what is religion & morality

8/14/2019 What is Religion & Morality

1/10

Chqpter IWhot ls Religion?

Before describing the relationship of religion and morality, the natureof religion and morality must be discussed. What is religion? What ismorality? Despite their conmon use, these words are frustratingly diffi-cult to satisfactorily define. So let me try to describe these words.In contrast to morality, the origin of the word relrglor is etymologically de-batable. The root word could be the Latin word relrgro (meaning obligation orbond) or the Latin word religare (rrrrearing to tie or bind). Religion scholars


2/10

2 Religion and Moralityan activity has many sides: institutional, devotional, doctrinal, mystical,statjc, ecstatic, substantive, functional, exoteric, and esoteric.lThe strong feelings people have about religion as a human activity alsocome into play. Some humans are very fond ofieligion and whatitinvolvesiothers passionately dislike what it represe'ts. Stiil others ,,"ithu, lik" r,o,dislike, but are merely indifferent. Our age has -it rurs"a st ons per"or,utantipathies to religion from several quarteis. Social scientists like"F;ud andMarx a ttacked religion vehemently. philosophers like Metzsch" a.d Fe.rer_1:l::*ll*t:omments agairstit. An A'merican novutirt, *ui ", r"r"pdeci.rres tlrc word religion to be moribr.rnd, smelling of dust and wax. Anda recent theologian, Karl Barth, has thundered thai ,,Gocl hates religiory,,viewing religion as something humans create to make God confom to their

3w1 de31e1,.!thers have pointed out that the word religion is not found inthe Jcwish Bible and only four times in the Christian Bibie. Many of the peo_ple,l meet preferthe word spirituality to the word religion. ffrnl" of.," *nostill use the word religion often find ourselves on the iefensive.. Contemporary Western thinkers sympathetic to religion tencl to favorthe nrystical,/devotional side of religion to the exclusioriot tr,"otn", ,raur.Sincc the European Enlightenment, Western intellectuals t u.,r" """r, ,"figrr,rn.r. Prinrarily.r prjvate, inclivilrr,rl aflair. Tlrey r"gorJ r"linior,,r, uWhik'headian way, as what ,,one does with hi, "ofitu.ii""".,; Col.,i"^po-:ll].1':-':'y .:l]:'l',," 8":9 number or "cultured despisers., of religion.wrlr) D|come cspecially critical when religion shows its pubJic and socialdlmlnsiol.gnd takes positions on issueslike -ur, ubortio,l-thJ "i_,,riro -il:1,:iij^,,5::""Ty..As.rrrese critics see it, rerigon snouia t"u-i ort orrnc p(rrncal arena and stay in the private redlm.L Another factor contribuiing to tle conrplexity of describhg religion c.:nbe trnced to the academ ic situa tion. Religion is stucliecl .u."ilfiv'Ul,' ,.f,of_:l::.rr,)m dilelse lcademic disciptines r_r1..r-i"rr,,*ayir," rl]r'1o#o, ."r,Ji'hn.,I'sy.r){)t(,Ajsts. lh(, psy(h(,1(r8y ,rnrl pht,nomenology of ieligion.,x i,'r,r)t,sts.,rrll .rrtlrr()pol(,).ii:.ts slu,ly rcligion *itn tle ,,iJtnoas ot tt"i,lr*rl,tj,rr. l,hjl(,(,)phcrsdelve inkr the rra"if yi"g "rr"rnpii"", "i",g,"^"1,"1';',,""',r.lr),1',,117,,.y,r,ir,",,,1111,,ry;,1,rr.r,.1ri1r,,n,.-l,,,,kinRrr,rthel, 'r1., ' r1ri. ,,,r,j,ltll,,r,trr.s,l rr.lr1., .r. ,,r,"r ,t,,,,.,,.,',i,i i,r',',',','"',j,".:.",.:''"',n. \"turolr.. rElrsrL,n r..rl,, i.,r,.i., .r * j|r,,r ,t,..i,it,i,.',,,,,,,:,',:,",:,i.,:' .'.:?.tn urfIl rtnr drsc.plrne


3/10

4 Religion and MoralitYTaoism, and possibJ.y Hinduism would not qualify as reliSions'.The verydifferent ways in which religions view ultimate reality explains the prefer-ence of many scholars for broader, more inclusive descriptions of religion'

As a human activity, religion is dynamic rather than static Religions ex-ist within cultures thai grow and change' FritjofCapra, a scientist' and the-ologian David Steindl-"Rast talk about "new paradigms" in science andthe5logy. Any activity that develops and evolves is hard to pin down' de-fine, or adequatelY describe.

Lastly, reiigionis difficult to describe because estimations of its strengthsarld -"uknesJrrary greatly. Some argue that religions are declin.ing; sociolo-gists of reLigion cont"end that secularization is winning, especially in affluentiations. Cit"ed as evidence of decline is the fact that in the United States mem-bership and attendance in mainline churches and slmagogues has fallen Amajor newsmagazine (Newsweek,Dec.7,1992) has declared that the so-calledluieo-Christiai tradition no longer edsts in modem pluraList Arnerica'However, the evidence is mixed: the Christian religion may be declin-ing in Europe and North America, but it is expanding in some areas ofAflica and Asia. Furthermore, the religions of Hinduism, Buddhism, Tao-ism, Confucianism, and Shintoism exhibit continuing viiality in their 8eo-graphical areas. And although the mainline branches of Judaism and-hiistianity are struggling to remain vital in the United States, some of thelnoro conslrvative wings of these religious groups are thriving Also, inthe United States, the emergence of "New Age" religion or sPirituality in-dicntes that religion in its diverse dimensions is not yet dead or dying. Theflcl that conflict between religions has intensified in some areas of theworld points to vitality; dead people don't fight! Mark Juergensmeyer ac-tually says that religious conflict is the new Cold War. The situation de-scribed here helps us understand why religion is not easily described'

A Whole Greater than lts Partsl)cspite the problems in describing religion, the question posed for this( lr.rl)lcr rcmirins: Wha t is rcligion? Definitions ancl dcscriptiotrs may be un-satisfactory, but several words and ideas keep appearing when religion isclisctrssed. I wish to highlight seven of these ideas and point to them as in-tegral p,1/'ts of the remarkable ru,hole we are calling religion.Iwtu Attitudes

Religion is connected with inner attitlrdes involving such humanacts as believing, trusting, depending, and faithing (to verbalize a nounthat is really an action). It also pertains to attitudes related to confi-dence, courage, and hope, very close to what Carl Jung once declared the

rNhat ls Religion? 5greatest need of his patients for them to fully recover, namely, a "reli-gious outlook."Among the written Ccscriptions of religion that fit this particular aspectare the following: beliefs about what is ultimately important, a rationalt rst in reality, "immortal longings," living by convictions that make lifeultimately worth living, what we trust as giving meaning and value to ourlives, an attitude toward what is considered a determiner of destiny, a de-pendence on powers believed to control and direct the course of natureand life, a feeling of ultimate dependence on the Ultimate, a feeling ofsomething "unlimited and unbounded," a belief in the ultimate meaningof the universe, convictions about the context and purpose of human lifeas such, "a divine light in the life of the soul," a surrender to ihe will ofGodin all things, beliefs that help to give hope, courage, and confidence, andthe binding stance one takes toward the mystery of life and death.3Seeking Answers and Meaning

Religion is also connected with the compelling human tendency to findanswers for ultimate questions, to discover the meaning of life and death.A Jewish Holocaust survivor, Dr. Viktor Frankl, in a popular book titledMan's Search for Meanin& contends that people can endure suffering if theyfind meaning in it. Making religion a search for meaning is general andbroad, but searching for answers and meaning is one part of the total phe-nomenon called religion.Descriptions that illustrate this part of religion are: exploration of the ul-timate meaning of life, involvement in the meaning of existence and find-ing our relation to the significant events of life, holistic interpretations oflife that enable us to make sense of emotions, desires, and attitudes, andthinking on the ultimate questions of life, deatlr, and reality.aThree significant ultimate questions humans ask as they seek the mean-ing of life are those of origin, destiny, and meaning: Where did I comefrom? Where will I end (my final destiny)? What is the purpose of the lifeI now live? When persons sincerely ask these questions they particiPate inone of the salient parts of religion.Encounter with Ultinate Reality

Religion also has much to do with the human desire for contact with ul-timate reality, which is also called the Transcendent, the Sacred, theSupreme Being, the Powers/Forces of the Universe, or God. One's pictureor r.nderstanding of reality conveyed in these words constitutes a "world-view." The fact that humans adopt worldviews has been emphasized re-cently. Walter Wink succinctly characterizes five basic worldviews:


4/10

6 Religion and MoralitY1. The Ancient Worldview, which is biblical but not uniquely biblical, is

one in which everything earthly has a heavenly counterpart and viceversa.If there is war on earth, there is war in heaven; events occurring in heavenare mirrored on earth. Most ancient Peoples had this worldview2, The Spiritualistic Worldview divides humans into soul and body.Matter and creation are evil. The soul is trapped in a body until it fhds itsway back to heaven, from whence it came. This view is strong in Platon-ism and gnosticism.

3. The Materialistic Worldview has no heaven, God, or soul, but only amaterial existence, which is known through the five senses. At death hu-mans cease to exist except as chemicals and atoms that once constitutedthem.

4. The Theological Worldview posits a supetnatural realm not knownby the senses, and an earthly realm known by science but isolated from thesupernatural.

5. An Integral Worldview sees everything as having an outer and an in-ner aspect. It is the spiritual aspect of the ancient or biblical worldview thataffirms an "interiority" in all things. It sees inrler sPiritual reality as closelyrelaied to an outer physical represen ta tion.5Among descriptions of religion that embrace a combination of the an-cient, biblical, and integral worldviews are: a conception of the general or-der of existence, an unseen order in which ollr suPreme good lies inadjusting ourselves to it, the self-transcendence toward what is ultimateand unconditional in meaning, an experience in which metahuman realityis injected into human life, ParticiPation in something ofintrinsic meaning,attributing a sacredness to the world and nature, a basic attitude arising inan encounter with the whole of reality given to one in one's existence, asense of the sacred, sense of a "benign emPowering reality," and a relationwith somethhg thought to be of life-shaping importance.6

This part of religion highlights the transcendent, that which is higherthan and beyond us as human beings but known and apprehended in theinner and deepest self. It remains one of the essential Parts of religion.Dcsirr: t'or Relntionship otld Experieflce

Religion also has to do with the human desire for a relationship withand an experience of ultimate reality, the transcendent, and the sacred.This part of religion naturally grows out of an emphasis on a highet real-ity than ourselves which can be known. This experiential dimensionspeaks of things like religious experience, mysticism, a heightened con-sciousness, a spiritual birth, and so forth. It also pertains to the dtual dimension, which centers on activities that enhance relationship andexpcrience, such as prayer and meditation.

What Is Religion? 7Among descriptions of religion that hiShlight this Part are: the relationbetween God and human beings, aligning believers with a transcendentreality, symbols that establish moods and motivation, making connectionto something larger, attemPting to establish a right relation between our-

selves and something outside ourselves, and an energy-releasing eventthat raises life to higher power.T The exPeriential dimension of religioncontinues to fascinate desPite the increasing secularization of modern life.An Act of Valuing

Religion is also related to the act of valuing, evaluating what is o{ supe-rior or supreme worth and truly good. Religion is a way of valuing Thispart of religion is highlighted by the English novelist,/philosopher IrisMurdoch, who is fond of Plato's insistence on seeking the idea or form ofthe Good. For Murdoch, religion is primarily "a mode of belief in the sov-ereign place of goodness and virtue in human life."8 Murdoch does not usethe word value, but her view o{ reLigion as a pursuit of what is truly goodplaces her among those who focus on religion as an act of valuing.Other descriptions of this part of religion are; an expression of humanevaluation and ultimate loyalties, whatever is regarded as ultimate in be-ing and value, that which determines life and destiny and is thought to beof importance in the nature of things, that which offers us vision and val-ues, concern about experiences that are regarded to be of supreme value,and activity pursued in behalf of an ideal and against obstacles in spite ofthreats of personal loss because of the conviction of its general and endur-ing value.e In a society in which one often hears such phrases as "familyvalues" and "a crisis in values," the part of religion that emphasizes valu-ing should have relevance.A Yearning for Self-Transformation

As a human activity, religion also has to do with the human desire forself-transformation, salvation, liberation, and becoming more human. Be-coming a better person and demonstrating this by behavior, quality of life,or morality has been a prominent part of religion. Religions are eager toshow people how they can be changed, liberated, and reborn. Religionspresuppose that people can become better and different from what theywere before the transformation began.Among descriptions ofreligion that center on this aspect are: seeking toalign believers with a trans{orming reality in order to achieve liberation orsalvation, Iiving according to the transcendent reality one encounters, away to be human, living in wholehearted devotion to absolute Soodness,that which provides strength and courage, "the perception of the infiniteunder such manifestations as are able to influence the moral character of


5/10

Religion and MoralitYman," a system of general truths which have the effect of transformingcharacter when the! are sincerely held and vividly apprehended' and aquest f or self-transformation.l0This particular part of religion comes very close to morality,.and ex-plains why some people tend to conflate religion and morality Wolfharti'unnenberg has nlted that after Kant many German theologians saw reli-gion as a product of moral consciousness, and in so doing neglected the ex-perientiai and mythical dimensions of religion.ll Nevertheless,.the desireio be a better person will continue to be an imPortant Part of religion'The N ce d for CommunitY

Religion also has a bearing on the human need for communities thatsuppor"t and encourage Persons in the Parts of religion previously notedThis can be designated as the social side of religion, just as imPortant asthe personal and irmer side.A respected American sociologist, Robert Bellah' along with colleagueshas y,ursued the need of people to belong, to be Part of communities thatr'lcr.,iislr and enrich their lives. In Ha&lfs of the Heart, Bellah argued thatmanv Americans, because of their pursuit of "rugged individualism,"haYe failed to find the communities they need. People live richer and fullerlives u,len tlrey become Part of meaningful communities.In1'he Courage to Be, Paul Tillich showed that the courage to be a self andlhe courage to be a part of a community are necessary for human well-being. Rabbi Harold Kushner is correct in affirming that in communities"rve learn to understand the world and grow to be human."l2

Religion is not only concerned about relationships with ultimate reality;relationships with other humans are equally desirable-With thi; description of the seven parts of religion, we have a startingpoint for our discussion. There could well be other Parts. Are any of theseparts more important than others? My response, from Gestalt psychology, isihat "the whole is greater than the sum of its Parts." Religion as a whole iswhat matters. The Parts of religion a;e somewhat like the parts of that famouselephant in a popular poem, in which six blind rnen dogmatically Proclaimjusi what an elephant is, based on the part they have touched! Touching allrhe pirrts of tl'tis many-splendored thing called religion seerns preferable'Nevertheless, because we are focusing on the relationship of religionand morality, we can ask which of the seven parts of religion are most con-nected with what is called morality. It seems obvious that religion as an actof valuing, a search for community, and a yearning for self-transformationhas connections with morality. I-{o$'ever, before drawing firm conclu-siorrs, we must investigate the activity called morality' which can belooked at from the perspective of religion as well as the perspective of phi-krsophy. The next two chapters pursue this large toPic.

Chopter 2Whol ls Morolily(from o Religious Perspeclive)?

The word morality is no less difficult to define than the word religiorydespite its prevalence as a human activity. Practicing morality and beinga moral person go along with what it means to be human.The word ethics is often used in association with morality, and thewords are even commonly used interchangeably. We hear about peoplewho are moral, as well as of people who are ethical. Prudence thus sug-gests that we consider these words together, as a package.In contrast to the word religion, however, there is agreement on the od-gin of these words. According to the Oxfod English Dictionary (OED), theword ethics comes from the Greek word efhos, which primarily refers tocharacter and/or rnanners. It is further defined as relating to morals, well-doing and not well-knowing only. Ethics is also said to pertain to the science of morals, a scheme of moral science, or a department of studyconcerned with the principles of human duty. Aristotle's writings onethics are described as a treatise on the science ofethics, which leads to thefurther description of ethics as the moral principles or system of a partic-ular thinker or school of thought. In the widest sense, therefore, ethics isthe whole field of moral science, including the science of law.The word rnorality is from the Latin mores, which also means manner orcharacter. The various definitions of morality are very close to those iustgiven for ethics. However, the OED also speaks of "moral" as pertainingto character and concerned with virtue and rules of right conduct. It fur-ther mentions the morals of a person or a community, or the habits andconduct of a person.This brief etymological excursion shows two things: First, the wordsmorality and ethics, from Greek and Latin words, are very close semanti-cally. Their similarity in meaning justifies their interchangeable use. Sec-ond, a slight distinction between the two words is possible, in that moralityseems to focus on l-ruman actions and practices, whereas ethics is primarily


6/10

10 Religion and MoralitYconcemed with study and reflection on morality. Thus, when we refer tothe morals or morality of a person, we are talking about their actual be-havior. But when we speak of the ethics of a person we may be alluding tothet wdtten or unwritten reflections and thoughts about the nature ofmorality. In a word, morality is active and ethics is reflective, to the pointofbeing philosophical and academic. Ethics is the subject taught in collegesand universities, although formerly it was called moral philosophy.The starting point of morality and ethics is, therefore, very similar tothat taken in religion: morality is an activity people engage in naturallyand continually. Every day humans rnake rudgments and decisions abouthow they should live and what they should do. On a daily basis we judgeactions to be good or evil, right or wrong Almost daily we are offendedand horrified by events we read about or see on TV, on film, and in the realn orld. Gilbert Keith Chesterton wisely perceived that all denunciation hasa moral basis.Furtherrnore, our moral judgments and decisions are made in two majorways: religiously and/or philosophically. There is a religious morality-moral conduct that springs from religious beliefs and experiences. There isalso a philosophical or secular mordity-moral conduct that sPrings ftomphilosophical beliefs and views. A religious and a philosophical or secularethics are identifiable and describable. In this chapter I will discuss religiousrnorality/ethics, and in the next chaPter, philosophical or secular ethics. Inpursuing this approach the great diversity within both religious and philo-sophical ethics will become evident.

Religious Morality/EthicsHistorically speaking, religious ethics may precede philosophical

ethics. Peter Singer, an Australian Philosopher, has edited a book entitledA Conlpnnion to Efhlcs, in which the great ethical traditions of the world'sreligions are discussed Prior to the treatment of Western philosophicalethics. Singer acknowledges that the ethical traditions of the world's reli-gious bodies are for most of the world's people "the living ethical systemsto which they look for guidance."lThe influence of Judaism and Christianity on Western philosop\ isgenerally accepted. If Western philosophical ethics begins with Socrates(470 399 B.c.E.), as most moral philosophers acknowledge, then the his-torical priority of Moses (13th century B.c.E.) and the Jewish prophets (8thcentury B.c.E. and following) are apparent.The major living world religions include three Western religions-lr.rclaism, Christianity, and Islam, and four Eastem religions-Hinduism,Br.rrldhism, Confucianism, and Taoism. These religions have a significant

What Is Morality (ftom a Religious Perspectiae)? 11numerical strength. A 1994 almanac showed that Judaism had almost 18million nembers, Christianity had roughly 1.8 billion members, Islam hadalmost I billion members, Hinduism had almost 733 million adherents,Buddhism about 315 millioo and Confucianism about 6 million or moremembers. No figures were given for Taoism, another Chinese religion.Shintoism, a religion largely conJined to Japan, had over 3 rnillion mem-bers. The total membership of the above religions, along with primi-tive/animistic religions, came to approximately 65 percent of the world'spopulation-2 If it is true that all religions have an ethical dimension, thenthe moral force of the world's living religions is indeed substantial. To aconsiderable extent, the people affiliated with these religions, howeverIoosely, are influenced and guided by the moral ideals that these religionsespouse and seek to apply.Looking at the heart or essence of each particular religion prepares usfor looking at religious elhics. In this attempt I am guided by John Hick'sview ofreligion as "a culturally-conditioned response to an ultimate, tran-scendental reality."3 The question as to whether these religions are the fruitof a divine revelation is avoided here, for it seems clear that even if reve-lation is present within a religion, the responses to revelation are at leastpartially influenced by cultural factors. With these thoughts in mind, I of-fer below my view of the essence of the world's religions.ludaism

The Jewish religion begins with a mannamed Abraham, who lived orig-inally in what is now Iraq, and in response to God's call migrated to present-day Israel, sometime beiween 2000 alrd 1750 B.C.E. Among his descendantswas Moses, who delivered to the Jewish people a body of laws-the TenCommandments and others-which helped to define them as a people. Be-tween the eighth and fifth centuries B.c.E. a series of propheis preachedand interpreted these lawg and laterJewish rabbis compiled a series of ex-planations and additional interpretations of these laws. Jews have envi-sioned God, whom they called Yahwe[ Elohim, and Adonai, as holy andtranscendent, one to be loved and greatly respected (or feared). This reli-gion includes many stories about the Jewish people, the most importantbeing the stories of an exodus from Egypt, the making of a covenant atMount Sinai, and an exile in Babylonia (modem Iraq). Jewish theol


7/10

12 Religion and MoralitYother religious festivals, assist Jews in living a holy life, one dedicated toGod. The Jewish religion may notbe nurnerically strong, but it has exertedan immense inJluence on Christianity artd Islam, as well as on Western cul-ture as a whole. Israel is the only nation in which Judaism has a direct po-litical authority. However, the indirect social and political influence ofJudaism in the United States is widely acknowledgedChristianity

Thc Christian religion began with Jesus, a first-cenhrry Palestinian Jew(4 B.c.E.- 29 c.E.). Jesus felt called and anointed by Gocl to give himself toa ministry of teaching, preaching, and healing. His ministry led to opPosi-tion and'his consequent crucifixion by the Romans. His followers/disc!ples took up his cause, and, along with Paul, successfully introduced aiaith that w;s at fkst considered a Jewish sect into the Greco-Roman worldof the first century.Christianity encouraged people to repent (be sorry for) their sin andtrust in God's love (often called "justification by faith") The primary storyof Christianity is that of Jesus, in whom God came into the world Thisstory gave rise to the central doctrine of Christianity, the incarnation,whictr;ffirms that God is reveale,l inJesus in a unique way. The ethics ofChristianity largely stern from Jesus' emphasis on love for others, in whichself-giving love (agape in Greek) is the norm. Jesus embraced the Ten Com-mandments, and expanded them by calling for love of enemies and perse-cr.rtors. The most imPortant rituals of Chdstianity are dre Lord's Supper(Communion/the Mass) and Baptism. Because of its numerical strength,Christianity has maintained a strong social dimension; in some Westernnations it has exerted a powerful influence on the state.

Thc Islamic religion began with Mulrammad, a native of what is todaySarrtli Arabia. He lived from 570 to 632 c.E. As a young man he received aseries of revelations from Gocl (Allah in Arabic) thror"rgh the angel Gabriel,which were subsequently recorded in the Qr/rilr (Koran in English), thescriptures of Islam. Muhammad called on people to submit to God-aMuslim by definition is one who submits to God. After Muhammad'sdeath, the Arabs who embraced his message took it to other areas of theMicldle East, Africa, Europe, and Asia. Islam believes that through prayerit is possible to establish a close relationship with God. The basic story ofIslam is that of Muhammad, who became the messenger of God and theseal of tl.re prophets, who include Jewish prophets as well as Jesus. Doctd-nally, Muslims believe that there is only one God, that angels are messen-gcrs of God, that God speaks thror-rgh prophets, that the Koran is the word

What ls Morality (from a Religious perspectiae)? 13of God. and that there is life after death in either paradise orhell. The ethicsof Islam are largely based on the Koran. There are five central rituals in Is_lam, called the Five Pillars: prayer five times a day, fasting during themonth oJ Ramadan, almsgivin& pilgrimage to Mecca, and reciting thecreed, which declares that there is only one God and Muhammad is hisprophet. The Islamic religion has also had a powerful social influence, andlike Christianiiy has attempted to control the state in countries where it isdominant (e.g.,Iran, Arab countries, Egypt, and pakistan).Hind.uism

The Hindu religion has no definite founder, but is traceable to a pre-Aryan civilization in India going back to 2500 B.c.E. The Aryans, who cameLo India via Persia (Iran) in the second millennium B.C.E., brought withthem sacred wdtings called the Vedas. Later, the epic po ems Bhagiaad Gitaatr.d the Ramayana becarne very popular.Hinduism stresses the necessity of liberation, which occurs when theatman (self or soul) is united with Brahman (ultimate reality/God). Liber-ation frees one frorn continuing incamations. Three main yogas, or paths,help one attain liberation: jnana, karma, and bhakti. The Hindu religioncontains numerous stories of gods and goddesses, who are seen as differ-ent manifestations of Brahman, the supreme god. The strongest doctrinesof Hinduism have to do with liberation, reincarnatiory the unreality(maya) of what is considered real (e.g., the world of space and time), andthe law of karma. The idea behind this law is that people reap what theysow; they build up good karma by good actions, become good by doinggood. Theethical views of Hinduism arerooted in these doctrines. Gandhi,for example, as a faithful Hindu, preached and practiced a good works(karma) yoga. The rituals of Hinduism include sacrifices to various gods,meditation, and an intense devotion to a chosen manifestation of Brahman.At times, Hindus have been content to be one among many religions ex-isting in India, but at other times Hinduism has presented itself as the reli-gion of India.

tsuddhisnrThe religion of Br-rddhism was founded by a young man from Indianamed Siddhartha Cautama (ca. 563--ca. 483 e.c.r.), who subsequently wasknown as Buddha-the enlightened one. Buddha spent almost fifty yearstelling the people of India about his enlightenrnent experience and howthey could have a similar experience. The story of Buddha is the primarystory of this religion, but there are stories of other Buddhas and bod-

hisattvas (persons of compassion). Among the important doctrines ofBuddhism are:


8/10


9/10

16 Religion and Moralityimportant areas: family life, work, socialjustice, and nature. To justify theclaim that all religions have an ethical dimension, I plan to compare theviews of nature in the religions we have discussed, as the Carmodys de-scribe them. Nature is chosen over the other areas, not because it is moreimportant, but because this area corresponds with one of the major con-cerns of our time- Interest in ecological and environmental issues is run-ning high, and this comparison shows that religious ethics offers r.tsvaluable resources for clealing with one of the serious problems ofour day.

Judaism as a religion has always seen creation as good. because it rep-resents God's work. Natureis to be appreciated and enjoyed, not divinizedor worshiped. Human beings were given authority over nature by God(Gen. 1:28), but were also informed that they are accountable to God fortheir actions. The second and older creation story (Genesis 2) has the firsthuman beings instructed to till the garclen and care for the earth. Judaismacknowledges human kinship with animals and nature. Noah took ali-mals into the ark, supposedly to preserye all the species. Kosher lawsabout what animals can and car-rnot be eaten, and about how food is to beprepared, minimize the suffering of animals. Also, many Israeli Jews liv-ing on kibbutzim obviously live close to the land and treat it well. For theJewish people the promised land given by God has always been a goodland, "flowing with milk and honey"-a symbol of God's blessing.The Christian religion, a child of Judaism, also appreciates creation asCod's work and sees human dominion over the earth as a matter of lovingstervardship, a responsibility that calls for accountability to God and car.e-ful management and caringfor creation. Jesus spoke knowingty and fondlyof the natural world-of flowers and trees, animals ancl birds. There havebeen Christian leaders like St. Francis ofAssisi and Eastern Orthodox slarsy(monks), who considered nature a second revelation of God. The ability tosee Cod in all things has often been highlighted in Christian faith. Recently,a "creation-centered spirituality" has emerged within Christianity thoughthe writings of a former Dominican priest, Matthew Fox.The Islamic religion also speaks of creation, affirming that the worldneed not exist, but does so by the mercy and deliberate creation of God.Humans should cooperate with nature, so as to enable it to achieve thebeauty and bounty God intended. A tenderness toward animals amongMuslims has been observed. The followers of this religion also believe thatCod can be discemed in the natural world which God has fashioned. Con-cern about pollution is developing within some adherents of this religion.In Hinduism, because all creatures are related to Brahman, all creaturesare related to one another, A reverence for creation can be found in Hin-dr.rism. Hindu rituals are sacramental; they make use of such natural ele-ments as flowers and water. The water of the Ganges River is regarded as

What Is Morality (from a Religious pelspectire)? t7especially sacred. A recent movement led by Hindu women in India toprotect trees by hugging them provides an additional illushation of the se_rious concern for nature that Hinduism supports.The Buddhist religion speaks of ,,the seamless cornectedness,, of allthings. The bodhisattaa ls an ideal Buddhist, so full of compassion that he iswilling to delay his own entrance into nirvana in order to issist the enlight_e'nment of all living creatures. Buddhist rituals, especially those connectedwith Zen Buddhism, highlight the beauty of nature and blend the religiousand the aesthetic in such things as rock gardens and flower a[angements.This religion also accepts the simple "suchaess,' of things, manifested in thishaiku: "Evening rain,,/ the banana leaf,,/ speaks oI it first."Confucianism and Taoism both call for the celebration of seasons andthe beauty of nature. Their cosmology sees everything as related, parts ofa single organism (suggestive of the current Gaia hypothesis, which re-gards the rniverse as one large organism). The significance of the forces ofnature as important actors in the human drama is acknowledged and re-spected by Taoists and Confucians. Taoism particularly, with its emphases

on living naturally, sirnply, and in harmony with nature, has been liftedup by some observers as the model for an ecological religion.The preceding paragraphs represent ideals; they do not claim that theworld's living religions have an excellent record in the ways they treat na-ture. Members of these religions have mistreated the natural world. How-ever, the moral ideals for a kinder, gentler approach to nature are presentwithin these traditions, rvaiting to be discovered and practiced.The above comparison ofone facet of ethics within world religions neednot imply that there are no differences or disagreements between religionsover such moral issues as the treatment of nature, the distribution of theearth's resources, or whether war is morally permissible. The differencesand conflicts between religions are real. Some of these differences are ma-Ior, many are quite minor. Many of the conJlicts are not about ideals, butabout practices. Hindus and Christians both affirm that life is sacred andvaluable. But Christians cdticize Hindus about the caste system, and Hin-dus criticize Christians about the practice of slavery. Differences do exist,but when we compare ideals rather than practices they are not great.Moreover, the differences between religions over morality are probablynot any greater than the differences within religions themselves. SomeChristians, for example, are zealously pro-life and antiabortion, others arevehemently pro-choice and accepting of abortion, to one degree or another.And the possibility ofbeing pro-choice, yet not totally accepting of abortionexcept as sometimes a tragic necessity, strikes some Christians as an ac-ceptable alternative. The same situation occurs when other moral issuesarise. Sometimes I think thai if Chdstians keep talking with one another,


10/10

what is religion & morality

Documents