork) to examine the concept of an

autonomously operating ship during the 36 month project term.

Areas covered included communication architecture, risk and economic efficiency,

autonomous engine maintenance, and connectivity with shore control centres.

The final project event also included an ‘Unmanned Bridgé running in the ship handling

simulator of the CML, where simulated ships were required to conduct evasive actions

autonomously and according to the international regulations for preventing collisions at

sea.

This included the use of an ‘Automated Lookout System’ developed within the project,

which can recognise small objects on the water surface.

Further information on the project can be found at www.unmanned-ship.org/munin. ns