What is Gender What is Gender Mainstreaming?Mainstreaming?And How Do You And How Do You

Do It?Do It?

Prepared by Shahrbanou Prepared by Shahrbanou Tadjbakhsh, Tadjbakhsh,

for UNDP Belarusfor UNDP BelarusGender Mainstreaming TrainingGender Mainstreaming Training

October 10-11, 2005October 10-11, 2005

Exercise: What is your Exercise: What is your development problem?development problem?

PROBLEM SOLUTION

Effect on Women

Effect on Men Input by women

Input by men

X

Y

Very simple…Very simple…

► Make sure the “people” are Make sure the “people” are disaggregated sufficiently to gain each disaggregated sufficiently to gain each from the revolution:from the revolution: As Agents: Do they participate?As Agents: Do they participate? As beneficiaries: Do they gain?As beneficiaries: Do they gain?

►If not, WHY NOT?If not, WHY NOT?

What it is notWhat it is not

► Evaluate projects not only on the impact they have Evaluate projects not only on the impact they have on the people/community/society/state, but also, to on the people/community/society/state, but also, to how best they involve people into the decision how best they involve people into the decision making process of the project. making process of the project.

► In mainstreaming gender, we should not limit In mainstreaming gender, we should not limit ourselves to looking at some indicators that ourselves to looking at some indicators that measure how many women participate in the measure how many women participate in the project (as numbers that participated, or project (as numbers that participated, or beneficiaries, etc.,), or to ensure that the project beneficiaries, etc.,), or to ensure that the project did not impact negatively (discriminate) against did not impact negatively (discriminate) against women, but also, to what extend the project itself women, but also, to what extend the project itself addressed the need, if any, to restore gender addressed the need, if any, to restore gender balance in that sphere.balance in that sphere.

How in Principle?How in Principle?

1.1. Knowing the differences from the Knowing the differences from the beginningbeginning

2.2. Having different targetsHaving different targets

3.3. If necessary, a bit of a push for the one If necessary, a bit of a push for the one that is left behind…. Affirmative actionthat is left behind…. Affirmative action

4.4. Institutionalizing it by addressing Institutionalizing it by addressing discrimination that may hamper their discrimination that may hamper their long term partnership in the revolutionlong term partnership in the revolution

It does have requirements…It does have requirements…

► As comprehensive strategy, it addresses the As comprehensive strategy, it addresses the environment (corporate, office) in which environment (corporate, office) in which policies and programmes are developed and policies and programmes are developed and implemented. implemented.

► Working environment is gender-sensitive, Working environment is gender-sensitive, guaranteeing equal opportunities and guaranteeing equal opportunities and treatment to both men and women. treatment to both men and women.

► Sufficient technical capacity and human Sufficient technical capacity and human resources there to successfully implement resources there to successfully implement gender mainstreaminggender mainstreaming

►Step by Step ApproachStep by Step Approach

1) What is the issue?1) What is the issue?

►What is the subject of your project What is the subject of your project or policy-making initiative? What or policy-making initiative? What is the question behind the is the question behind the questionquestion

►Does this issue affect men and Does this issue affect men and women in different ways? women in different ways?

2) What is the Goal? What do 2) What is the Goal? What do we want to achieve?we want to achieve?

► Does the goal pay attention to both men and women? Does the goal pay attention to both men and women? If men and women have different needs, then the goal should be If men and women have different needs, then the goal should be

to meet both the needs of women to meet both the needs of women andand the needs of men. the needs of men. If men or women are disadvantaged in the given situation, then If men or women are disadvantaged in the given situation, then

the policy goal should seek to redress this imbalance. the policy goal should seek to redress this imbalance. These goals are thus These goals are thus “corrective”“corrective”; they are about meeting the; they are about meeting the

practical needspractical needs of both men and women. of both men and women.

► Does the goal include a broader commitment to Does the goal include a broader commitment to improving gender equality? Or balancing “gender”?improving gender equality? Or balancing “gender”? Perhaps elements of the institutions, structures or underlying Perhaps elements of the institutions, structures or underlying

principles that contextualize the issue fundamentally hinder de principles that contextualize the issue fundamentally hinder de facto equality between men and women. If so, the goal should be facto equality between men and women. If so, the goal should be broadened to address these elements as well. These goals are broadened to address these elements as well. These goals are thus thus “transformative”“transformative”; they are about ; they are about transforming transforming institutions and structuresinstitutions and structures (social, political, economic, (social, political, economic, cultural, etc.) so that full gender equality can be more readily cultural, etc.) so that full gender equality can be more readily achieved.achieved. (strategic) (strategic)

3) What do we know? Gender 3) What do we know? Gender MappingMapping

► Sectoral or Policy Issues Sectoral or Policy Issues ..Gender Questions Gender Questions What Do What Do You Know? You Know?

Indicators(quantitative and Indicators(quantitative and qualitative)qualitative)

Research Reports Research Reports Govt. ProgrammeGovt. Programme Govt. Policy/LegislationGovt. Policy/LegislationNGO ProjectsNGO Projects Donors’ activitiesDonors’ activities

Gender Sensitive Statistics Gender Sensitive Statistics ► Needed to:Needed to:

raise consciousness, persuade policy makers, promote changeraise consciousness, persuade policy makers, promote change stimulate ideas for changestimulate ideas for change monitor and evaluate policiesmonitor and evaluate policies

► Types of Sources of DataTypes of Sources of Data Household budget surveysHousehold budget surveys Population CensusPopulation Census Time-Use SurveysTime-Use Surveys Official SurveysOfficial Surveys

► Gender statistics are scarce for:Gender statistics are scarce for: Male fertilityMale fertility school absenteeism/drop out ratesschool absenteeism/drop out rates access to creditaccess to credit Informal SectorInformal Sector Unpaid WorkUnpaid Work Time useTime use Domestic ViolenceDomestic Violence Decision Making in the householdDecision Making in the household Resource Allocation within householdResource Allocation within household Income and income control.Income and income control.

Analyze dataAnalyze data

► Press for statisticians to give desegregated Press for statisticians to give desegregated data, studies on time usage, and time data, studies on time usage, and time budgeting.budgeting.

► Know key questions to ask about the Know key questions to ask about the Economy in a gender analysis, such as:Economy in a gender analysis, such as:

► Who owns what, Who gets what?, Who does Who owns what, Who gets what?, Who does what?, How?, Who decides what? For whom?what?, How?, Who decides what? For whom?

► Then analyze gender relations in key Then analyze gender relations in key institutions: State, Household, Market, institutions: State, Household, Market, Firms. Question ownership of property.Firms. Question ownership of property.

5) Beware of Assumptions when 5) Beware of Assumptions when designingdesigning

► -> That participation in projects will of itself ensure that -> That participation in projects will of itself ensure that women will gain, when in reality it depends on the type of women will gain, when in reality it depends on the type of participation and the terms on which it takes place;participation and the terms on which it takes place;

► -> Women as an untapped pool of labour that can be -> Women as an untapped pool of labour that can be drawn upon, despite their numerous other commitments;drawn upon, despite their numerous other commitments;

► -> The tendency to treat women as a homogeneous -> The tendency to treat women as a homogeneous group, ignoring the important differences between them;group, ignoring the important differences between them;

► ->The simplistic assumption that women's interests, and ->The simplistic assumption that women's interests, and those of men are necessarily the same.those of men are necessarily the same.

6) Design true human 6) Design true human development interventionsdevelopment interventions

► Integrate that knowledge into:Integrate that knowledge into: DesignDesign ImplementationImplementation MonitoringMonitoring Impact AssessmentImpact Assessment

SectorsSectors

Questions for Questions for MainstreamingMainstreaming► What is the Issue? What is the Issue? how and why these trends and issues are how and why these trends and issues are

in fact “gender issues.” in fact “gender issues.”

► What is the Goal? What is the Goal? While goals exist at many levels, While goals exist at many levels, attention here is focused on the policy goal: i.e. what policy attention here is focused on the policy goal: i.e. what policy makers should be striving to achieve. makers should be striving to achieve.

► Why Bother? Why Bother? Arguing gender as a case of equity, efficiency, Arguing gender as a case of equity, efficiency, etc…etc…

► Measuring ProgressMeasuring Progress: : indicators that could be used to indicators that could be used to measure progress towards your policy goals. measure progress towards your policy goals.

► Possible Interventions and Entry Points: Possible Interventions and Entry Points: Every situation Every situation is unique but s suggestions are meant to stimulate your own is unique but s suggestions are meant to stimulate your own ideas. Identify Interventions by the Govenrment, NGOs, ideas. Identify Interventions by the Govenrment, NGOs, donors, other stakeholders. donors, other stakeholders.

PovertyPoverty Concepts: Concepts: Studying PovertyStudying Poverty

►Who is poor?Who is poor?►Why are the poor poor? (Structural issues, Why are the poor poor? (Structural issues,

shocks, etc)shocks, etc)►How poverty affects men and women How poverty affects men and women

differentlydifferently►How coping mechanisms are differentHow coping mechanisms are different

Developing indicatorsDeveloping indicators

Economic Opportunities: Economic Opportunities: Vulnerability and Opportunity:Vulnerability and Opportunity:

► Is there equity in access to resources? Land ownership, income Is there equity in access to resources? Land ownership, income (wages), access to credit?(wages), access to credit?

► Who dominates in the participation in the shadow economy?Who dominates in the participation in the shadow economy?► Who controls the informal market (production? Trade? Who controls the informal market (production? Trade?

Global/regional trade?)Global/regional trade?)► How equitable has the process of privatization been by policy/law?How equitable has the process of privatization been by policy/law?► How, in practice, have men and women participated differently in How, in practice, have men and women participated differently in

the process of privatization?the process of privatization?► What has been the gender question in the impact of privatization?What has been the gender question in the impact of privatization?► In general, can we say who is the most affected by In general, can we say who is the most affected by

unemployment?unemployment?► Is there a differentiated wage system? Practice? Is there a differentiated wage system? Practice? ► Is the Occupation Market segregated?Is the Occupation Market segregated?► Is there a gender issue in the restructuring of these fields?Is there a gender issue in the restructuring of these fields?► Who has been most affected by migration? What is the impact of Who has been most affected by migration? What is the impact of

migration?migration?

InterventionsInterventions

►What should be a good disaggregated, What should be a good disaggregated, targeted policy to alleviate poverty?targeted policy to alleviate poverty? Macro-EconomicMacro-Economic Poverty Eradication strategies: PRSPsPoverty Eradication strategies: PRSPs Social fundSocial fund Micro creditsMicro credits Income GenerationIncome Generation:: Objective should be not to Objective should be not to

create more income, but allow for participation, equity, create more income, but allow for participation, equity, productivity, empowerment, sustainability, etc. For that, productivity, empowerment, sustainability, etc. For that, other enabling environments become key, such as linkages other enabling environments become key, such as linkages to networks, legislation, tax policies, kindergartens, etc. to networks, legislation, tax policies, kindergartens, etc.

PovertyPoverty► Women face a higher risk of poverty than men. Discrimination against Women face a higher risk of poverty than men. Discrimination against

women in social practices and law result in their over-representation women in social practices and law result in their over-representation among the poor. As a result of their subordinate position, women also among the poor. As a result of their subordinate position, women also face greater difficulties than men in surviving and overcoming poverty. In face greater difficulties than men in surviving and overcoming poverty. In addition, responsibilities assigned to women for care of children and addition, responsibilities assigned to women for care of children and other family members mean that the experience of poverty is different other family members mean that the experience of poverty is different for women than men. This means that:for women than men. This means that:

► Poverty reduction strategies must take account of differences between Poverty reduction strategies must take account of differences between women and men in resources and opportunities, and include measures to women and men in resources and opportunities, and include measures to address the factors that particularly constrain women. Poverty reduction address the factors that particularly constrain women. Poverty reduction initiatives that do not pay specific attention to the situation of women will initiatives that do not pay specific attention to the situation of women will not necessarily reach or benefit women.not necessarily reach or benefit women.

► Longer-term strategies for women’s empowerment (including removal of Longer-term strategies for women’s empowerment (including removal of the factors that particularly constrain women) are essential for poverty the factors that particularly constrain women) are essential for poverty elimination.elimination.

► The eradication of poverty cannot be achieved through anti-poverty The eradication of poverty cannot be achieved through anti-poverty programmes alone but will require democratic participation and changes programmes alone but will require democratic participation and changes in economic structures in order to ensure access for all women to in economic structures in order to ensure access for all women to resources, opportunities and public services. The need for gender resources, opportunities and public services. The need for gender perspectives in formulating policies on macroeconomic stability, perspectives in formulating policies on macroeconomic stability, structural adjustment, external debt, taxation, employment and labour structural adjustment, external debt, taxation, employment and labour markets – all these affect the conditions under which women and men markets – all these affect the conditions under which women and men work, and all must be examined to ensure that they have an equitable work, and all must be examined to ensure that they have an equitable impact on women and men.impact on women and men.

Poverty Reduction: Poverty Reduction: ► Women are frequently more severely affected by extreme Women are frequently more severely affected by extreme

poverty as they must allocate increasing amounts of time poverty as they must allocate increasing amounts of time to ensuring household survival while continuing to be to ensuring household survival while continuing to be involved in economically productive activities. involved in economically productive activities.

► There is also increasing awareness that conventional There is also increasing awareness that conventional survey methods do not adequately capture the gender survey methods do not adequately capture the gender dimensions of poverty and that they must be combined dimensions of poverty and that they must be combined with participatory evaluation methodswith participatory evaluation methods

► Dramatic progress has been made in increasing the Dramatic progress has been made in increasing the access of women entrepreneurs and women's community access of women entrepreneurs and women's community organizations to finance and technical support services. organizations to finance and technical support services. Credit has proved one of the most effective ways to Credit has proved one of the most effective ways to increase women's economic productivity and increase women's economic productivity and empowerment, and the repayment and loan utilization empowerment, and the repayment and loan utilization rate for women is frequently much higher than for men. rate for women is frequently much higher than for men.

► There are still major challenges to ensure the There are still major challenges to ensure the sustainability of these programs and to improve the sustainability of these programs and to improve the performance of public sector micro-credit programs performance of public sector micro-credit programs

Macro-EconomicMacro-Economic► What issues:What issues:

PrivatizationPrivatization LiberalizationLiberalization Fiscal PoliciesFiscal Policies InvestmentsInvestments InflationInflation TradeTrade Land reformsLand reforms New TechnologiesNew Technologies Banking sectorsBanking sectors Safety netsSafety nets

► ALL HAVE GENDER DIFFERENTIAL IMPACT: HOW IT IMPACTS MEN ALL HAVE GENDER DIFFERENTIAL IMPACT: HOW IT IMPACTS MEN AND WOMEN, AND HOW IT IMPACTS THEIR RELATIONSHIPAND WOMEN, AND HOW IT IMPACTS THEIR RELATIONSHIP

Macro-EconomicsMacro-Economics► Is there a gender issue in macro-Economic planning?Is there a gender issue in macro-Economic planning?► Shouldn’t the overall goal of structural adjustment Shouldn’t the overall goal of structural adjustment

policies and practices be to eradicate social policies and practices be to eradicate social inequalities, particularly but not exclusively those inequalities, particularly but not exclusively those based on gender?based on gender?

► Is the budget segregated to account for the gender Is the budget segregated to account for the gender differences both in numbers and in needs?differences both in numbers and in needs?

► Should it be? Should it be? ► Do you think unpaid labor (reproductive labor) has a Do you think unpaid labor (reproductive labor) has a

direct impact on the productive labor in Armenia?direct impact on the productive labor in Armenia?► Do you think the unpaid labor should be accounted Do you think the unpaid labor should be accounted

for in the GNP?for in the GNP?► Will there be an impact in the overall economic Will there be an impact in the overall economic

indicators of the country?indicators of the country?

What to do?What to do?

►What to do:What to do: Studies on impactStudies on impact Social safety netsSocial safety nets Emphasis on human cost of macro-Emphasis on human cost of macro-

economic changes for UNDP:economic changes for UNDP:►In linkage with HD mandateIn linkage with HD mandate►Sets different role than IFIsSets different role than IFIs►Render much needed adviseRender much needed advise

Does Decentralization increase Does Decentralization increase women’s Representation and women’s Representation and

Participation?Participation?► Governance Process is not gender-neutralGovernance Process is not gender-neutral► Fallacies of Decentralization and Gender (That it increases grassroots Fallacies of Decentralization and Gender (That it increases grassroots

(and women’s) representation.(and women’s) representation. that centers of local power automatically allow for the participation of that centers of local power automatically allow for the participation of

marginalized groups, or ensure their representation. marginalized groups, or ensure their representation. That women’s interest, needs, perspectives and demands are in fact equal That women’s interest, needs, perspectives and demands are in fact equal

to that of men within the communityto that of men within the community That the process by which governance decisions and actions are taken at That the process by which governance decisions and actions are taken at

the local level automatically represent women’s interest without taking the local level automatically represent women’s interest without taking into account the basis of the male-biased concept of the process of into account the basis of the male-biased concept of the process of governance.governance.

Bad practices of practice of patronage,Bad practices of practice of patronage, rather than open opportunity, as basis of nomination for candidates, for rather than open opportunity, as basis of nomination for candidates, for

example can leads to discrimination.example can leads to discrimination. Informal contribution of womenInformal contribution of women Local elite groups more hostile to marginalized groupsLocal elite groups more hostile to marginalized groups Cost of specific policies versus national decreesCost of specific policies versus national decrees Such types of “top down” or “outside-in” pressure is felt in fact, more Such types of “top down” or “outside-in” pressure is felt in fact, more

genuinely than bottom up pressure,genuinely than bottom up pressure, local government officials were more likely to be linked to clan politicslocal government officials were more likely to be linked to clan politics

Issue of Gender is an issue of Issue of Gender is an issue of participationparticipation

► Instead, the conditions that challenge unequal access to participation or Instead, the conditions that challenge unequal access to participation or ensure representation must be examined. These conditions depend on:ensure representation must be examined. These conditions depend on: the structures of participation in place and new ones createdthe structures of participation in place and new ones created available resources and competition over themavailable resources and competition over them control over means of participationcontrol over means of participation the nature of local power structuresthe nature of local power structures The degree of organization and political visibility of women locallyThe degree of organization and political visibility of women locally education and functional literacyeducation and functional literacy access to information and ITaccess to information and IT decision making within the householddecision making within the household Stereotypes promoted through the education system, the media, etc.Stereotypes promoted through the education system, the media, etc. traditions of mobilizationtraditions of mobilization

1) The Cost-Cutting theory1) The Cost-Cutting theory 2) The corruption Theory2) The corruption Theory 3) The Social Issues Theory3) The Social Issues Theory

What is governance?What is governance?

► governance refers not only to formal governance refers not only to formal public decision-making structures and public decision-making structures and processes (i.e. national and local processes (i.e. national and local government), but includes decision-government), but includes decision-making within the family, community and making within the family, community and private sector as well. private sector as well.

► Mainstreaming: addressing the ways in Mainstreaming: addressing the ways in which both genders participate in and which both genders participate in and are affected by various systems of are affected by various systems of governance, as well as the interaction governance, as well as the interaction between these various systems.between these various systems.

Issue and Goal Issue and Goal ► A gendered analysis of governance immediately highlights A gendered analysis of governance immediately highlights

the issue of the issue of participation and representation. participation and representation.

► Participation for Equal Ops to develop their capabilitiesParticipation for Equal Ops to develop their capabilities

► Representation: because not necessarily “Common Representation: because not necessarily “Common Interest”Interest”

► Goal is therefore twofold: Goal is therefore twofold: 1.1. to ensure to ensure balanced participationbalanced participation between men and women between men and women

in national governance, which includesin national governance, which includes removal of removal of structural and systemic barriers structural and systemic barriers to women’s participation;to women’s participation;

2.2. to ensure that to ensure that gender issuesgender issues are are integratedintegrated into decision- into decision-making, implementation, monitoring and evaluation of making, implementation, monitoring and evaluation of national governance initiatives.national governance initiatives.

Why Participation and Why Participation and Representation?Representation?

►JusticeJustice►Credibility and Accountability Credibility and Accountability ►Efficiency: men elected to Efficiency: men elected to

executive and legislative not executive and legislative not familiar. Brain drain.familiar. Brain drain.

►Chain Reaction:Chain Reaction: Role models Role models

How to restore balanceHow to restore balance

► Critical mass:Critical mass: a presence of not less than a presence of not less than 30% is necessary. 30% is necessary.

► Capacity BuildingCapacity Building: training and capacity-: training and capacity-building are essential – for both women and building are essential – for both women and men men

► National MachineryNational Machinery

But not dealt with LAWS, DECREES, QUOTASBut not dealt with LAWS, DECREES, QUOTAS Have to deal with systemic barriers that prevent.Have to deal with systemic barriers that prevent.

ParticipationParticipation► Participation is one area where the gender Participation is one area where the gender

segregation is widening. Political parties and the segregation is widening. Political parties and the Parliament are mostly men, NGOs and associations Parliament are mostly men, NGOs and associations have outnumbering representation of women. All have outnumbering representation of women. All the answers show a variety of methods to ensure a the answers show a variety of methods to ensure a more balanced access to the decision making more balanced access to the decision making process, and most stress the evolutionary one, not process, and most stress the evolutionary one, not through quotas etc. through quotas etc.

► Public awareness and education of three target Public awareness and education of three target groups could be part of the “Democracy and Good groups could be part of the “Democracy and Good Governance” Project. These are: 1) voters in Governance” Project. These are: 1) voters in general, about the merits of voting for a more general, about the merits of voting for a more balanced representation, 2) women candidates for balanced representation, 2) women candidates for good presentation, advocacy, mass media, etc, and good presentation, advocacy, mass media, etc, and 3) men and women political leaders on elaboration 3) men and women political leaders on elaboration and implementation of gender policy for an and implementation of gender policy for an equitable and efficient society.equitable and efficient society.

Water Supply and Sanitation Water Supply and Sanitation

► Women and Men different roles and Women and Men different roles and responsibilities in rural areasresponsibilities in rural areas Who does cash generating activities, irrigation, Who does cash generating activities, irrigation,

cattlecattle Who collects, uses and manages water in the Who collects, uses and manages water in the

household?household? Who plays role in disposing of household waste?Who plays role in disposing of household waste? Who educates about hygieneWho educates about hygiene

► Tailoring project design to recognize such Tailoring project design to recognize such considerations helps ensure that project considerations helps ensure that project facilities will be used by both sexes and that facilities will be used by both sexes and that women's contribution to agricultural production women's contribution to agricultural production and household income can be maximized. and household income can be maximized.

Health, Nutrition and PopulationHealth, Nutrition and Population

► Gender issue is clearer, howeverGender issue is clearer, however► Planning and budget allocations often give priority Planning and budget allocations often give priority

to expensive, modern urban based hospitals and to expensive, modern urban based hospitals and health services which are less accessible to women health services which are less accessible to women (particularly rural women) than to men. (particularly rural women) than to men.

► Lack of capacity for training for women medical Lack of capacity for training for women medical professionals professionals

► Cultural factors continue to maintain inequities in Cultural factors continue to maintain inequities in access to and use of services and also contribute to access to and use of services and also contribute to inequitable allocation of food within the household. inequitable allocation of food within the household.

► Gender based violence also has important health, Gender based violence also has important health, as well as economic and political, implications.as well as economic and political, implications.

Rural DevelopmentRural Development

► Women farmers currently under-perform Women farmers currently under-perform due to a lack of access to credit, due to a lack of access to credit, information, extension services and markets information, extension services and markets and because household duties and child-and because household duties and child-care limit the time they have available. care limit the time they have available.

► Removing these constraints can significantly Removing these constraints can significantly increase agricultural productivity - increase agricultural productivity - particularly in regions where women play an particularly in regions where women play an increasingly important part in farm increasingly important part in farm management and production. management and production.

Transport, Energy and Transport, Energy and InfrastructureInfrastructure

► Route planning frequently constrains women's economic Route planning frequently constrains women's economic productivity by not responding to their needs to combine work productivity by not responding to their needs to combine work related travel with travel relating to their household related travel with travel relating to their household responsibilities in the fields of education, health and marketing. responsibilities in the fields of education, health and marketing.

► The failure to consider the gender dimensions of transport The failure to consider the gender dimensions of transport demand imposes high monetary, physical and temporal costs on demand imposes high monetary, physical and temporal costs on female users. It also results in sub-optimal economic and time-female users. It also results in sub-optimal economic and time-allocation decisions by the household and particularly women. allocation decisions by the household and particularly women.

► Women's access to transportation also determines their Women's access to transportation also determines their utilization of existing health, education and other services. utilization of existing health, education and other services.

► Women's insights can also mitigate negative impacts of project Women's insights can also mitigate negative impacts of project design in areas such as the impacts on child safety, access to design in areas such as the impacts on child safety, access to markets, women's time-burden etc. markets, women's time-burden etc.

► Finally, increasing women's ownership of projects can Finally, increasing women's ownership of projects can significantly contribute to maintenance and sustainability.significantly contribute to maintenance and sustainability.

EnvironmentEnvironment

► How are women and men impacted differently by the environment?How are women and men impacted differently by the environment?► How do men and women participate differently in environment How do men and women participate differently in environment

protection practices?protection practices?► How are men and women consulted separately on environment How are men and women consulted separately on environment

policies? policies?

► By nature of the different jobs and duties (in society, in household) By nature of the different jobs and duties (in society, in household) that men and women do, the impact of the environment is different that men and women do, the impact of the environment is different on them, and men and women, if consulted separately, would have on them, and men and women, if consulted separately, would have different solutions to environment problems seen from their angles. different solutions to environment problems seen from their angles. This is more felt at the community/household level, and to a lesser This is more felt at the community/household level, and to a lesser degree at the national level. Projects that work on environment degree at the national level. Projects that work on environment policies might want to consider that and those that work with policies might want to consider that and those that work with communities might want to study/monitor this question.communities might want to study/monitor this question.

► Here, as in elsewhere, the different gender impact and gender Here, as in elsewhere, the different gender impact and gender participation has implications for planning efficiently (both in order participation has implications for planning efficiently (both in order not to aggravate the situation for one or the other gender by not to aggravate the situation for one or the other gender by mistake, and to use the opportunities presented by the different mistake, and to use the opportunities presented by the different approaches for a more realistic and holistic approach.approaches for a more realistic and holistic approach.

► Both women and men have productive roles in relation to Both women and men have productive roles in relation to natural resources, and the (usually different) roles of natural resources, and the (usually different) roles of each must be taken into account for effective each must be taken into account for effective programme design in initiatives for environmental programme design in initiatives for environmental sustainabilitysustainability

► Unequal access to assets and resources results in Unequal access to assets and resources results in insecurity of access to land by women, with insecurity of access to land by women, with consequences for their ability to adopt environmentally consequences for their ability to adopt environmentally sustainable practices, which has implications for policy sustainable practices, which has implications for policy on land tenure and programmes related to agricultureon land tenure and programmes related to agriculture

► women and men are often differently affected by women and men are often differently affected by environmental degradation because of different work environmental degradation because of different work patterns and tasks of women and men in both the patterns and tasks of women and men in both the workforce and the householdworkforce and the household

► Degradation of the environment has specific implications Degradation of the environment has specific implications for women – negative effects on income possibilities, for women – negative effects on income possibilities, health and quality of life.health and quality of life.

► Women remain largely absent from formal policy Women remain largely absent from formal policy formulation and decision-making, even though they have formulation and decision-making, even though they have taken a leadership role in promoting an environmental taken a leadership role in promoting an environmental ethic. ethic.

Education Education

► Is there a discrepancy in equal opportunity to Is there a discrepancy in equal opportunity to education?education?

► Is there a difference in access to education, higher, Is there a difference in access to education, higher, lower, urban, rural?lower, urban, rural?

► What is the education occupation segregation? Who What is the education occupation segregation? Who does what?does what?

► Is the drop-out rate a gender issue?Is the drop-out rate a gender issue?► What is the impact of the drop-out trends on gender What is the impact of the drop-out trends on gender

relations in the future?relations in the future?► Is the enrollment rate at higher education Is the enrollment rate at higher education

differentiated?differentiated?► Is there an impact on enrollment rates in higher Is there an impact on enrollment rates in higher

education on gender relations in the future?education on gender relations in the future?

►Studies have shown that the economic Studies have shown that the economic rate of return of investing in girls rate of return of investing in girls education is at least as high, and education is at least as high, and usually higher than the return on usually higher than the return on investing in boys education.investing in boys education.

►Social returns on girls education Social returns on girls education (improved health and education levels (improved health and education levels of children, lower population growth of children, lower population growth rates etc.) rates etc.)

► The introduction of paid education, The introduction of paid education, conscription into the army, the involvement conscription into the army, the involvement of girls/boys into family agriculture, etc., of girls/boys into family agriculture, etc., would probably mean that some families would probably mean that some families might have to make choices between the might have to make choices between the future education of their boys or their girls. future education of their boys or their girls.

► When women don’t have job possibilities, When women don’t have job possibilities, they continue higher education, which might they continue higher education, which might explain the higher numbers of educated explain the higher numbers of educated women than men women than men

► However, the spheres of education is also However, the spheres of education is also gender specific. This means that some gender specific. This means that some professions, in the future, will be the domain professions, in the future, will be the domain of men or women and that may not be good of men or women and that may not be good for efficiency, and the different “wealth” for efficiency, and the different “wealth” (assets and incomes of men and women), (assets and incomes of men and women), etc. etc.

HEALTHHEALTH► Is there a difference in the access to paid services?Is there a difference in the access to paid services?► Is there a difference in the impact of paid health services? Is there a difference in the impact of paid health services? ► What is the health occupation segregation? Who does what?What is the health occupation segregation? Who does what?

► The health sector, especially in terms of The health sector, especially in terms of participation, is a segregated fieldparticipation, is a segregated field

► Women seem to be more generalists (low pay, low Women seem to be more generalists (low pay, low mobility) and men more high tech (more pay, more mobility) and men more high tech (more pay, more decisions). decisions).

► Low pay jobs are more vulnerable to restructuring. Low pay jobs are more vulnerable to restructuring. High tech jobs are more rare in a “de-High tech jobs are more rare in a “de-professionalized” environment.professionalized” environment.

► In addition, of course, the entire family care policy In addition, of course, the entire family care policy and practice of the government has also and practice of the government has also implications for the growth of healthy generations, implications for the growth of healthy generations, etc. etc.