WHAT IS A FOREST?WHAT IS A FOREST?Simply a tract of woodland with dense growth of Simply a tract of woodland with dense growth of trees and underbrush covering a large tract of landtrees and underbrush covering a large tract of land

1 ACRE=43, 560 sq. feet1 ACRE=43, 560 sq. feet

1 MILE=5, 280 feet1 MILE=5, 280 feet

Ecosystem-Ecosystem-defined as an interaction system defined as an interaction system composed of living organisms together with their composed of living organisms together with their non-living environment made up of soil, water, non-living environment made up of soil, water, many plants (besides trees & shrubs) and a wide many plants (besides trees & shrubs) and a wide variety of animal life from insects to whitetail deervariety of animal life from insects to whitetail deer

Processes follow daily and annual cyclesProcesses follow daily and annual cycles

Multiple Use:Multiple Use: to be engaged in more than one to be engaged in more than one activity at a given timeactivity at a given time

Recycling:Recycling: nutrients and other materials tend to nutrients and other materials tend to move in circular paths within an move in circular paths within an ecosystemecosystem

COMPETITION IS SEVERE IN THE FORESTCOMPETITION IS SEVERE IN THE FOREST

- includes-births, deaths, respiration, - includes-births, deaths, respiration, transpiration and photosynthesistranspiration and photosynthesis

PHYSICAL DESCRIPTIONPHYSICAL DESCRIPTION

What about the physical description of a forest?What about the physical description of a forest?

TREE CLASSIFICATIONTREE CLASSIFICATIONForestors use classification to determine managerial Forestors use classification to determine managerial

plans for each stand:plans for each stand:METHODS:METHODS:

* HEIGHT* HEIGHT* DBH-4 ½ feet above ground* DBH-4 ½ feet above ground

CATEGORIES:CATEGORIES:Seedlings-up to 3 feet highSeedlings-up to 3 feet highSaplings-3’ to 10’ highSaplings-3’ to 10’ highPoletimber-4” to 12” in diameterPoletimber-4” to 12” in diameterSawtimber-12” or more in diameterSawtimber-12” or more in diameter

CROWN POSITION:CROWN POSITION:

Dominant-CoDominant-Intermediate-SuppressedDominant-CoDominant-Intermediate-Suppressed

SHADE TOLERANCE:SHADE TOLERANCE:

Tolerant:Tolerant: can survive on low light can survive on low light

Intolerant:Intolerant: requires bright light requires bright light

Visit the Columbia County Conservation District to Visit the Columbia County Conservation District to locate your property in a soil survey or visit on-locate your property in a soil survey or visit on-line property viewers like a GPS line property viewers like a GPS

United States Geological Survey Map (Topo Map) United States Geological Survey Map (Topo Map) that includes your propertythat includes your property

-Elevation changes-Elevation changes -Drainage Patterns-Drainage Patterns

Sound planning and management depends on Sound planning and management depends on knowing what you ownknowing what you own

BOUNDARY MARKINGS:BOUNDARY MARKINGS:Temporary Markings:Temporary Markings: colored flagging colored flaggingPermanent Markings:Permanent Markings: painting selected trees painting selected treesThese types of markings will highlight your These types of markings will highlight your

propertypropertyWITNESS TREES:WITNESS TREES: normally trees described by normally trees described by

their species, distance and compass direction from their species, distance and compass direction from permanent monumentspermanent monuments

LINE TREES:LINE TREES: trees actually on the line are trees actually on the line are referred as the property of both referred as the property of both ownersowners

SPECIES IDENTIFICATION:SPECIES IDENTIFICATION:

Management of forest for any objective involves Management of forest for any objective involves the management of vegetationthe management of vegetation

AGE COMPOSITION:AGE COMPOSITION:

EVEN-AGEDEVEN-AGED=all trees close to same age=all trees close to same age

*produced by physical or environmental *produced by physical or environmental conditions:conditions:

-FIRE-FIRE -CLEARCUTTINGS-CLEARCUTTINGS

-TORNADOES-TORNADOES -PLANTINGS-PLANTINGS

UNEVEN AGED STANDSUNEVEN AGED STANDS= Contain trees that = Contain trees that range from young seedlings to mature sawtimberrange from young seedlings to mature sawtimber

TREES IN EVEN-AGED STAND OFTEN TREES IN EVEN-AGED STAND OFTEN REPRESENTS SHADE INTOLERANT REPRESENTS SHADE INTOLERANT SPECIESSPECIES

STOCKINGSTOCKING

3 TYPES:3 TYPES:

* Dense=over 70% of crown closure* Dense=over 70% of crown closure

* Thin=40% to 70% crown closure* Thin=40% to 70% crown closure

* Poorly=under 40% crown closure* Poorly=under 40% crown closure

**UNDER-STOCKEDUNDER-STOCKED-does not produce at -does not produce at its its most efficient timber most efficient timber

producing levelsproducing levels

OVER-STOCKEDOVER-STOCKED=stagnation is likely to occur; =stagnation is likely to occur; growth will slow due growth will slow due

to to limited light, water limited light, water and soil and soil nutrientsnutrients

EVERGREENSEVERGREENS-plants that retain their green -plants that retain their green leaves all yearleaves all year

Example-Rhododendron, juniper, pinesExample-Rhododendron, juniper, pines

*Hardwood/deciduous-*Hardwood/deciduous- loses their leaves annually loses their leaves annually

*Softwood/conifer-*Softwood/conifer- cone bearing cone bearing

FOREST COVER TYPESFOREST COVER TYPES

Natural group or association of different species of Natural group or association of different species of trees which commonly occur together over trees which commonly occur together over large areaslarge areas

2 MOST COMMON IN PENNSYLVANIA:2 MOST COMMON IN PENNSYLVANIA:

1.1. OAK-HICKORYOAK-HICKORY

2.2. BEECH-MAPLE-BIRCHBEECH-MAPLE-BIRCH

COMBINATION OF TERMSCOMBINATION OF TERMS

Uneven-aged, well stocked, oak-hickory standUneven-aged, well stocked, oak-hickory stand

RECYCLINGRECYCLINGNutrients and other materials tend to move in Nutrients and other materials tend to move in

circular paths within an ecosystemcircular paths within an ecosystemCOMPETITION IS SEVERE IN THE FORESTCOMPETITION IS SEVERE IN THE FOREST

-INCLUDES BIRTHS, DEATHS, -INCLUDES BIRTHS, DEATHS, RESPIRATION, TRANSPIRATION AND RESPIRATION, TRANSPIRATION AND PHOTOSYNTHESISPHOTOSYNTHESIS

PHYSICAL DESCRIPTIONPHYSICAL DESCRIPTIONWhat about the physical description of a forest?What about the physical description of a forest?

- To qualify as a forest- To qualify as a forest* Group of trees must have crowns (tops) that are * Group of trees must have crowns (tops) that are

close enough to touch togetherclose enough to touch together

To create rather dense shade in the understoryTo create rather dense shade in the understory

VeneerVeneer-also tends to have seasonal market cycles -also tends to have seasonal market cycles that are the highest during the that are the highest during the

late fall, late fall, winter and early spring winter and early spring monthsmonths

GERARD FORM CLASS=GERARD FORM CLASS=

MERCHANTIBLE HEIGHT:MERCHANTIBLE HEIGHT:

FORMULA:FORMULA:

DIBDIB X 100=% OF MH X 100=% OF MH

DBHDBH

MANAGING YOUR WOODLANDSMANAGING YOUR WOODLANDS

FOR GREATER PROFITSFOR GREATER PROFITSResource evaluation involves assessing the physical Resource evaluation involves assessing the physical

and biological characteristics of your woodland and biological characteristics of your woodland and is an important step in managing your and is an important step in managing your woodland for greater profitwoodland for greater profit

GETTING STARTED:GETTING STARTED:

List your ownership objectives:List your ownership objectives:

*Legal description of your property*Legal description of your property

- Columbia County Courthouse- Columbia County Courthouse

- Know your boundaries of your woodland before - Know your boundaries of your woodland before you begin any management activityyou begin any management activity- Check with NRCS (Natural Resources - Check with NRCS (Natural Resources

Conservation Service)Conservation Service)- aerial photographs of property- aerial photographs of property

In Pennsylvania, 115 commonly occurring trees:In Pennsylvania, 115 commonly occurring trees:- 16 to 20 species have commercial value:- 16 to 20 species have commercial value:

- Oak- Oak - Cherry- Cherry- Maple- Maple - Walnut- Walnut

Identification methods:Identification methods:-leaves-leaves -buds-buds -fruit-fruit -bark-bark --twigstwigs

TREE MEASUREMENTS:TREE MEASUREMENTS:

Diameter=most commonDiameter=most common

nearest even 2” classnearest even 2” class

Tree HeightTree Height= referred to either as total height or = referred to either as total height or merchantable heightmerchantable height

TOTAL HEIGHTTOTAL HEIGHT= Distance from ground level to = Distance from ground level to top of crowntop of crown

Merchantable HeightMerchantable Height= distance from stump height = distance from stump height to the top of the to the top of the

merchantable merchantable material in the material in the treetree

STUMP HEIGHTSTUMP HEIGHT= = 1 foot above the ground1 foot above the groundMERCHANTABLE HEIGHTMERCHANTABLE HEIGHT= Stops where = Stops where

major branches occur or where the diameter major branches occur or where the diameter inside bark (DIB) is less than 8 inchesinside bark (DIB) is less than 8 inches

PULPWOOD STANDARDSPULPWOOD STANDARDS= allows for a = allows for a minimum DIB of 4”minimum DIB of 4”

Natural pruning occurs because the lower shaded Natural pruning occurs because the lower shaded limbs of many trees die from a lack of sun and limbs of many trees die from a lack of sun and too much competitiontoo much competition

Other criteria that has to be met for wooded areas to Other criteria that has to be met for wooded areas to be a forest is that there should be an be a forest is that there should be an accumulation of organic material (OM) covering accumulation of organic material (OM) covering the mineral soil of the forest floorthe mineral soil of the forest floor

FOREST CLASSIFICATIONFOREST CLASSIFICATION

2 Types of Forest:2 Types of Forest:

Pure Stand- Pure Stand- nearly all trees are of the same speciesnearly all trees are of the same species

Mixed Stand- Mixed Stand- composed of 2 or more speciescomposed of 2 or more species

STAND=group of trees growing in a continuous STAND=group of trees growing in a continuous areaarea

Forest fires help to create environmental conditions Forest fires help to create environmental conditions conducive to pure stand development due to the conducive to pure stand development due to the lack of sunlight.lack of sunlight.

Eventually, these limbs break off and fall to the Eventually, these limbs break off and fall to the ground leaving the trunk of the tree relatively ground leaving the trunk of the tree relatively clear.clear.

STAND DENSITYSTAND DENSITY::

Methods for classifying forest:Methods for classifying forest:

DENSITY BY VOLUME:DENSITY BY VOLUME:

Number of cubic feet of wood in Number of cubic feet of wood in merchantable stems (pulpwood merchantable stems (pulpwood

and and sawlogs) being supported per sawlogs) being supported per acre of acre of groundground

BASAL AREA:BASAL AREA:

Number of square feet in a cross section of tree Number of square feet in a cross section of tree trunks at diameter breast heighttrunks at diameter breast height

For Example:For Example:

DBH of 2 feet, will contribute 3.14 sq. ft. to the DBH of 2 feet, will contribute 3.14 sq. ft. to the basal areabasal area

3 VOLUME RULES FOR LOGS:3 VOLUME RULES FOR LOGS:

Scribner-Doyle-InternationalScribner-Doyle-International

Species, size and quality are not the only factors Species, size and quality are not the only factors affecting the price for the buyer and selleraffecting the price for the buyer and seller

Additional factors such as:Additional factors such as:

- Crossing streams and standing water (wetlands)- Crossing streams and standing water (wetlands)

- Road building costs- Road building costs

- Number of trees per acre- Number of trees per acre

- Local and regional demand for material- Local and regional demand for material

BASIC UNIT OF HEIGHT/LENGTH BASIC UNIT OF HEIGHT/LENGTH MEASUREMENT IS A LOG WHICH IS 16 MEASUREMENT IS A LOG WHICH IS 16 FEET IN LENGTHFEET IN LENGTH

The combined information of age and height of The combined information of age and height of trees in a stand is a direct measure of the trees in a stand is a direct measure of the STAND’S VIGORSTAND’S VIGOR

It also is an indirect measure of the quality of the It also is an indirect measure of the quality of the site for growing treessite for growing trees

INCREMENT BORERINCREMENT BORER: is an tool used to : is an tool used to determine tree determine tree

ageage

FOR MANAGEMENT, DEVELOP A MAP FOR MANAGEMENT, DEVELOP A MAP SHOWING MAJOR FEATURES AND SHOWING MAJOR FEATURES AND OUTLINING THE DIFFERENT STANDS OUTLINING THE DIFFERENT STANDS THAT OCCUR ON YOUR WOODLAND THAT OCCUR ON YOUR WOODLAND PROPERTYPROPERTY

The number of species decrease with extremes in The number of species decrease with extremes in environmental conditionsenvironmental conditions

MIXED STANDSMIXED STANDS

Most of Pennsylvania is a mixed standMost of Pennsylvania is a mixed stand

2 Reasons for Mixed Forests:2 Reasons for Mixed Forests:

1.1. 102 native species to PA102 native species to PA

2.2. Most species can survive a broad range of Most species can survive a broad range of environmental conditionsenvironmental conditions

PURE STANDS:PURE STANDS: Mainly due to man’s activities Mainly due to man’s activities

Abandon Fields or Forest FiresAbandon Fields or Forest Fires

Example: White pine and aspenExample: White pine and aspen

3 Factors affecting growth:3 Factors affecting growth:

*Species*Species * Soil Condition* Soil Condition *Light*Light

Formula for area of circle:Formula for area of circle:

Number of stems per acreNumber of stems per acre (difficult to measure)(difficult to measure)

Crown Closure:Crown Closure:

Amount of forest canopy that will be occupied by Amount of forest canopy that will be occupied by tree tops as opposed to the amount of openings tree tops as opposed to the amount of openings permitting light to hit the forest floorpermitting light to hit the forest floor

Unit of Measure: Unit of Measure: For fuel-wood is the standard For fuel-wood is the standard cord which is 8’ long X 4’ cord which is 8’ long X 4’ wide X 4’ highwide X 4’ high

Cord contains 128 cubic feet of volume and Cord contains 128 cubic feet of volume and between 60 and 100 cubic feet of solid woodbetween 60 and 100 cubic feet of solid wood

Fuel-wood value can vary from $2.00 to $20.00 per Fuel-wood value can vary from $2.00 to $20.00 per cord cord on the stumpon the stump

Stumpage=Stumpage= refers to wood standing un-cut in the refers to wood standing un-cut in the woodlandwoodland

Pulpwood=Pulpwood= is material having a minimum DBH of is material having a minimum DBH of 6” and a maximum DBH of 20”6” and a maximum DBH of 20”

SawlogsSawlogs= normally are harvested from trees that = normally are harvested from trees that are 12” DBH and largerare 12” DBH and larger

6 MAJOR SPECIES:6 MAJOR SPECIES:

*WHITE ASH*WHITE ASH *RED MAPLE*RED MAPLE

*RED OAK*RED OAK *SUGAR MAPLE*SUGAR MAPLE

*WHITE OAK*WHITE OAK *BLACK CHERRY*BLACK CHERRY

Quality of sawlogs is greatly influenced by log Quality of sawlogs is greatly influenced by log form, surface and internal defects and to some form, surface and internal defects and to some extend the growing siteextend the growing site

One board foot contains 144 cubic inchesOne board foot contains 144 cubic inches

VENEER=VENEER= tree that has the potential to yield tree that has the potential to yield veneer is seen as the ultimate productveneer is seen as the ultimate product

-A tree generally must have a minimum DBH of -A tree generally must have a minimum DBH of 18” and be free of exterior defects18” and be free of exterior defects

-No overgrown branches-No overgrown branches

-Epicormic branches (boles)-Epicormic branches (boles)

-Mechanical injuries-Mechanical injuries

PRINCIPAL VENEER SPECIES IN PA:PRINCIPAL VENEER SPECIES IN PA:

RED OAKRED OAK

WHITE OAKWHITE OAK

BLACK CHERRYBLACK CHERRY

4 Classes of Roundwood Products:4 Classes of Roundwood Products:

-Fuelwood-Fuelwood -Sawlogs-Sawlogs -Pulpwood-Pulpwood -Veneer-Veneer

These products differ in diameter, quality and valueThese products differ in diameter, quality and value

Fuelwood=is an important product on many Fuelwood=is an important product on many woodlandswoodlands

Species is not a critical fuelwood factor since all Species is not a critical fuelwood factor since all species are considered to have the same amount species are considered to have the same amount of heat per poundof heat per pound

Example: Cubic foot of aspen weighs 28 pounds Example: Cubic foot of aspen weighs 28 pounds while the same volume of oak weighs 44 poundswhile the same volume of oak weighs 44 pounds

DEVELOPING A WOODLAND MANAGEMENT PLAN

Organizing land- use objectives

Plan- describes the natural resources found on land and a program of activities for a specific time period

Landowner- describes and determines what benefits are wanted from the woodlot

Forester- decides what the resources can provide

KEY ELEMENTS IN A PLAN

• Management Objectives• Maps• Inventory Data• Site & Stand Description• Management and Recommendations• Activity Schedule

Ownership Objectives- provides foundation for management plan

Maps- provides a graphic source of information

* U.S. Geological Survey

* Survey Map showing boundaries

* Deed

* Vegetation & Stand Cover Description

* Soil Maps

Inventory Data- describes the woodlot by measuring the resources

* Estimate of the quantity and quality of the resources

Timber Inventory Data- describes the potential of the woodlot

* Stand Tables- is a list of the number of trees per acre according to tree

species and diameter* Stock Tables- provides volume

information as board feet or cubic feet per acre

Site and Stand Description- determines quality of the growing site and is affected by the following items:-Climate -Soils -Topography

Description Information- the following can be found to describe the area:

-Stand age - Structure -Insect/disease damage

Site Index- measures and evaluates the quality of a woodland site

* The higher the number, the better the site, the better the quality of trees*

Determining Site Index: average heights of the dominant and co-dominate trees in a stand compared to their age

-A written record should be kept for income record-Management activities should be conducted every

5 years-Objectives should change according to growth and

activitiesForesters and Consultants- will base their fees on

the size of the acreage involved

PRINCIPLES OF SILVICULTURESilviculture- defined as the theory and practice of

controlling forest establishment, composition and growth

The practice of silviculture is important to today’s landowners who are seeking more benefits than ever before from their woodland

SILVICULTURE FOR

IMPROVEMENT BENEFITS

Involves depending and developing a plan for influencing the forest to grow in a certain way in order to achieve certain goals

Role of Silviculture- is to establish quality trees

Girdling- involves the removal of a ring of bark around the tree to block the flow of nutrients from the crown to the roots-causing the tree to starve and perish

* In young forests, the desirable trees are nurtured by removing the undesirable ones*

* From the silvicultural perspective, cutting trees is the primary method of establishing and tending forest stands to meet a owner’s objectives*

* Silvicultural practices regulate the availability of water, nutrients and sunlight to selected trees*

INTERMEDIATE CUTTINGS

Any cuttings or treatments applied to established immature forests for the purpose of improving them are referred to as Intermediate Cuttings and may be undertaken for any of the following reasons:

1. Remove poor quality trees

2. Remove weed tree species

3. Thin stand and increase growth rate of trees

4. Free an understory of seedlings and saplings

5. Remove insect/disease infested trees

6. Salvage timber damaged by insect, fire or disease

STAND DEVELOPMENT

Stands that originate over a relatively short period of time are referred to as Even-Aged

CROWN POSITION

Growth in height is the most critical factor determining the survival of trees

Trees in a forest stand can be classified according to the position and size of their crowns in relationship to the others in the stand:

DOMINANT

CO-DOMINANT

INTERMEDIATE

SUPPRESSED