what is it to be a “human”

7/28/2019 What is it to be a human

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What is it to be a human?

My sincere appreciation and thanks to Mr. Aarif Zulfiqar for his tremendous contribution in reading

and editing the manuscript to make it presentable and to Mr. Akhter Saeed for long hours of discussion

and devoted time.

This question may seem irrelevant - for some of us while pondering on the theory of

evolution it seems like a fore gone conclusion that humanity of the humans must

have evolved gradually from lesser humans to the higher ones in a continuous

process of evolution. But still, somehow, we want to assume that we are unique -

even from our closet Darwinian relatives. But are we?

It is not just the philosophers, most of the organized religions of the world also have

espoused the idea of uniqueness of humanity. It appears that this idea of exclusivity

of human creation may have crystallized from the events that occurred during thenebulous times of prerecorded history. Pitted against the unfathomable brute forces

of nature and predators - far superior in physical strength, our ancestors only had the

cunning and intelligence on their side to succeed. One might imagine that the stories

of their encounters with some mythical beings, strong and brute, may be nothing

more than our encounters with Neanderthals, prehistoric animals and (inexplicable)

natural phenomena. But in each of these mortal struggles our human hero, with

odds piled high against him, would succeed the brain winning against the brawn.

These stories, however, may not just be myths of antiquity - indeed we have won the

survival race and, apparently, have out-competed all our cousins to extinction.

Chance may have played a role in our success, no doubt, but each of our successes

consolidated our belief in our special place in the universe to us.

As if the historical evidence was not good enough, with the advent of scientific

enquiry, we wanted to prove our uniqueness scientifically - pointing out the traits

which we thought were uniquely human thereby making us a superior being. Early

on, we believed that it was our hunting ability that made us different, allowing greater

component of protein in diet. But look a little deeper and it becomes apparent that

until lately, until after the advent of firearms, we were no more than average predator,

there are animals with far greater physical strength, suitable sensory endowments tohunt and kill. Can it be an organized social part of the hunt that would fill the void to

explain our uniqueness? But studies in Africa by Jane Goodall showed cooperative

hunting in chimpanzees[54]. Idea was then floated that tool making defines a special

characteristic to be human by the field observations of chimpanzees, and lately in

many other animals has pulled the rug. Several researchers have proven that

humans are by no means unique in their capacity to make tools and use these tools

purposefully. Then came a rather farfetched idea unique sexual behavior of


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human[54]

. Here sex was less for procreation and often used as a favour. But then

observations of pygmy chimpanzees (bonobos), did demonstrate that we are not

alone in our use of sex as a social instument. Bonobo females have been shown to

be continuously receptive to the sexual advances and exchange favours in return for

social rewards received from males, as well as from females[54]

. May be, then, its our

verbal abilities and eloquent language - the capacity to speak and verbalize the

intricasies ranging from quantum mechanics to non-Euclidian geometry, the beauty

of nature, the passion of romantic love, and the cricketing record of a Sir Vivian

Richard[54]

- that is something unique to human species. As we would discuss shortly

(speech-page4), this ability to communicate ideas, intensions and emotions is not

unique to us humans either. We might com-up with an exhaustive list of uniquely

human attributes, I am still pondering about the possibility of finding a clearly

definable characteristic that is uniquely human.

Every notable philosopher, ever-since Aristotle, has pondered upon this question. Asa result we have a wealth of accumulated knowledge and observations on the

subject. Therefore, before we start, we would have to examine the past enquiries and

the list ofunique human characteristics proposed, at various times in history. Then

these proposed hallmarks of our humanity have to be scientifically compared with

their counterparts seen in non-humans species.

Properties considered unique to humans

Culture

Etymologically, the word culture is derived from cultivation, in its broadest sense,

culture can be defined as the total sum of cultivated/learned behavior (and its

consequent material expressions) that is passed on / copied by other members of a

social group, because it is considered desirable and hence valued by that social

group [Wikipedia]. Cultural values are socially transmitted. Hence culture represents

behavior (in entirety) that is transmitted through social learning / education in contrast

to genetically determined behavior[Wikipedia]

. Within this behavior one may include the

physical expressions of this behavior like art, music, cuisine and architecture as well.

Culture, therefore, would broadly represent those actions, behaviors, beliefs, creative

endeavors and artifacts we value as a society - even if they do not impart a special

survival advantage.[Wikipedia]

Culture developed essentially when prehistoric family groups of our human ancestors

coalesced to form a tribe. Splintered family groups have an advantage of the

ownership of a patch of land with exclusive hunting / foraging rights and that right is

defended vigorously. Giving up individual family rights for the tribal lands would not


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only gave us numerical strength to fight off any incursion but also added on to the

food security by the tribal culture of sharing the food. There are always going to be

some free loaders and cultural practices are geared to discourage them. Within this

bigger tribal group the scope of specialization appeared with one person particularly

adept at bow making and so on and others would use his skill in return of favors

early barter.

The cultural sophistication seen in human societies seems unmatched in the animal

world. It may be partly due to that long stint of indoctrination during childhood, we

call education. It is not surprising, therefore, that educated and groomed person is

often referred to as being cultured. Faade of this cultural creativity is mind boggling

considering the banality of culture seen in our nearest cousins the chimpanzees. But

look a little deeper beneath the veneer of cultural sophistication and we realize that at

its core, each cultural endeavor is nothing more than a series of smaller elementary

actions and value endorsements prized by that particular cultural group or nation

[58]. Some of these actions may be valued across the cultures (valor, honesty) and

certain behaviors/characteristics may have a universal appeal like music, beauty etc,

while others are practiced or valued by a small group i-e Japanese ritual suicide upon

dishonorable conduct. These actions and values define that particular group's

characteristic ways of living and represent all that is cherished in that groups

peculiar value system for desirability or otherwise. The traits considered desirable

are learned from one another and handed down through the generations, gradually

getting ingrained ever deeper with ever increasing layers of sophistication.[58]

Defining the culture in this way we find that there are other primate species thatshow group specific practices - certain way of greeting each other or obtaining food

and these practices are handed down the generations by imitation within this

particular group. Cetaceans show ever more convincing examples of rudimentary

culture. There two distinct groups of killer whales, one group is resident while the

other is migratory and therefore called transients. Both the groups share the same

geographical space in the same waters and interbreed freely but they show very

different lifestyles and social hierarchy showing group unique hunting techniques,

predilection for different food and distinctive ways of communication - all of which are

passed down from the parents to their offspring.[58]

Mind Reading

Mind reading may be nothing more than simple cues gleaned from another persons

facial expressions, reading between the lines of his pronouncements, and

observation of his body language. But fundamentally it is the capacity to stand in

someone elses shoes and to imagine his potential choices available to him to act -


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and then to fix the probability for each action considering his personality, past history,

and clues from his recent speech and actions. One of the best ways, perhaps, to

judge this ability of an individual to have an insight into the mind of another person

(individual) is his ability to deceive. In order to outwit someone else one must

understand his opponents motives, desires and intentions Not surprisingly the

"theory of mind" depends upon exactly the same ability for its underpinning. This

ability to conceive and understand the mental states of another individual was once

thought to be uniquely humans - apparently emerging suddenly around the fifth year

of life. But then we discovered that babies are quite capable of deception leading to

the conclusion that "mind-reading" skills develop gradually. It then fuelled a new

debate about whether other primates also have the ability to deceive. Repeated

experiments conducted during 1990s proved beyond doubt that great apes and even

some monkeys do understand deception, but perhaps their capacity is not as explicit

as is the case in adult humans. [58]

Even if primates are not quite successful at answering Sally-Anne test1

, but they

do show abilities such as seeing as a form of knowing, reading intentions and goals.

Tool Use

In western Africa one group of chimps have learnt, by trial and error, a method to

use rocks to crack nuts to get to the edible kernel - while another group has figured

out a way to use blades of grass to fish out termites from the mound. One gorilla has

been seen using a stick to measure the depth of water - an equivalent of a dipstick.

All these actions look amazing but no animal wields tools with quite the alacrity of theNew Caledonian crow have achieved a new level of alacrity for purpose-defined

designing and wielding of tools. In order to get a tasty morsel hidden deep inside the

crevices, they can craft a wide variety of poking barbed tapers and even an

instrument with series of notches on one side by biting at the edge of a pandanus

leaf with their beaks. Even more amazing is the fact that during lab experiments it

1In the Baron-Cohen study of theory of mind in autism, 61 children20 of whom were diagnosed autistic under

established criteria, 14 with Down's Syndrome and 27 of whom were determined as clinically unimpaired weretested with "Sally" and "Anne". In the test process, after introducing the dolls, the child is asked the controlquestion of recalling their names (the Naming Question). A short skit is then enacted; Sally takes a marble and

hides it in her basket. She then 'leaves' the room and goes for a walk. Whilst she is away, and thereforeunbeknownst to her, Anne takes the marble out of Sally's basket and puts it in her own box. Sally is thenreintroduced and the child is asked the key question, the Belief Question: 'Where will Sally look for her marble?'

For the children to 'pass' this test they must answer the Belief Question correctly, by indicating that Sally believesthat the marble is in her own basket, continuous with her perspective although not with the child's own. If the childcannot take an alternative perspective, they will indicate that Sally has cause to believeas they dothat themarble has moved. To pass, the children have to show that Sally has her own beliefs that may not correlate withreality.


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becomes clear they understand the functionality of tools and where to best use it.

The way they plan to construct them and then deploy them shows a capacity of

planning and fore-thought. It would be hard to suggest that point to a common origin

of tool-making in humans and crows first they lack a dexterous hand -- but there is

a seems to a remarkable resemblance in the ways in which their respective brains

work. Both are highly lateralized brains. Most crows are found to be right-beaked

preferentially using right side of their beak while cutting pandanus leaves.[58]

Moral i ty

Marc Bekoff from the University of Colorado at Boulder is a strong proponent of the

view that homo-sapiens is not the only species to show morality and values. He has

shown experimentally that morality or something akin to it - is quite common in

social mammals. It appears that in this context it may provide survival advantage of a

herd. He argues that the acceptable norms of social interaction are learnt during play- going on to the concept of right and wrong - "moral norms. It can then be extended

to other situations such as sharing of food, defending a prized resource, giving care

and grooming in apes and monkeys".[52]

For ages, with our preconceived bias we

preferred to find alternative explanations but, I am sure, it is hard to explain the

results of a classic study conducted in 1964 where it was found that even when a

rhesus monkey was hungry, it would not accept the offered food, if doing so meant

that anothermonkey received an electric shock[56]

. The same is true of rats. Does

this indicate nascent morality?

Emot ions

Emotions act as social glue allowing us to bond with others. Emotions also allow us

to regulate our interactions in different social settings allowing us to behave flexibly in

different situations. But to think of it we are not the only animals that would need

graded targeted emotional response, so there is hardly any reason for us to be

unique in this property. We can quote many examples of apparent emotional

behavior in other species of animals. Elephants have been repeatedly seen caring for

an injured incapacitated herd member. Does it show equivalent of human empathy?

A funeral ritual performed by magpies and crows in India may suggest grief. Can we

label the emotion of spite shown by Nick, a baboon, to take revenge on a rival by

urinating on him? Divers who freed a humpback whale caught in a crab line describe

its reaction as one of gratitude. Then there is the excited dance chimps perform when

faced with a waterfall -- it looks distinctly awe-inspired. There seems to be consensus

among the authorities that animals are not devoid of emotions, but whether they feel

these emotions in the same conscious way as we humans do is open to debate. [54]


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Personal i ty

It is no surprising to find that those animals which live under constant predator threat

develop extra-cautious behavior, while same species evolved in an environment with

fewer risks appear unafraid and undaunted. Successful survival strategies evolve by

natural selection when predator pressure is introduced. But its remarkable to

discover that there are individuals who belong to one single species - living in the

same geographical location facing the same evolutionary pressures - but can differ in

their degree of daring or caution. In a human context we would tend to refer to such

differences as personality traits. If we may extend these human characteristics to

them animals, then may we have reckless salamanders, aggressive songbirds,

cowardly spiders and may be a fearless fish. Surely we have animals with

personality, we are finding that more and more species of animals are not just

characterless beings as we generally believe. It appears that these personality traits

evolve to provide diversity within the species so that individuals may adapt todifferent evolutionary pressures and may survive in a wider variety of ecological

niches. [54]

Speech

Naom Chomsky thought speech to be a uniquely human attribute, and devised a

special term for an imaginary language organ. He believed that the human ability to

generate syntactical structure evolved separately, for reasons that had nothing to do

with communication. His ideas are no longer in favor because it would need a reason

and evolutionary trail for language development. At this point in time we believe thatmost of the human communication occurs through speech We use it not only to

express our basic needs but also use it to communicate complex ideas far removed

from our daily needs -- ideas which have no counterparts in the physical world. This is

very different from animals which can communicate with each other albeit in much

simpler ways. But they, too, can express emotions and desires -- think of those midnight

neighborhood symphonies of howling dogs or cats in heat. We know that we have a

much more advanced speech, which, then, begs the question, How did human speech

evolve? How does the way humans talk to each other differ from the way animals

communicate? [54] We have managed to teach some basic sign language to the apes

and dolphins often limited to objects and actions. Apes have learned signs that refer to

objects - like food - and to actions like eat. According to Hauser, "They could label

things and could sign 'apple' or 'pond.' But what they couldn't say is, 'My apple is in the

pond' or 'on the chair.' [54]

Looking beyond the traditional explanations


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If the traditional explanations are found wanting, perhaps we need to look more deeply

into the realms of thinking, imagination and consciousness to find a more plausible

answer to our question. It would be helpful to start by examining the meaning of each of

these concepts in the current context.

Thought refers generally to any mental or intellectual activity that occurs in the sphereof an individual's private (subjective) consciousness. This mental effort is made in the

realm of imagination (see below), as compared to the physical effort done in the real

world. [59] Because thought underlies almost all human actions and interactions,

understanding its physical and metaphysical origins, processes, and effects is of

profound significance to the question, what is it to be a human?

Related to thought is the idea of rationality, which is essentially the exercise of reason.2

It is the manner in which people apply reason to derive conclusions through a process

of deliberate consideration. Just having a reason for ones action would not necessarily

make the action rational. In fact, a rational decision is one that has not only beenreasoned, but is also optimal for achieving a goal or solving a problem.

[Wikipedia]

The act of thinking rationally can pertain to any element of the physical or imaginary

world it can be about a problem, question, object, ideas, arrangements of ideas or

even rules of reason and rationality derived from our observations and deductions.3

But whatever it might be, when being applied to the symbolized physical world we

instinctively know the boundaries imposed on our thoughts by the rules of reason and

rationality - derived from the real world. While imagining a real worldscenario, these

rules are applied to the symbolized objects and processes in a very stringent way ,

even though we know that these objects are being manipulated in the realm ofimagination. The greater the replicative accuracy of the objects, events and rules

between the two worlds, the greater would be the predictive accuracy of the thought

experiment.

2Reason is generally associated with thinking, cognition, and intellect in making sense of events, actions, objectsand all those things that concern him and their interactions.

[1][Wikipedia]I would like to suggest more specifically that

reason is the human ability to apply rules gleaned from the real physical world to the symbolized objects/events(which generally represent a real world object or event) in the world of imagination what one might call the realm ofthought Regna cogitatio in order to organize the causal relationship of these objects and events. Reason, then, isour ability to do thought experiments, manipulating objects and events within the strict framework of the rules of

reason in order to find a solution to a problem or to make sense of the world.3Rules of reason are those scientific laws or observed rules that govern our physical world. These rules are

formulated by a process of induction, based on observed facts and experimental evidence. Legal rules and socialcustoms are sometimes used to reach optimal decisions -- and may be considered appropriate for the time andplace -- but these sorts of rules may not necessarily fall in the category of rules of reason. Sharing your meagrefood with an unknown stranger may be an esteemed custom but the rules of reason may point to a different course ofaction. The rules of reason are universal and applicable globally. We all know that an apple wil l always fall down tothe ground. This observation does not require any pre-requisite knowledge of gravity it would be preposterous toviolate this rule even in the realm of imagination - if one is not thinking of space, etc. Everyday experience of gravityon earth has now become a rule of reason.


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In this world of imagination, reality may have to be pared down to its bare essentials,

removing all the compounding variables and unrelated noise of the real world. This

barebones representation of the problem would allow us to think clearly and sort the

(worldly) problem out in a rational way. Thinking, then, allows us not only to come up

with solutions to problems but in the process also gives us the ability to model the world

in lots of different ways while building up our knowledge base.4

Imagination, or the faculty of imagining, is the ability to form mental images of

perceptions, which would normally be generated by real world objects, events,

sensations and concepts, at a moment when the said object, image, sensation or

concept is absent from the environment and is not perceptible through our senses.5

It is,

therefore, a modality that allows us to think and to make sense of the world[2][3][4].

During

the act of imagination, we know that the object or action we are experiencing is not

real. But how do we come to have this knowledge?

Dreams are very similar to imagination except that they are involuntary in nature andoccur during sleep. During dreams, too, one experiences sensations, images and

actions without the causal physical factor (forget about the repressed desires for the

time being). Imagination, then, may be nothing more than the ability to day dream on

demand. The critical difference between dream and imagination is that of voluntary

control of imagination. In our real life we can generally segregate our conscious real

worldly experiences from our wakeful imaginations really well. In the real world,

objects and events are there, and cannot come and go on demand. On the other

hand, the objects and events in the realm of imagination are demand-generated we

all know that we can stop imagination/day-dreaming any time we like.

If the events and objects in the realm of imagination start acquiring the characteristics of

real world objects and events, i. e., they start pouring in without our ability to switch

them off, like real world objects and events do, the boundary line between reality and

4A knowledge base (abbreviated KB, kbor ) is a special kind ofdatabase for knowledge management, providingthe means for the computerized collection, organization, and retrieval ofknowledge. I would also include a databaseof knowledge about any experience (and related experiences), its results and how the problems and solutions arerelated. Knowledge representation (KR) aims at representing knowledge in symbols to facilitate inferencing fromthose knowledge elements, creating new elements of knowledge

[Wikipedia]

5

An object is any observable segment of our physical environment. Once observed, an object such as a tree willform part of our memory. Object (the tree) is now pared down to its bare essentials. Somewhere else in theconsciousness or memory, all the categorically related objects (objects in the category of trees) are summed up andblended together to define its physical and functional essence. This would be a symbol of our tree. Similarsymbols are produced for basic actions, such as division of an object into four equal pieces (mathematical symbol1/4), for the language and other spheres of interest. Over a period of time these symbols can get mutated,entrenched and nested, each getting detached from its primordial external origin and taking up a personality of itsown (as in advanced mathematical functions). An event is an observable change or series of changes in an objectas a result of physical processes. Observation of events gives us clues to the rules and laws that govern ourphysical world.

[Wikipedia]Like objects, events can also be symbolized, such as in mathematical functions (e.g.,

division). An action is a string of interlinked objects and events coordinated to produce a desired resul t.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retrievalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledgehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledgehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledgehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledgehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retrieval


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imagination starts getting blurred. The resulting state would then be called

hallucinations.6

The only demarcating feature that differentiates objects, events and

processes experienced in the world of imagination from that of hallucination is that of

voluntary control of the experience. Although hallucinations are generally considered to

be a feature of psychosis, there are occasions when a normal person may experience

them. Suddenly waking up during stage 1 sleep while experiencing a dream, we all

know how difficult it is to differentiate a dream experience from reality.

Process Control Status

Dream experience during sleep Involuntary Normal Dreaming

Dream experience while awake Voluntary Imagination

Dream experience while awake Involuntary Hallucinations

We all seem to have an innate ability to invent partial or complete personal realms

within our minds from the sensory perceptions of the elements derived from our shared

world. Our personal world is unique even when the elements perceived are shared. This

imaginary world and its imagined sensations are perceived in the mind, i. e., here

images are being seen through the "mind's eye".

A basic training for the imagination is to listen to a story narrative. [2][6] Here the use of

appropriate words by the storyteller and invocation of the essence of the objects and

events described would educe an experience. The strength and vividness of this

imaginary experience would depend upon the use of appropriate words. [7] Words

with layered meanings and implications would produce a more complex, richer picture

of the object or event in ones mind (King James Bible). As discussed earlier, it is most

likely that qualia of this experience would differ among the audience.

Imagination can also be expressed through stories such as fairytales or fantasies. Some

of the most famous inventions or entertainment products were created from the

inspiration originating in someone's imagination. Children often use narratives or

pretend play in order to exercise their imagination. When children create fantasy, they

play at two levels: first, they use role playing to act out what they have created with

their imagination, and at the second level they play again with their make-believe

situation by acting as if the role they have created is an actual reality participating in the

narrative myth. [8] Imagination has now transformed an imitation to a creation.Imagination with the help of reasoning can help provide meaning to physical experience

and events. It is also the state in which we may challenge the observed physical rules

6Hallucination, in the broadest sense of the word, is a perception in the absence of a stimulus.

[Wikipedia]


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and come up with a better explanation of the observed facts by formulating new

rules, and therefore form the basis of the inductive learning process.[2][5]

Consciousness

Being conscious carries at least two levels of meanings. First, and most obvious, isbeing aware (conscious) in contrast to being unaware or unconscious. The state of

unconsciousness is most often seen in medical states of anesthesia and brain damage

of various origins. Medical conditions that are associated with impairment of

consciousness are variously described as disorders of consciousness.[9]

7

All these

states -- disorders of consciousness as well as the state of dementia, delirium,

postictal state -- have two common denominators, loss of memory function and an

inability to apply the rules of reason (which may be due to loss of memory as well). This

type of consciousness may be considered as basal level consciousness because loss

of it causes unconsciousness. Since it is essential for animal existence, it is not, by

itself, very helpful in exploring the question of humanity.

The second definition of consciousness is more significant in this context but is harder

to pin down although every human knows what it means to be conscious. The

English word "conscious" originally derived from the Latin conscius (con- "together"

+ scire "to know"), but the Latin word did not have the same meaning as our word -- it

meant knowing with, in other words having joint or common knowledge with another.(Wikipedia)

In the Latin writings the phrase conscius sibi, was used repeatedly which

translates literally as "knowing with oneself", or in other words sharing knowledge with

oneself about something. (Wikipedia)

This conscius sibi, or its derivate, is the one we talk about while considering the

unique human consciousness. Ifwe startfrom an early stage of human development

to follow the evolution of human cognition and consciousness in a child and compare it

with that of an animal it would become easy to define the first point of divergence. That

point and events surrounding it, might shed some light on problem under discussion.

We all know that a newborn child is conscious but only at a basal level. In a few

months, he starts recognizing people and objects in his environment in a limited way

and is rapidly learning about the objects that surround him, their properties, and by

induction, the rules of reason, operating in his world. His constant explorative behavior

and playing is in fact a learning experience. At this stage you may see him spendingendless hours playing with shapes trying to slot them through appropriately shaped

holes. First trying at random, he may manage to slot one through the appropriate

7Locked-in syndrome -- the patient has awareness, sleep-wake cycles, and meaningful behavior (viz., eye-

movement), but is isolated due to quadriplegia and pseudobulbar palsy; Minimally conscious state -- the patienthas intermittent periods of awareness and wakefulness and displays some meaningful behavior; Persistentvegetative state -- the patient has sleep-wake cycles, but lacks awareness and only displays reflexive and non-purposeful behavior; Chronic coma -- the patient lacks awareness and sleep-wake cycles and only displays reflexivebehavior; and Brain death -- the patient lacks awareness, sleep-wake cycles, and behavior. [Wikipedia]
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consciousness#cite_note-chronic-56http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consciousness#cite_note-chronic-56http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consciousness#cite_note-chronic-56http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consciousness#cite_note-chronic-56


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openings - he then keeps on repeating the successful method (without necessarily

understanding the basis). The whole process often starts with the mother showing him

the right way to do it. This is, therefore, an example of social learning -- learning by

imitation and emulation without any insight. A bit later on in his life, he would start

associating a ball with a round hole. He has, by now, formed an image, a symbol of a

ball, which is very similar to the round hole. He has achieved an insight to reach the

logically reasoned process for problem resolution. Once he has reached this stage,

the novelty of this particular game would wear off.

By now he also starts acquiring language -- the linguistic symbols for description of

objects and events (or desired events - eating food). In our human language, word is a

symbolic representation of an object, its property or event, etc. But a word, i. e., a

symbol, any word, presupposes a generalization which requires an act of thought

symbol consciousness. In a childs language, words start with simple core meanings.

As he expands his experience and encounters different uses of the same word, the

process of generalization beginswith the core, prototype concept in the middle and

ever decreasing similarities farther away on the periphery. This generalized concept of

a word would define meanings located in the objects, their properties and related events

and practices which constitute its meaning in entirety. So a child can begin to operate

in the adult sphere with quite sophisticated words and symbols but with limited

meanings for him. Even when the child may not have grasped the full meaning of a

word like an adult beginning to grasp the meaning of unfamiliar words -- by using the

word in the right place at the right time, he has started the process of acquiring the full

meaning through his involvement in the system of usage of that word.[51]

The start of symbol-consciousness (see more detailed discussion later) gives a child the

ability to recognize pictures as a representation of real 3D objects in the real world.

Something has happened in his brain. He has acquired the capacity to symbolize the

objects, events, sounds, and images. He is now able to see the world and

communicate with the world in symbols. By the age of three years, mother starts to read

him simple stories. Words depicting objects and events in the story can not only be

understood but are visualized in the minds eye. This is the beginning of the stage of

imagination.Early on in this stage, the child would often find it difficult to differentiate his

fantasy world from the real one, but gradually he acquires this distinction too. He also

starts to understand and apply the rules of reason to his thought processes, and withincreasing repertoire of rules of reason at his disposal his ability to process objects

and events rationally keeps on increasing.

One of the ways to get to the bottom of the question of being human is to see and

compare this early human development of cognition, consciousness and problem

solving skills with those of non-humans. Over the last decade, there has been growing

interest in the physical cognition of non-human animals, particularly those that regularly


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use tools in the wild. Study of use of tools to overcome a specific hurdle lends itself for

scientifically scrutiny because of its simple, robust, repeatable nature. Seen in the wild,

every species of animals - both the tool-using and non-tool using confront daily

problems and these complex physical problems are resolved with or without use of the

tools thats the reason of their continued existence. There is a general consensus,

however, that they appear to do so through the use ofassociative learning rather than

causal reasoning. [1326] In the wild, chimpanzees have been observed making and using

tools in order to achieve a predefined objective; they have been seen using plant stems

to fish for social insects or using stones to crack open hard shelled nuts[42,43]

.

Experimental studies show that new skills are generally learned by chimpanzees

through a process of observation. Chimpanzees have a suite of different social learning

mechanisms -- observation, emulation & imitation. [44] This has led to assertions that

human physical cognition is fundamentally different from that of other animals.[27,28, 29]

To compare human cognition - at different stages of development - with that of an

animal, scientists have devised a test called trap tube test. This test objectively

assesses the ability and proficiency of the subject (animal or a child) to employ a tool (a

stick here) to achieve a desired result getting a cookie out of a Perspex tube. The

transparent, 2 diameter, Perspex tube, open at both ends, with a blind trap in the

middle is fixed at appropriate height. A cookie (or any appropriate reward) is placed in

the tube out of unassisted reach. An appropriate sized, light weight pole is provided to

the subject with which it may push the cookie, to get it out. If it is pushed from the wrong

end the cookie would drop in the trap and would be un-retrievable. In the figure below

the figure A shows the functional trap-tube here the trap is functional and the

cookie has to be pushed from right side to get it out. Use the left opening and thecookie would be pushed into the trap preventing the reward acquisition. In the figure

B the trap is rotated 180 degrees and now the trap has become non-functional here

the subject can use both the ends of the tube to get the reward .[reproduced from readily available

resources, 60]


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Researchers in child development have become interested in how children learn to use

tools and to compare it with the tool-using skill of non-human primates. During early

stages of human development, like in chimpanzees, this learning is through observation

-- imitation without understanding the causal relationship.[45] By the age of 3 years,

children have gone a stage further and are able to solve tasks that involve

understanding some basic causal principles such as contact [46], force [47], and gravity,

as well as tasks that require the combination of these principles to correctly predict the

outcome of causal events [48].

Presented with the trap-tube task at the age of 3 to 4 years, children appeared to be

overwhelmed by the multiple causal relationships presented in the experiment, with

some children showing a significant side bias for the end of the tube, used by the

experimenter, in her first successful trial and thus relying on imitation rather than an

understanding of the causal relationshipsinvolved. However, by the age of 5 to 6 years,

children showed no evidence of a side bias and thus did not seem to imitate the actions

of the demonstrator in this respect. It appears that as the childrens individual

understanding of the causal relationships increased, their reliance on imitation

decreased. Thus, a critical level of understanding seems to have been reached by

children between the ages of 5 and 6 years, when individual learning negated a reliance

on learning by observation. [40] Although younger children may have knowledge about

the causal relationships involved in the trap-tube task, they may not be able to apply this

knowledge until they are older.

Chimpanzees in the wild may take many years to learn tool-use tasks such as nut

cracking that involve multiple causal relationships. Longitudinal studies have shown that

youngsters learn to crack nuts in stages. In the first stage, they combine nuts and anvils

(and hope it would do the job), then combine hammers and anvils, only later combining

all three relationships to successfully crack nuts[49]

. This supports the hypothesis that

chimpanzees, like young children, learn by observation without clear understanding of

the causality of relationships. Somehow this development gets arrested in chimpanzees

and never proceeds on as it would in humans. By the age of six, humans have crossed

a bridge into a new state of symbol consciousness (see below), and have also

acquired an ability to manipulate these symbols in their realm of thought regna

cogitatio.

Types of Consciousness

It may be helpful here to consider two types of consciousness proposed by Ned Block:

phenomenal(P-consciousness) and access (A-consciousness). [12] P-consciousness

is simply raw experience: it is moving, colored, three dimensional forms, sounds,

sensations, emotions and feelings with our bodies and responses at the center. These

experiences are called qualia. (Wikipedia) These qualia have little if any impact on behavior


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(decision making). A-consciousness consists of information that is globally available in

the cognitive system for the purposes of reasoning, speech and high-level action

control. Here information in our minds is accessible for verbal report, reasoning, and the

control of behavior. (Wikipedia) So when we perceive, information about what we perceive

is access conscious; when we introspect, information about our thoughts is access

conscious; when we remember, information about the past is access conscious; and so

on. (Wikipedia)

I would propose that A-consciousness can be further subdivided into two functionally

different categories: Object-consciousness and Symbol-consciousness. Object

consciousness is the primitive function of consciousness and is used both by animals

and humans for gaining awareness of the environment, responding to challenges by

observation of objects and processes, and then imitating the successful method without

understanding the causal associations. This sort of consciousness and its related

memory is used by both animals and humans for social learning (problem solving by

imitation).

Imagine a pride of lions stalking a deer. The way the pride moves and plans its attack,

the way the exit paths are blocked, the way each individual lioness performs its function

belies a plan and strategic thinking. The deer, on its own part, is aware or the smell of

the hunter and the alarm calls of the baboon and hoopoes, and more often than not

finds a way out of the trap again intelligent actions. These plans and actions have

been honed over millions of years of selection and learning by observation. This type of

learning is object oriented. It is passed on from older to younger members by

observation and imitation, with minimal causal understanding or modification. Both the

predator and the prey treat each other as objects. Information is handled by object-

consciousness without ever developing the more advanced route of symbol-

consciousness to be categorized into prototype classes (see prototype theory below).

In this object-consciousness, the observed object/event is perceived in the

consciousness and retained in the memory as an object full and three dimensional.

A dog would need a three dimensional dog model -- appropriately covered with fur to

perceive it as another dog. It will not be able to recognize a dog picture on a piece of

paper what to say of a pencil drawing of a dog. Limitation of this state of

consciousness to the realistic forms only prevents the objects to be symbolized and

categorized.

Realizing this limitation of object-consciousness is important. Objects, too, can be taken

from the physical world into ones (realm of thought) regna cognitatio and can then be

manipulated according to the rules of reason. We do it all the time. But an object per se

is clumsy, full of unessential details, and that makes it difficult to handle. Convert it to a

symbol and a new world of possibilities open up imagine functions and symbols of


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mathematics. On top of that, the properties and rules applicable to one object would

stay limited to it and would not automatically extend to its class, had it been grouped

into one. Object-consciousness would only allow a strict definition based classification.

For example, we may define a bird as something with a beak, feather and ability to fly

by this definition, ostriches and penguins are not included in the class of birds, thus

limiting the scope of learning and imagination. This limitation of object-oriented

learning would demand the same rule and property to be observed and learned

independently even for objects broadly belonging to the same class.

Because of its inherent clumsiness and lack of breadth, object-consciousness and its

related object-associated learning place unrealistic demands on the memory, limiting it

to the most basic, survival benefitting, functions. These survival benefitting functions

are learned by peer observation. It happens when a member of our tribe would stumble

upon a solution to a problem purely by chance. The rest of his tribe can then observe

the successful solution and imitate his actions without any understanding of the causal

relationship. As a result, this learned behavior would stay limited to that particular object

or process without any chance of extension to a category -- for projection of property or

function. A monkey may learn by chance that it can break open a nut by smashing it

with a stone to get the edible kernel. Give him a coconut: would he use the same

method to reach the edible flesh? Here the objects, events and memory are being

sorted and processed in a fashion which is quite different from those of symbol-

consciousness.

Symbol-consciousness is a type of consciousness acquired later on in human

development where objects and actions can be symbolized. This function gives us the

ability to pare down the observed objects and actions to their bare essentials. When we

observe a table, we process the object by stripping it down to its essence. Then a ll the

tables we have ever seen - four legged, three legged, one legged and tables of other

sorts, dining table, writing table are unified in this symbolic category of table sharing

the unique property of tableness to an extent that even a smashed-up table on the

rubbish heap can still be easily recognized as a table. Thus, when we read or think of a

table, what we have is a symbol, without conjuring up a specific image of any object

called table.8

8The theory of ideas attributed to Plato centers around the concept of "forms". He believed that every physical object

in the world has a corresponding "form" or idea behind it, epitomizing its very nature. The usual example given is thatof a table. One can physically interact with a table; it is solid and capable of holding whatever is placed upon itssurface, it has a certain number of legs, it is made of a certain type of material. Then there is its "tableness", theunderlying idea of what it is to be a table, which is above and beyond its physical characteristics. "Tableness" makesall tables what they are. It serves as their essence. Nothing else besides tables has the essence of "tableness".Similar distinction in the essence of an object and physical object has been recognized in Hindu philosophy, and iscalled nmarpa, nma describing the spiritual or essential properties of an object or being, and rpa the physicalpresence that it manifests.


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This symbolization and then categorization of symbols provides us with a powerful tool

where rules of reason applicable to one member of a class can be extended to

include the entire class of objects or actions through a process of conceptual blending.

This in turn opens up the possibility to learn in a very different way. A stripped down

version of reality (symbols of objects and processes) is made which is easier to handle

in the world of imagination. These symbolic objects and processes can now be

manipulated in our mind within the frame work of the rules of reason like we do while

performing a thought experiment Allowing us to reach conclusions and create

understanding of causal associations.[9[

Here we can glimpse the beginning of that

human capacity we call insight. Symbol-consciousness thus has a fundamental and

pre-eminent role in human understanding to give him an ability to make sense of

events and objects. This capacity of symbol-consciousness and associated

categorization of objects, events and properties would reduce demands on the memory

function and give a huge survival benefit to the possessor of the trait.

Qualia of P-consciousness and Essence ofSymbol-Consciousness

Qualia is the raw experience which differs from one observer to another and is therefore

not shareable. Since it is not available globally, it is unsuitable for use in the realm of

thought regna cognitatio for the purpose of general applicability of rules of reason.

Symbol or essence of an object, on the other hand, as used in the concept of object-

consciousness, is a pared-down representation of an object or process which is globally

available and, therefore, available for manipulation by the rules of reason.

Irrespective of their origin -- from our physical world or from our thoughts there are

objects, events, processes or actions which require making sense of. We call themproblems. Problems in need of resolution are often manipulated and solved by humans

in our sphere of imagination realm of thought regna cognitatio as a thought

experiment, before the solution gets implemented in the real world.

Comprehension of the problem begins with breaking down the event into its constituent

objects, processes and events. The objects are symbolized, then the processes and

events are applied to them within the framework of the rules of reason. Now the

process of stringing and restringing of these symbols and processes begins until the

required outcome is achieved. The desired outcome may be achievable through more

than one route. In this process the most obvious route is the one that has beenwitnessed by us to function successfully in a closely related situation. This is the

convergent route to solution where a pre-established process known to be successful

9 Rules of reason themselves can also be considered as processes or actions and can be acquired by

observation of the physical phenomena and then symbolized in the same manner as previously described (it is notequivalent to derivation of mathematics from logic). Once symbolized and manipulated repeatedly in our thought,these rules of reason may ultimately appear astonishingly surrealistic and removed from everyday experience, as inquantum mechanics.


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in resolving a closely related problem is tinkered with minimally to suit a new situation.

Compare this with imitation where a behavior or action is adopted without modification

to resolve a problem.

When you hear someone say, When he sat in the chair, it broke down, the image your

mind conjures up is not that ofa particular chair with four legs or three, with or withoutarms, and of any particular color. What you conceive is the chairness of a chair, its

essence -- which is acted upon within the constraints of the rules of reason. This action

would have precipitated that event of interest the person was too fat, the chair was too

flimsy, and when it breaks down, pieces are always imagined as falling down, rather

going in any other direction under the rules of reason (gravity). Conversion of objects

into symbols here seems crucial as it pares down the non-essential details and limits it

to the bare essence of the objectin line with Platos assertion.

This symbolization not only allows objects to be classified according to the essence of

the objectsclass of tables, class of apples, class of humans, class of Chinese,and so on -- but would also extend the class properties to related classes (and

symbols). An object may belong to more than one class at the same time depending

upon the physical property under consideration. A dog can simultaneously belong to

class of live objects, animals, domesticated animals, etc. This categorization of objects

and events follows the prototype theory of categorization, allowing rules to be applied,

even if loosely, in an extended domain of objects/events.10

In the realm of imagination, these symbols (of objects) can be manipulated/rearranged

and sequenced in different ways to be subjected to different processes (always

governed by the rules of reason) to precipitate an event. As previously explained, theserules of reason are the scientific laws of our physical world and are formulated by a

process of induction, based on experimental evidence and observed facts. Reason,

playing within the rules, can manipulate the objects and events until it can achieve the

desired result. This is all happening within the sphere of imagination. Reason, unlike

logic, can move forward, manipulating objects to achieve a goal, or go backward.

Starting with the results of an observation, it can construct a mental picture of a series

of objects, events and processes that must have happened to have produced the

observed phenomenon -- trying all the time to limit it within the rules as defined

previously.

10Prototype theory is a mode of graded categorization in cognitive science where some members of a category are

more central than others. For example, when asked to give an example of the concept furniture, chairis morefrequently cited than, say, stool. Prototype theory also plays a central role in linguistics, as part of the mappingfrom phonological structure to semantics.

[Rosch E. "Cognitive Representation of Semantic Categories": J Experimental Psychology v. 1975; 104:192-233]

Thus instead of a definition-based model, e.g., a bird being defined as an object with essential features such as[+feathers], [+beak] and [+ability to fly], prototype theory would consider a category like bird as consisting ofdifferentelements which have unequal status -- e.g., a robin is more prototypical of a birdthan, say, apenguin.

[Wikipedia]


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Ever so infrequently, however, the observed phenomenon cannot be explained by any

amount of manipulation of objects, processes and events within the frame work of

existing rules. Then with a stroke of genius, the observer invents new rules which would

logically explain the observed fact. These new rules must also be able to explain the

related observation equally well if not better than the existing rules, or stay self-

contained without violating all the other rules.

Speech

As discussed earlier, speech development is by no means a uniquely human attribute.

Let us consider, step by step, speech development in a child. The first step in this long

process begins when infants begin forming categories for the common speech sounds

they hear, not the whole words so much as the little units we call phonemes, less than

a tenth of a second in duration. Categorization of these sounds allow them to generalize

any single phonemes across speakers, so that the mothers basound and the fathers

somewhat deeperba sound are treated the same despite their differences. By about a

year of age, babies stop hearing many of these differences, having standardized these

phonemes through a process of categorization and blending. By now, babies have

started discovering patterns in the strings of phonemes and acquiring six to nine new

words every day, just from the examples they hear -- long before they begin speaking

them.[53]

In turn, these words and strings of words can be categorized too - you can

imagine the analogy of a category of trees, with underlying groups of category of

branches and category of leaves. These phonemes, words and word strings are

auditory counterparts of objects in the visual domain and may be processed like other

objects, in the domain of object consciousness, both by animals and humans. Even ifphonemes remain meaningless the words start acquiring meaning -- symbolization.

This is the stage when an auditory experience defining an object is shifted from object

consciousness to the domain ofsymbol consciousness.

You might well consider children to behave like sponges soaking up words and

phrases - but this notion implies passive acquisition. It appears the process is more

active.[53] Young children tend to pile up words atop the phonemes, pyramid fashion, to

construct new compound structures made from simpler building blocks. But the process

does not end here - they do it all over again to string words into sentences. Discovering

patterns in the strings of words they hear and inferring the grammar of that particularlanguage: They infer ways of making past tenses, plurals and nested phrases. All of this

is happening very early - between the ages of 18 and 36 months. Once appropriately

grounded they are ready to take off - detecting patterns on even longer time scales

group of sentences - we may call it a nice story. They infer that a satisfying story has a

have a beginning, middle, and a wrap-up ending - and then they start demanding proper

endings to their bedtime stories."[53]


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Speech thus acquired could have been an instrument of transmission of knowledge,

skills and ideas to the other members of the tribe and to the next generation. It would

start a feedback loop when ever-increasing repertoire of skills, information and

knowledge would force a parallel development of speech to cater for this expanding

canvas of events. Thus, speech, instead of being an engine of this revolution, could

simply be the result of increased demand for words and expressions to cater for the

events and thoughts generated by our creative imagination.

Dichotomy of Mind and Body

The mind-body problem concerns the explanation of the relationship, if there is one, that

exists between mind / mental processes, and bodily states / bodily processes.

Plato approached this problem by placing our material body in a material world while

placing soul in the world of ideas soul, for him, therefore was as immortal as an idea.

He explained life as a temporary union of the soul with its material body which would get

separated from it at death Soul would, then, return to the world of Forms. [Wikipedia] Healso would believe that since the soul does not exist within limits of physical space and

time, as the body does, it can access universal truths.[Wikipedia]

Several questions about consciousness must be resolved in order to acquire a full

understanding of this problem. These questions include, but are not limited to, whether

being conscious could be wholly described in physical terms, such as the aggregation of

neurons, synapses, electric impulses and other neural processes in the brain.[Wikipedia]

It

follows that if consciousness cannot be explained exclusively by physical events in the

brain, it must transcend the capabilities of physical systems and require an explanation

of non-physical means. [Wikipedia]

Our perceptual experiences depend on stimuli which arrive at our various sensory

organs from the external world. Imagine a European turning on the radio to hear a

speech in the Chinese language. He can hear something this is perception of a

stimulus -- but in order to make sense of it all, he has to relate each Chinese word to its

respective symbols of objects, actions, etc., and then string all these symbols together,

within the rules of reason, to come up with a coherent idea about the speech. This

question can be put to rest if we can somehow make a conscious machine (more on

this later).

However, this problem can be largely resolved, at least on the philosophical level, when

we consider the world, its objects, rules and actions in a prototype symbolic way. These

symbolic objects and events get processed in the domain of imagination within the

framework of rules to yield certain conclusions. These conclusions in turn are nothing

more than another set of objects and events, albeit in the domain of imagination. This

resultant object/event can itself become the starting point for a fresh set of processing in

our imagination acting as a feedback loop to create a nested surrogate reality. This


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process can continue until the final result may seem so detached from the realm of

reality that we would struggle to define this state say, for example, surrealistic

existence of mathematics. We may call this state consciousness. This process of

feedback loop will create a landscape of virtual events, all possible but existent only in

our mind. This apparent dichotomy would explain the apparent dichotomy of mind and

the physical world.

This process of symbol categorization and remembering the rules of reason is

inherently dependent upon the memory function. Loss of recent memory as would

generally happen at the beginning of dementia -- would impair proper acquisition and

categorization ofnew events and objects (and learning new rules of reasons although

new rules are very uncommon) but previously acquired rules of reason are still

preservedgiving him a semblance of consciousness. Decline of old memory, as seen in

advancing dementia, would gradually extinguish old functions, objects, classes and

rules - now we would discern a parallel decline in the conscious state.

Creativity

Since olden days, creativity was seen as a gift of gods a matter of divine inspiration,

giving a person that unique ability to see and discover what is hidden from the

ordinary. To describe this facility in those rare gifted beings, Romans and Greeks

invoked the concept of a creative "daemon" (Greek) or "genius" (Latin) and linked it to

the sacred and the divine.[Wikipedia]

This concept of creative genius, sans divinity, is still

very close and relevant in our modern times.[33]

Concluding his survey of scientific

research into creativity, Michael Mumford summarizes that creativity involves the

production of novel, useful products. [30]11

Rather than being a uniform, monolithic entity / activity, creativity, rightfully, can mean

different things to different people. The Little-c/Big-C model[31]

defined "creativity"

either as something new and relatively rare in a historical sense (major scientific

discoveries or great works of art) Big-C; or as producing something new in a personal

sense -- an apparent innovation for the creator, regardless of whether others have

made similar innovations already or whether others value the particular act of creation,

Little-c.[Wikipedia] This approach was further modified by James C. Kaufman and

Beghetto into a four-C model. 12 It helped us to clearly demarcate the spectrum of

11Torrance Tests of Creative Thinking, developed in 1966, aim to quantify the extent of divergent thinking and other

problem-solving skills. Three broad areas are tested for scoring: Fluency the total number of interpretable,meaningful and relevant ideas generated in response to a stimulus; Originality the statistical rarity of (viablyproblem solving) responses among the test subjects; and Elaboration the amount of detail in the responses.

12 mini-c: transformative learning, which means "finding a meaningful interpretations and insights of objects,

actions, events and experiences, in personal domain"; l i t t le-c:everyday problem solving and creative expression;Pro-C: exhibited by people who are professionally or vocationally creative but not eminent (a surgeon finds a new


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creativity in any creative endeavor ranging from the creative domain of the amateur

un-apprenticed at the bottom of creative domain laddersurrealis through the

professional who has achieved domain-competency to the far end of creative genius. By

using Kaufmans four-C model of creativity we were also able to explain other models

and theories of creativity that put greater emphasis upon domain-competence as an

essential component, and domain transformation as the highest mark of creativity.[32][Wikipedia]

It appears that creative thinking goes along a different path with trying to find the

solution to a problem. In this context, we can draw a distinction between convergent and

divergent thinking.[34]

Events that are frequently observed become a part of our

consciousness and we categorize them as obvious. Convergent thinking would make

use of this proven obvious path for a predetermined outcome to solve run-of-the-mill

problems. Here the symbolized objects and events are manipulated according to

convention as we saw our parents doing - generating acceptable commonplace

solutions to the problem. It is thinking within the box. But what if do not want the

outcome to be the same, what if we want the outcome to be just that bit different from

the out of the box solution? Here we would allow our imagination to play with the objects

and events in multiple and novel waysto generate numerous and novel solutions one

of which might provide for that different outcome it is called divergent thinking.

Novelty that is required to think divergently often results from ones ability to group

objects, events and rules loosely according to the prototype theory and by neural

cross-talk and uncommon connectivity of sensory events as is often seen in

synesthetes.

Arguably, the essence of art and creativity is metaphor. Metaphor is just a convenient

shorthand for making connection of cognitive phenomena, which to ordinary people, are

only distantly related her blue eyes were deep as a lake, her hair rippled like ocean

waves, etc. In here, the far-flung parts of ones brain related to different perceptions and

ideas are unusually cross connected. These creative people can invoke weak

associations and similarities of the sensory perceptions which is obscured in normally

connected people hidden in the noise of the background jitter. That is exactly what

appears to happen in the minds of synesthetes.[50]

stitching technique most of the science articles fall into this category); and Big-C: reserved for those insights which

are considered truly great and have domain changing effect in their field (e.g., Max Planks Quantum Theory).
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creativity#cite_note-KaufBeg2009-11http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creativity#cite_note-KaufBeg2009-11http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creativity#cite_note-KaufBeg2009-11


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According to the famous neuroscientist Ramachandran, all of us in the human specieshave a bit of perceptual cross-talk. "All of us synesthetes, at least to some extent," he

declaress before proposing a test. Look at the shapes above. Imagine that one is

named "kiki" and the other "booba". Which one is which? Doesnt the shape at right

strikes you as kiki and booba is at left? Most of us would relate the jaggedness of the

shape on the right with the abruptness of the phonemes in kiki, while the shape on the

left with its rounded shape would appear to correspond well with the rolling sounds of

booba.[50] Now imagine an Urdu word qeh-qa-ha which means laughing out loud:

Not only does the sound of the word reproduce the staccato effect of laughter, but the

word itself seems to be happily showing its teeth. This sort of sensory distortion is

called illusion when it is generally shared by a vast majority of people. But if an Illusion

stays within the perceptual boundaries of a single individual - is not shared universally -

it would become a feature of schizotypy (see later).According to Ramachandran, whatappears to be a metaphoric illusion to people at large is a literal sensory experience for

a creative artist his world has been distorted to some extent by cross-linked neural

pathways to induce illusions. That may explain, he said, why synesthesia is eight times

more common among poets, artists and novelists than in the general population. [50]

Divergent thinking is sometimes used as a synonym for creativity in psychology

literature. [Wikipedia]


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Considering the preceding discussion, every act of new problem solving can be

considered as an act of creativity (even at the level of mini-c). As we believe that

creativity can only occur in the domain of symbol-consciousness, therefore any act of

creativity but Big-C in particular - would need the objects, actions and events to be

symbolized, for the proposed model to work.

This also means that creativity cannot take place in the domain of object-

consciousness. Imitation behavior without understanding causal relationship does not

demand any thinking at all. Only in the domain of symbol-consciousness may these

symbols be manipulated with ease and rules of reasons applied to the whole category

efficiently so that causal relationships can be established. Introduce a scattering of

schizotypy and the scene is set for imagination to run wild with divergent thinking

modifying symbolized objects and events to the extent of distorting the rules of

reason. This modification of object, event or rules of reason in such a novel way to

come up with a useful product with unique and novel properties and function is called

creativity. Creativity demands that objects and rules are handled divergently in an

out-of-the-box fashion.

Take the example ofPicassospainting Girl before mirror.

Examine closely and you would find symbols some obvious some subtle, open for

interpretation - within different parts of this painting. Look at the womans face, for

example, it is painted with a side profile as well as a full frontal image. This is a

distortion of rules of reason normally you should not be able to see both the profile


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and the frontal view from a single point of observation. Profile of her face shows her

face more like a woman, all dolled up wearing her makeup during the day time. The

other side portrays her at night emphasized with the rough charcoal texture (see

another violation of the rule linearity of time) looking younger, vulnerable and sad

without the mask of her makeup.[41]

Coming back to the thought process and creativity, let us think a little out of the box,

When symbolized objects are taken into the thought domain, we have a perception of

an object without a real one being there. Compare it with the act of hallucination you

are imagining objects and actions without an outside stimulus. Now processing these

images and events divergently in order to reach various possible conclusions

simultaneously -- compare it with thought disorder to come up with a novel solution in

the end you believe is correct -- compare it with delusion. Some of the conclusions

proposed by the theory of relativity and quantum mechanics were in fact considered

delusions by the saner colleagues of Max Plank (see more in the later discussion of

schizotypy).

If even a simple act of solving a mundane problem is a sort of creative work (mini-c),

can animals be considered creative when they solve their problems? But before we

grant this label to a stereotype, un-thought-out action, imitated because it happened to

be successful, we must think first about imitation -- making an object or perform an act

(as one would see, or hear, or sense) resembling the original as closely as possible. As

previously discussed, a lot of apparently intelligent animal behavior may be no more

than imitation or social learning.

There is, no doubt, a significant chunk of animal behavior, seen from primates to crows,which could not have happened without their having an insight of the problem.

Modification of material to make task-specific tools is but one example. It appears that

some rudimentary object-specific insight and creativity is possible in the domain of

object-consciousness but the contribution of symbol-consciousness in the animal

creativity would need further experimentation.

Schizotypy and Schizoid personality disorder

Schizotypy is a psychological concept which considers a continuous spectrum starting

from normal dissociative, imaginative states to more extreme states related toschizophrenia. [Wikipedia] This concept of gradation of imagination from normal to frank

hallucination stands in contrast to the categorical view of psychosis, where the sharply

defined compartment of schizophrenia stands apart from normalcy.13

13Four characteristic features of schizotypy are: Unusual exper iences-- disposition to have unusual perceptual and

other cognitive experiences, such as hallucinations, and magical or superstitious interpretation of these experiences.Visual hallucinations operate on a spectrum starting with over-acuteness of the senses to illusions in the middle and


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There is evidence in experimental psychology to suggest that in schizotypal population

there is a relative weakness of inhibitory neurological mechanisms.[Wikipedia]

One

consequence of this weakness of inhibitory mechanisms in high schizotypes and

schizophrenics might be a weakened homeostasis in the central nervous system which

could lead to episodes of hyper-arousal and then sleep as a provoked reaction.[35][36]

Similarities between Stage 1 sleep and psychosis have been recognized, which include

hallucinations, delusions, and flattened or inappropriate affect (emotions).[37][38]

According to this model, on account of their tendency to high arousal, schizotypes and

schizophrenics are people who are liable to micro-sleeps, or intrusions of Stage

1 sleep phenomena into waking consciousness. [Wikipedia]

Empathy and Conscience

Our ability to empathize with others facing a tragic situation may be explained by the

previously described method of reductive symbolism. We are aware of ourselves -- the

self-concept. Even animals have a limited awareness of self as evidenced by themirror test.

14As a result of this self-awareness, one would realize that ones body,

though different and special in a lot of way, is very much a part of this world of objects

and events. Therefore, the objective properties and rules of reason are equally

applicable to his self. If fire could incinerate other similar objects, the same would

happen to his own body if it is subjected to the fire. Treating ourselves like all the other

objects, events and rules, we can also apply the rules of categorization to ourselves.

We know that we belong to a family group even animals do then we belong to our

clan, our racial/religious group, national group and to humanity at large an ever

actual hallucinations on the far end. Cognit ive disorg anizat ion-- a tendency for thoughts to become derailed,disorganized or to invoke tangential associations with the objects and events situated at the periphery oftheprototype class. Int roverted anhedo nia-- a tendency to be introverted, emotionally flat in social behavior, withdecreased ability to feel pleasure from social and physical stimuli. Impu ls ive nonco nformity-- disposition tounstable mood and behavior, particularly with regard to rules and social conventions.

14 In the mirror test devised by Gordon G. Gallup, an animal's skin is marked in some way while it is asleep or

sedated, and it is then allowed to see its reflection in a mirror; if the animal spontaneously directs grooming behaviortowards the mark, that is taken as an indication that it is aware of itself. Self-awareness, by this criterion, has beenreported for chimpanzees and also for other great apes, the European Magpie, some cetaceans and asolitary elephant, but not for monkeys. The mirror test has attracted controversy among some researchers because itis entirely focused on vision, the primary sense in humans, while other species rely more heavily on other sensessuch as the olfactory sense in dogs. It has been suggested that metacognition in some animals provides some

evidence for cognitive self-awareness. The great apes, dolphins, and rhesus monkeys have demonstrated the abilityto monitor their own mental states and use an "I don't know" response to avoid answering difficult questions. Thesespecies might also be aware of the strength of their memories. Unlike the mirror test, which relies primarily on bodyimages and bodily self-awareness, uncertainty monitoring paradigms are focused on the kinds of mental states thatmight be linked to mental self-awareness. A different approach to determine whether a non-human animal isconscious derives from passive speech research with a macaw. Some researchers propose that by passivelylistening to an animal's voluntary speech, it is possible to learn about the thoughts of another creature and todetermine that the speaker is conscious. This type of research was originally used to investigate a child's cribspeech by Weir (1962) and in investigations of early speech in children by Greenfield and others (1976). With

speech-capable birds, the methods of passive-speech research open a new avenue for investigation.[? needed

Wikipedia]


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increasing circle. We can see our family members perhaps as individuals, but in a larger

group of Germans, for example, we have just a vague idea of a German a class

property, a symbol only. As we are aware of belonging to a particular group by

extension we become part of the class-symbol as well. In this scenario I am aware of

being part of a symbolic class entity called humans.

Now one human experience can be extended to every other object (human) included in

this class -- conceptual blending. Because I am also a part of this class, a story/sight of

torture of any human being can induce emotional pain of the sort experienced by the

real victimbeing part of this class called humans. This ability to stand in someone

elses shoes is the root of all the ethics, fair play and justice because we would find it

abhorrent/unpleasant if justice/fair-play is denied to us. Armies all over the world know

that if you de-humanize a person (enemy) then killing him becomes much easier

almost a sport. Feeling revulsion at the sight of animals being tortured is similar

because we belong to a broader class of animals. Note that we feel much less bothered

by trees being mutilated and perhaps not at all if stones could be mutilated.

Ethics:

Need for ethical rules and behavior arose when splintered family groups of prehumen

ancestors coalesced to form tribes. Selective pressure to go along this path has already

been discussed in the section of culture (page-2). An individual or a family group

operates within the Darwinian model - The winner takes all and less successful ones

are pushed to the margins forcing them to adapt to unexplored ecological niches -

Failing to do so, they become extinct. In this battle of survival there are no ethics A

lion devouring a young defenseless wider beast is considered just natural and no ethical

term of cruelty is applied.

Moving on from family groups governed by Darwinian model to a tribal structure

incurred survival advantage to the whole group being able to defend and encroach,

collective hunting, and communal care etc. In a sense a tribe has become a super-

organism and each member gets survival advantage when the tribe survives. (see

below)

Individual sacrifices big or small, for the tribal advantage, in this context, become

explicable these are geared to defend his own kin/genes in the tribe. Similar behavior

is seen in social animals honey bees where distribution of labor and individual hard

work of worker bees and sacrifice of soldiers would result in the survival of the colony

and its genes. Working of a honey bee colony from the context of an individual worker

bee is totally exploitative barred from reproducing condemned to hard labor till death.


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But remember she is the daughter of the same queen a princess indeed soldiers

dying in defense of the colony is the offspring of the same mother. Getting injured or

dying for the colony is in defense of ones own genetic survival. A honey bee colony has

become a super-organism.

One might imagine folding ones arms over the head to protect it from a blow arms arecourting injury to protect the head for the sake of survival of the organism.

But genetically determined Darwinian compulsions - to grab it all for yourself, lingers on

just beneath the surface. Some tribal members may not share the hunt or do very little

in return for the protection and social security provided by the tribe to become free

loader. In response, the tribe evolves practices to discourage such antisocial behavior.

These behaviors evolve over period of time and get ever more sophisticated as ever

increasing numbers of conflicts are catered for. These enforced cultural practices are

the advent of ethical behavior. Anyone caught breaking these rules is reprimanded and

punished with the ultimate punishment of banishment from the tribe withdrawal ofphysical & social security of the tribe.

These ethics are only operative to the extent of the tribe. Each tribe now becomes an

organism engaged in perpetual Darwinian struggle with other tribes/organism in this

battle of survival of the fittest. You might well imagine nation states as tribe and a

super-big organism with its rules and ethics for its own tribal members, but when

facing competition from a different tribe/nation code of conduct

drifts increasingly towards the Darwinian struggle becoming

ever more pronounced with increasing tribal/national

dissimilarities.

Honor

The word honor, not surprisingly, can carry a variety of

meanings because honor is a social construct very similar to

the concept of beauty. In diverse cultures beauty has

different attributes. Similarly Honor can have an extended

spectrum of meanings. It would depict those actions or

behaviors considered honorable in a particular society. But

here I would use this word in the sense used by Dr. Samuel

Johnson in his Dictionary of the English Language (1755). He

defined honor as "nobility of soul, magnanimity, and a scorn of

meanness." This sort of honor is derived from the perceived

virtuous conduct and personal integrity of the person endowed

with it. [Wikipedia] Definition of virtuous conduct and personal


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integrity is again dependent upon the cultural norms and society often confers social

advantage to those who exhibit these traits. To explain it let us do a thought

experiment: Imagine one is in a position to dispense justice Dispensation of justice, in

any culture, would demand impartiality and fair-play. What happens if fair and

impartial decision can only be delivered at your own expense (causing loss to you

personally)? What would you do? It is a hard question; it is a question of being

honorableisnt it?

The question is, What is the reason for the existence of a person, willing to do justice at

his own expense? It appears that this ability originated in the humans with the onset

of prototypic classification with it we were able to categorize ourselves with other

humans could stand in their shoes, feel their emotions and suffer their pains and then

could empathize with them. Once we recognize that empathy and desire for fair play

has its roots in our ability to categorize ourselves with other human beings, it is not hard

to imagine the vestiges of honor taking root here. Sometimes in a particular situation a

what is it to be a “human”

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