What is life?What is life?

The main property of The main property of life: life:

its its complexitycomplexityIt is unprecedented in the inanimate world.It is unprecedented in the inanimate world.

Because of their fantastic complexity, living Because of their fantastic complexity, living systems systems never arise spontaneouslynever arise spontaneously in in whatever fluxes of external energy. They whatever fluxes of external energy. They only come to existence by means of only come to existence by means of copying of some other living systemscopying of some other living systems..

In contrast, ordered processes in the In contrast, ordered processes in the inanimate nature arise spontaneously in inanimate nature arise spontaneously in external energy fluxes.external energy fluxes.

Decay of ordered states Decay of ordered states in naturein nature

All complex processes in nature All complex processes in nature undergo spontaneous decay. undergo spontaneous decay. They arise from an initial They arise from an initial ordered state which decays to ordered state which decays to a less ordered state.a less ordered state.

On Earth most ordered On Earth most ordered processes arise because of processes arise because of each solar photon coming to each solar photon coming to the Earth decays into twenty the Earth decays into twenty thermal photons leaving the thermal photons leaving the Earth to space. The increase Earth to space. The increase in disorder (entropy) is in disorder (entropy) is associated with the increasing associated with the increasing number of particles (photons).number of particles (photons).

Complexity of the process is determined Complexity of the process is determined NOT BY NOT BY THE AVAILABLE ENERGY FLUXTHE AVAILABLE ENERGY FLUX but by the but by the particular routes of solar photon transformation to particular routes of solar photon transformation to thermal photons (decay channels). Life uses an thermal photons (decay channels). Life uses an ultra-complex set of such channels that have no ultra-complex set of such channels that have no match in the inanimate world.match in the inanimate world.

Ordered inanimate patterns arise spontaneously: e.g., “cloud streets” (ordered cloud patterns) are caused by atmospheric motions.

Living beings can only arise as copies of other living beings.

Frequency of occurrence and Frequency of occurrence and durationduration

• Frequency of occurrence FFrequency of occurrence FOO of any of any processes is inversely proportional to processes is inversely proportional to their complexity.their complexity.

• Simple processes are common, highly Simple processes are common, highly organized processes are rare.organized processes are rare.

• All processes can be characterized by the All processes can be characterized by the beginning and the end (duration time) Tbeginning and the end (duration time) TDD..

• Commonly, for ordered processes TCommonly, for ordered processes TDD << << 1/F1/FOO..

Life is a unique Life is a unique process with process with

FFOO0 and T0 and TDD ..•It never arises spontaneously.

•Its duration time (~4 billion yr) is comparable to that of the Universe itself.

Challenge: how to preventChallenge: how to preventspontaneousspontaneous decaydecay of the of the genetic program of life?genetic program of life?

If orderliness of living beings is not determined If orderliness of living beings is not determined by the external energy fluxes, how is it by the external energy fluxes, how is it maintained?maintained?

How has it been How has it been possible for life to possible for life to retain its retain its orderliness and to orderliness and to persist for about persist for about four billion years, four billion years, i.e. on a time-scale i.e. on a time-scale compatible to the compatible to the age of the age of the Universe?Universe?

Life universal DNA error rate ~10-9 per base pair per act of copying

What information is needed What information is needed for life to fight with decay?for life to fight with decay?

1.1. Life exists in the form of discrete objects – Life exists in the form of discrete objects – living beings – that have a finite size.living beings – that have a finite size.

2.2. Every kind (species) of living beings exist Every kind (species) of living beings exist in the form of a set of many similar objects in the form of a set of many similar objects (population). No species exists in the form (population). No species exists in the form of one individual. Individuals within a of one individual. Individuals within a population compete with each other.population compete with each other.

3.3. An inherent genetically encoded property An inherent genetically encoded property of all living beings is the tendency to of all living beings is the tendency to occupy all available areas (expansion). occupy all available areas (expansion).

Competitive interaction as Competitive interaction as a unique means of a unique means of

sustaining orderlinesssustaining orderlinessNote the difference between “removal of the non-fit” and the Darwinian “survival of the fittest”.Without indicating what the “the fittest” is, “survival of the fittest” is a tautology.“Non-fit” is an object whose genetic program deviates from the normal one by a certain amount that exceeds the sensitivity of competitive interaction.

Any level of organization of Any level of organization of living objects is maintained by living objects is maintained by

competitive interactioncompetitive interactionAny type of internal correlation of living objects is maintained by competitive interaction at the next higher level.For example, correlation of cells within a multicellular body is maintained by competition in a population of multicellular living beings.The highest level of correlation is the local ecological community. In forest ecosystems it is represented by individual trees and the associated local plants, animals, bacteria and fungi.

A single globally correlated organism (Gaia) would not be able to persist.

The main challenge for The main challenge for life: life:

Life can only existLife can only exist in a in a narrow intervalnarrow interval of of

environmental environmental conditionsconditions

This challenge is a direct consequence of life’s complexity: the higher the orderliness of a particular phenomenon, the rarer the environmental conditions where it can occur.

Life-compatible Life-compatible environment:environment:

• Water in the liquid phase • Particular concentrations of life-

important chemical substances• …

Example: Redfield ratio in the oceanExample: Redfield ratio in the ocean

The problem: spontaneous The problem: spontaneous degradation of life-compatible degradation of life-compatible

environmentenvironment

Stores (Gt C, rectangles) and fluxes (Gt C/year, arrows) of organc (dark) and inorganic (white) carbon to and

from the biosphere during the Phanerozoi (the last 6 x 108 years).

Atmospheric carbon as an example

In the absence of biotic control, atmospheric concentration of carbon would have increased by a factor of ten thousand in a billion of years at the expense of carbon degassing from the Earth’s interior.

Life has been depositing the excessive carbon in the form of inactive organic compounds at a rate equal to that of carbon degassing, to keep the atmospheric concentration of carbon relatively stable.

The problem: spontaneous The problem: spontaneous degradation of life-compatible degradation of life-compatible

environmentenvironment

Organic carbon depletion time versus erosion rate in

ecosystems of varying degree of disturbance. Data of Quinton et al. 2010 Nature Geoscience 3: 311. Total global store of soil

carbon ~2x103 Gt C.

Soil organic carbon as an example

Disturbed ecosystems are unable to sustain organic carbon in soil.

On exploited lands soils degrade completely on a time scale from a few years to 200-300 years.

Tropical soils have smaller carbon stores and are exceptionally vulnerable.

Life and modern science: Life and modern science: No comprehensive approach <=> no No comprehensive approach <=> no

understandingunderstandingNo one scientific discipline takes the responsibility for the inconsistencies that arise when data from different scientific fields are considered simultaneously.

Theoretical physics is a field of science which primarily seeks to build an comprehensive and coherent picture of the studied phenomena, to formulate a view that is free from internal contradictions.

Life and modern science: Life and modern science: Evolutionary BiologyEvolutionary Biology

Environment that is fit for life degrades on a Environment that is fit for life degrades on a much shorter time scale than the much shorter time scale than the evolutionary time scale Tev ~ 3x10evolutionary time scale Tev ~ 3x1066 years years (mean time of species existence), Tev >> (mean time of species existence), Tev >> Tdegr.Tdegr.

Evolutionary biology (the paradigms of Evolutionary biology (the paradigms of survival of the fittest and adaptation) survival of the fittest and adaptation) completely ignores this environmental completely ignores this environmental problem and thus cannot explain why life problem and thus cannot explain why life persists. Species discreteness and persists. Species discreteness and punctuated speciation remain unexplained.punctuated speciation remain unexplained.

Life and modern science: Life and modern science: EcologyEcology

Ecology is dominated by studies of large Ecology is dominated by studies of large animals (predator-prey models) and, animals (predator-prey models) and, historically, is mostly fed by data from historically, is mostly fed by data from disturbed or degrading ecosystems. The disturbed or degrading ecosystems. The majority of ecologists can be compared to majority of ecologists can be compared to doctors who have never seen a healthy doctors who have never seen a healthy human being and consider dying or seriously human being and consider dying or seriously ill people to be the norm.ill people to be the norm.

One of the misconceptions: the idea of One of the misconceptions: the idea of “nutrient limitation” (Liebech principle) as “nutrient limitation” (Liebech principle) as the basis of natural ecosystem functioning.the basis of natural ecosystem functioning.

Life and modern science: Life and modern science: Daisyworld (Gaia) studiesDaisyworld (Gaia) studies

This is a very small sector in life studies. In This is a very small sector in life studies. In contrast to evolutionary biologists, Gaia contrast to evolutionary biologists, Gaia modelers aim to explain environmental modelers aim to explain environmental stability.stability.

But their main challenge is that they cannot But their main challenge is that they cannot explain how the level of organization explain how the level of organization necessary to stabilize global environment necessary to stabilize global environment can be guarded against genetic can be guarded against genetic degradation? That is, against the mutation of degradation? That is, against the mutation of “regulating” daises to “non-regulating” ones.“regulating” daises to “non-regulating” ones.

Life and modern science: Life and modern science: Climate scienceClimate science

Climate science is dominated by physical Climate science is dominated by physical models which would be built in basically models which would be built in basically the same way if the Earth was lifeless.the same way if the Earth was lifeless.

The unknown regulatory programs of The unknown regulatory programs of ecosystems are ignored. Impact of life is ecosystems are ignored. Impact of life is taken into account in the form of taken into account in the form of empirical parameterizations which lack empirical parameterizations which lack predicative power. Example: predicative power. Example: parameterization of evapotranspirationparameterization of evapotranspiration

Biotic regulation of the Biotic regulation of the environmentenvironment

Because of its high complexity, life can only exist in a narrow interval of environmental conditions. Spontaneous persistence of such conditions in the inanimate world is im-probable. Hence, life must contain information on how to maintain such conditions.

To perform environmental regulation, life must be highly-ordered and complex.

Life is a process Life is a process that is complex enough that is complex enough to create and maintain to create and maintain

conditions necessary for its conditions necessary for its own perpetuation.own perpetuation.

Globally and locally regulated Globally and locally regulated biogensbiogens

Locally regulated biogens:

P+ \ Fout ~ 1

Biological productivity exceeds the abiotic fluxes.

Example: soil phosphorus

Globally regulated biogens:

<P+ /Fout <<1

Biological productivity is smaller than the abiotic fluxes of biogens, but their ratio exceeds biotic sensitivity ~ 10-3.

Example: atmospheric CO2.

Regulation of global environmental parameters by local ecological communities

Condensation over local ecological Condensation over local ecological communities in Papua New Guinea communities in Papua New Guinea

pristine forestpristine forest

Image credit: Rocky Roe & UPNG Remote Sensing Centre

Who is the fittest? How to Who is the fittest? How to couple competitiveness and couple competitiveness and

biotic regulation?biotic regulation?Competitiveness of a local ecological community depends Competitiveness of a local ecological community depends

on two things: (1) its environment and (2) its genetic on two things: (1) its environment and (2) its genetic program.program.

If, because of spontaneous genetic decay, the community If, because of spontaneous genetic decay, the community loses its ability to regulate the environment (the program loses its ability to regulate the environment (the program is partially eroded), then its favorable environment is partially eroded), then its favorable environment begins to deteriorate.begins to deteriorate.

The condition of The condition of genetic stabilitygenetic stability is that the decay is that the decay individual loses competitiveness because of individual loses competitiveness because of environmental degradation environmental degradation BEFOREBEFORE it has outcompeted it has outcompeted (replaced) all the normal ecological communities.(replaced) all the normal ecological communities.

Texp – time by which the gangsters kill the entire population.Tdegr – time by which the environment becomes unsuitable for gangsters. Large biomass stores increase Tdegr.

Normal local ecological communities and decay ecological community.Normal communities keeps the environment favorable for life. Decay community does not, but is able to suppress normal communities.

The The dangerdanger of of abundance abundance (visualization)(visualization)

Quantitative criteria of life Quantitative criteria of life stabilitystabilityTexp >> TdegrTexp >> Tdegr

Texp – time of global expansion of a decay ecological Texp – time of global expansion of a decay ecological communitycommunity

Tdegr – time of degradation of its local environmentTdegr – time of degradation of its local environment

Tdegr ~ Tdegr ~ M/F (turnover time)M/F (turnover time)M is the store of a local biogen, F is the M is the store of a local biogen, F is the

environmental flux changing this store in the environmental flux changing this store in the absence of biotic regulation.absence of biotic regulation.

Stability is enhanced by decreasing turnover time of Stability is enhanced by decreasing turnover time of life-important biogens. This is achieved by life-important biogens. This is achieved by elevating the rates of biological synthesis Pelevating the rates of biological synthesis P++ and and decomposition Pdecomposition P-- (i.e., by increasing F) and by (i.e., by increasing F) and by decreasing the available stores of biogens M decreasing the available stores of biogens M (decreasing abundance).(decreasing abundance).

Biomass, productivity and Biomass, productivity and turnover times in the turnover times in the

biospherebiosphere

Short and long turnover Short and long turnover times times

M/PM/P++Epilithic lichens (alga + fungus) Boreal forest

Small biomass M, high productivity P+ => Short turnover time

Large biomass M, same productivity P+ => Long turnover time

The The dangerdanger of of abundanceabundance

What is the main difference between forest What is the main difference between forest ecosystem and oceanic ecosystem?ecosystem and oceanic ecosystem?

Terrestrial forest ecosystems contain Terrestrial forest ecosystems contain ten ten thousand timesthousand times larger amount of live biomass larger amount of live biomass M per unit area than do oceanic ecosystems.M per unit area than do oceanic ecosystems.

Net primary productivity (per unit area) is only Net primary productivity (per unit area) is only ten times larger in the forest than in the open ten times larger in the forest than in the open ocean.ocean.

This elevates time Tdegr ~ M/PThis elevates time Tdegr ~ M/P++ in forest in forest ecosystems and make them ecosystems and make them intrinsically intrinsically unstableunstable compared to the low biomass compared to the low biomass oceanic ecosystems.oceanic ecosystems.

Why do large animals Why do large animals potentially undermine life potentially undermine life

stability?stability?1. The basis of life on 1. The basis of life on

Earth is solar radiation. Earth is solar radiation. It is represented by It is represented by masslessmassless particles – particles – photons. Lacking mass, photons. Lacking mass, photons cannot photons cannot accumulate on the accumulate on the Earth surface.Earth surface.

Therefore, plants that live on the energy Therefore, plants that live on the energy of solar photons, of solar photons, do not need to move.do not need to move. They form a continuous immobile They form a continuous immobile cover on land.cover on land.

2. Universal mean rate of energy 2. Universal mean rate of energy consumption per unit live mass consumption per unit live mass

across lifeacross life

Irrespective of their evolutionary rank and genome size, the various life forms consume between 1 and 10 Watts per kilogram of live mass.

3. Growth of energy consumption 3. Growth of energy consumption per unit area with increasing body per unit area with increasing body

sizesize

Large organisms consume more energy per unit ground surface area per unit time than plants can offer (P+max ~ 2 W/m2). Large animals must move and destroy biomass.

Human body poweris about 100 Watt, or about 300 Watt

per sq. meter

The biosphere provides

only 0.5 Watt per sq. meter

4. Large animals have to move and destroy biomass

Large animals have the potential to destroy terrestrial ecosystems.

Energy consumption in a stable ecological Energy consumption in a stable ecological communitycommunity

The largest organisms consume the smallest share of ecosystem productivity in stable ecosystems. Humans

have exceeded their quota by an order of magnitude.

Distribution of primary energy consumption over organisms of different size in stable ecosystems. The smallest organisms (bacteria, fungi) consume over 90% of total energy flux; the medium-sized (invertebrates) – about 10%, and all organisms with body size exceeding 1 cm are allowed to consume altogether no more than about 1% of primary productivity.

Makarieva A.M., Gorshkov V.G., Li B.-L. (2004) Ecological Complexity, 1, 139-175.

Territorial Territorial requirementsrequirements

Human individual territory, implied by biological properties, is ~4 km2

Kelt D.A., Van Vuren D.H. (2001) The Ecology and Macroecology of Mammalian Home Range Area. The American Naturalist 157: 637-645.

Stores and fluxes of information in the biosphere and civilization

Cultural heritage of humans is unprecedented in the biosphere.Human ability to destroy the biosphere is also unprecedented.However, the complexity of biotic regulation is far beyond human possibilities.

Biotic regulation cannot be replaced by technology.

Some conclusionsSome conclusions

1.1. Ecosystems with high biomass (large Ecosystems with high biomass (large abundance of organic matter) are abundance of organic matter) are intrinsically unstable. Such are terrestrial intrinsically unstable. Such are terrestrial ecosystems that drive the biotic pump.ecosystems that drive the biotic pump.

2.2. All large herbivorous animals, including All large herbivorous animals, including humans, are potentially able to arrange an humans, are potentially able to arrange an ecological catastrophe on land.ecological catastrophe on land.

3.3. The only strategic solution for sustainable The only strategic solution for sustainable existence of the humanity is via a existence of the humanity is via a significant reduction of global population significant reduction of global population numbers.numbers.