what is sociology? sociology: the scientific study of social life, social change, and the social...

What is sociology?

Sociology: the scientific study of social life, social change, and the social causes and consequences of human behavior

© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc., 2011.

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2009 2

• Stresses the social contexts in which people live

• Looks at how people are influenced by their society

and how social forces affect human behavior

• “The Sociological Imagination” a term coined by

C. Wright Mills refers to being able to look beyond

common sense for explanations of why people act

the way they do

The Sociological The Sociological PerspectivePerspective





the way they do



• Stresses the social contexts in which people live

• Looks at how people are influenced by their society

and how social forces affect human behavior




the way they do






the way they do



• Dyads – Two people• Triads – Three People

• As a group increases in size it becomes more formal and more stable

• Coalitions may begin to form • Greater Diffusion of Responsibility may occur in larger

groups – “Someone else will take care of it”• As a group gets larger, smaller groups may form• Groupthink may occur- collective tunnelvision

Group DynamicsGroup Dynamics

What is sociology?

Comparing the social sciences

• All study aspects of human behavior and social life, but each has a different focus:

• Cultural anthropology: the culture or way of life of a society

• Psychology: individual behavior and mental processes

• Political Science: government systems and power

• Economics: economic conditions and how people organize, produce, and distribute goods

• Sociology: human interaction, groups, and social structure


What Do Sociologists Do—and Why?

Some practical rewards of sociological study:

• Self-awareness and self-improvement

• Better understanding of social situations

• Objective, systematic understanding of problems

• Understanding of diverse cultural perspectives

• Ability to assess the impact of social policies

• Appreciation of the complexities of social life

• Useful skills



What sociologists do

• Work in colleges and universities• Teach, conduct research

• Work in social service organizations• Address interpersonal relations or deviant behavior

• Work in business• Address organizational needs or human resources

• Work in government • Provide data for policy and planning



Useful skills honed in sociological training

• Communication & interpersonal

• Analysis and research

• Computer/technical

• Flexibility

• Leadership

• Sensitivity to diversity

• Organizing and planning

• Conceptual, problem-solving

• Personal values


The Social World Model

• Levels of analysis: size of the social groups being considered, from the smallest to the largest

• Understanding sociology requires understanding multiple levels of analysis

• The social world model allows us to picture levels of analysis in our social environment as an interconnected series of small groups, organizations, institutions, and societies

• Important question: How do the levels connect or conflict with one another?


Social Structures

• Social units: interconnected parts of the social world

• Social structure: a particular combination of social units that orders our lives

• Social institutions: provide the rules, roles, and relationships to meet human needs and guide human behavior



Social Processes

• Social processes: actions taken by people in social units. For example,• Process of socialization: how we learn to be productive

members of society

• Process of stratification: process of layering people on the basis of birth, income, or other factors

• Process of change: every social unit is continually changing, and change in each unit affects others



Studying the Social World: Levels of Analysis

• The social world can be studied at many levels:• Micro-level (individuals and small groups)

• Importance: micro interactions form the basis of all social organizations

• Macro-level (nations, global & international trends)• Importance: helps explain how larger social forces shape everyday life

• Each level adds depth to a topic



Social LocationSocial Location

• Sociologists study ones social location to understand human behavior• Social Location refers to the corners in life that people occupy

• Jobs, Social Class, Race, Occupation, Sex, Religion and other demographics

• Social Location can shape our ideas of who we are and what we should attain in life



• Sociology emerged in the middle of the 1800’s during a period of social upheaval

• The Industrial Revolution challenged traditional ideas about social life

• The scientific method, which was used in the physical sciences, led to the birth of Sociology

The Birth of The Birth of SociologySociology


• Lived in France

• Comte was the 1st Sociologist to advocate using positivism to studying social life

• Coined the term “Sociology” (the study of society)

• Advocate of social reform

Auguste Comte: Auguste Comte: Founder of SociologyFounder of Sociology

1798-18571798-1857


• Lived in England

• Societies evolve from lower to higher forms

• Coined the term “Survival of the Fittest”

Herbert Spencer: Herbert Spencer: Social DarwinismSocial Darwinism

1820-1903


• Class conflict is the engine of human history

• Proletariat vs. the Bourgeoisie

• Marxism is not the same as Communism

• “I am not a Communist”

Karl Marx:Karl Marx:Class ConflictClass Conflict

1818-1818-18831883


• 1st Professor of Sociology

• Studied suicide rates in several European countries in which he concluded social forces underlie suicidal behavior

• We must examine how social forces, such as social integration, affect human behavior

Emile Durkheim:Emile Durkheim:Social IntegrationSocial Integration

1858-19171858-1917


• Lived in Germany

• Disagreed with Marx

• Religion is the central force in social change

• The Protestant Ethic is tied to the rise of capitalism (the self denying approach to life)

Max Weber:Max Weber:ReligionReligion

1864-19201864-1920


• 1st African American to earn a doctorate at Harvard

• Every year between 1896 and 1914 he published a

book on race relations between African Americans and

White

• Founded the N.A.A.C.P (National Association for the

Advancement of Colored People)

W.E.B. Du Bois and W.E.B. Du Bois and Race Relations Race Relations

• Theory-a general statement about how some parts of the world fit together and how they work

• Sociologists use theories to conduct sociological research• Allows Sociologists to view a social problem from many

different perspectives• Symbolic Interactionist• Functional Analysis• Conflict Theory


Three Theoretical Three Theoretical PerspectivesPerspectives

Three Theoretical Three Theoretical PerspectivesPerspectives


• Symbolic Interactionists believe that individuals

evaluate their own conduct by comparing

themselves with others

• Symbolic Interactionists study:

• How people interpret symbols

• How people interact one on one

• How people behave according to how they

define themselves and others

Symbolic Symbolic InteractionismInteractionism

Rational choice theory (or exchange theory)

• Main ideas: • People act by making rational, self-interested decisions that will

maximize their rewards and minimize costs

• Main criticisms: • Neglects macro-level processes and micro-level, internal

mental processes• Cannot easily explain altruistic behavior• People do not always act rationally or accurately assess their

self-interest



• The Functional Analysis perspective views society

as a whole unit, made up of interrelated parts that

work together.• Functional Analysists study:

• The structure of society• How each part of society has certain functions

that must be fulfilled• What happens to society when dysfunctions

occur

Functional AnalysisFunctional Analysis

Conflict TheoryConflict Theory• Founded by Karl Marx• Groups competing for scarce resources• Groups competing for power and authority• Conflict can be positive as it can bring about positive

change


Feminist sociological theory• Main ideas:

• Rooted in conflict theory, symbolic interactionism• Social hierarchies disadvantage women and advantage men• Sociology has traditionally been male dominated, resulting in

an incomplete view of the world

• Main criticisms: • Theory should address the intersection of gender, race, class,

and other inequalities


Macro- Level Theories

Ideas Underlying Science

•How do we know?• Sociology uses scientific methods to expand knowledge of the

social world• The Systematic use of theories and research methods makes

sociology much more than guesswork or opinion


Theory & research are interdependent Theories are statements regarding how facts are

related to each other Sociological theories attempt to explain and make

predictions about the social world

The researcher’s choice of theory and research method is guided by the research question and level of social analysis

Theories tell researchers what kinds of facts to look for

Researchers use facts to test theories


Empirical Research & Social Theory

The research process• Planning a research study

• Designing the research plan and method for collecting data

• Making sense of the data


How Sociologists Study the Social World

Steps in planning a study:1. Define the problem clearly

The question must be specific and precise

2. Find out what is already known about topic Review existing theory and research

3. Formulate hypotheses and define variables Hypothesis: educated guess about the relationship between

two variables, which can be tested Variable: concept that can vary in frequency of occurrence

across persons, places, or time Operationalizing a variable: linking the variable concept to a

specific measurement


Planning a Study

Research aims to find causal relationships

Ways that two variables can be related: Correlation: variables change together Causation: one variable causes another to change

Independent variable (IV): the cause of change Dependent variable (DV): the variable that changes Timing: change in IV must precede change in DV

Spurious relationship: IV and DV change together due to effects of a third variable; not a causal relationship

Control variables help eliminate effects not related to the hypothesis, especially spurious relationships


Planning a Study (cont.)

Research design is important: the value of a study depends upon the quality of its data

Research methods depend upon the level of analysis of the research question

Primary sociological research methods: Surveys Field studies Controlled experiments Existing sources


Designing Research & Collecting Data

When the researcher gathers information from secondary sources it is referred to as secondary analysis.

• newspapers, historical documents, police reports, and other data collected by various societal agencies.

Advantage: It can be a valuable way to collect information in a timely manner

Disadvantage: Some information may be missing or inaccurate


Secondary AnalysisSecondary AnalysisSecondary AnalysisSecondary Analysis

Sampling (all methods)• Sample: a small group of people who are

systematically chosen to represent the larger population being studied

• Types of samples:• Representative: accurately reflects the population being

studied, so findings can be generalized to the population• Random: every person in the population has an equal chance

of being selected for the sample; the most common type of representative sample


Designing Research & Collecting Data

Analyzing data

• The goal is to determine relationships between the variables• Variables must be clear• Researcher must choose most effective tools for analyzing

relationships among variables• Discussion with and criticism from other researchers aids

accuracy of analysis• Study should be replicable, or capable of being repeated so

results can be compared


Analysis: Making Sense of the Data

Reporting conclusions• The researcher develops a report, including

• Outline of project • Data analysis, which may include tables or figures that

summarize the data• Conclusions: Are hypotheses supported by data?• Interpretations and recommendations

• In social science no one study can definitively prove a hypothesis; instead, findings may tend to support or reject a hypothesis


Analysis: Making Sense of the Data

Sociological research is bound by ethical codes which generally require that:

• Research subjects give informed consent to participate in studies

• Subjects are not harmed or put at risk• Subjects’ privacy is not invaded unnecessarily• Subjects’ private information is protected• Study findings do not cause harm

Human Subjects Review Boards at universities and other research institutions help protect subjects


Ethical Issues in Social Research


• Culture is:

• The language, beliefs, values, norms, and behaviors

passed on from one generation to the next

• How is this accomplished?

• Material vs. Nonmaterial Cultures

• Cultural Lag: When nonmaterial culture lags behind

material culture

What is Culture?What is Culture?


• What is Normal, Natural, or Usual?

• We believe our ways are “Normal”

• Ethnocentrism-the belief that our culture is the “best”

page 271 and vagina monologues

• Culture Shock- coming into contact with a culture that is

different from what we know

Ethnocentrism and Ethnocentrism and Culture ShockCulture Shock


• Symbols

• Gestures

• Language

• Norms (Folkways, Mores, Taboos)

• Values

Components of Components of Symbolic CultureSymbolic Culture


• Allows Human Experience to Be Cumulative• Provides a Social or Shared Past• Provides a Social or Shared Future• Allows Shared Perspectives• Allows Complex, Shared, Goal-Directed Behavior

Five Purposes Five Purposes of Languageof Language


• Norms - Expectations or rules for behavior Informal and Formal Norms Norms will change as cultures change• Sanctions - Reaction to following or breaking norms

• Positive Sanctions• Negative Sanctions

Norms and Norms and SanctionsSanctions


• Folkways - Norms that are not strictly

enforced

• Mores - Norms, when broken, go

against a society’s basic core values

• Taboos - Norms, when broken, are

considered repulsive

• Stiff Book

• Double Standard book

• German men

• Ramstein

Folkways, Mores, Folkways, Mores, and Taboosand Taboos


Subculture:

A world within the dominant culture

The norms and values do not clash with those of the

dominant culture

Countercultures:

A world within the dominant culture

The norms and values clash with those of the dominant

culture

Subcultures and Subcultures and CounterculturesCountercultures


Values in U.S. SocietyValues in U.S. Society

Romantic Love

DemocracyScience and Technology

ReligiosityFreedomEfficiency and

Practicality

EducationHumanitariani

smActivity and

Work

Racism and Group

Superiority

Material Comfort

Individualism

EqualityProgressAchievement and Success


Value Clusters: Values

that are similar to each

other

Value Contradictions:

Values that contradict

one another

Value Clusters: Values

that are similar to each

other

Value Contradictions:

Values that contradict

one another

Value Clusters and Value Clusters and ContradictionsContradictions


• Leisure

• Self-fulfillment

• Physical Fitness

• Youthfulness

• Concern for the Environment

Emerging ValuesEmerging Values


• Cultural Diffusion: The spreading of cultural characteristics

from one culture to another

• Why is this happening so rapidly?

• Cultural Leveling: When cultures start to become similar to

each other

Cultural Diffusion and Cultural Cultural Diffusion and Cultural LevelingLeveling

What is human nature?• Nature vs. Nurture

• Over the years studies have concluded that language and intimate interaction are essential to the development of human characteristics

55

What is human nature?• Feral Children

• Over the centuries people have occasionally found children living in the woods. • Bit• Drank by lapping water• Hunted and ate raw meet, grass• Growled• Walked on all fours• Showed an insensitivity pain and cold

56

What is human nature?• Isolated children- show what humans might be like if

secluded from society at an early age • Low IQ• No language skills

Austrian daughter -

57

What is human nature?• Institutionalized children- show that traits such as

intelligence, cooperative behavior, and friendliness are the result of early close relationships with other humans.

58

What is human nature?• Deprived animals- studies of monkeys raised in

isolation have reached similar conclusions to those involving human youth.

1. The longer and more severe the isolation the more difficult the adjustment becomes

2. Babies “do not” naturally develop into human adults3. Although their bodies grow, human interaction is

required for them to acquire the traits we consider normal human beings

59

socialization

• The process by which we learn the ways of society

• Does society make us human?

60

Socialization through life• Childhood (birth to 12)

• Formative years

61

Socialization through life• Adolescence (13-17)

• Inner turmoil and rebellion

62

Socialization through life• Young adulthood (19-29)

• Continuing education, stability, general optimism

63

Socialization through life• The middle years (30-65)

• (30-49) family and careers• (50-65) contemplate mortality

64

Socialization through life• The older years ( 66+)

• The early older years with medical technology and public awareness, this can be an extension of the middle years

• The later older years, this is marked by frailty and illness and eventually death

65

Life course and social factors

1. The time period in which the person is born and lives

2. His or her life as well as social location

3. The individual’s social class, gender and race

66

• Agents of socialization: people, organizations, and institutions that enable us to learn the beliefs, values, and behaviors of our cultures• Micro-level: family, peer group, local organizations• Meso-level: educational, religious institutions; media• Formal: socialization is stated goal (e.g., the family) • Informal: socialization isn’t a stated goal but occurs

anyway (e.g., the media)

• Agents of socialization shift over the life course

• Different agents’ messages may concur or conflict


Agents of Socialization

• Self: the perceptions we have of who we are, derived from our perceptions of the way others respond to us• The development of the self allows us to interact

with others and function in the social world• We are not born with a self; its development

begins in infancy• Biology and society both contribute to the

development of the self• The self, our ability to be aware of ourselves as

individuals, may be distinctive to humans


Development of the Self: Micro-Level Analysis

• A symbolic interactionist theory of the self developed by Charles H. Cooley

• The looking glass: “Each to each a looking-glassReflects the other that doth pass.”


The Looking Glass Self


• Stereotypes –

Assumptions about the

characteristics of certain

individuals which leads to

generalization

Microanalytical Microanalytical PerspectivePerspective


• Erving Goffman

• Dramaturgy – Life is like a play

• Impression Management – Face Saving

Behavior

• Front and Back Stages

Microanalytical Perspective Microanalytical Perspective (Dramaturgy)(Dramaturgy)

Dramatury (Role Conflict and Role Dramatury (Role Conflict and Role Strain)Strain)• Role Conflict – a conflict between two separate roles

The more roles you play, the more conflict you may experience • Role Strain – a strain within the same role



• Ethnomethodology - The study of how

people use background assumptions to get

through everyday life

• Harold Garfinkle’s Experiments

• What happens when you break the basic rules of

social life?

Microanalytical Perspective Microanalytical Perspective (Ethnomethodology)(Ethnomethodology)


• Thomas Theorem – W.I. Thomas• THE DEFINITION OF THE SITUATION

Our behavior depends not on the objective but on the

subjective interpretation of reality. We behave according to the way we perceive the world

Microanalytical Perspective (Thomas Microanalytical Perspective (Thomas Theorem)Theorem)

Microanalytical Perspective Microanalytical Perspective (Personal Space)(Personal Space)

• Personal Space (Edward Hall) – a invisible bubble by which we surround ourselves

• 4 Levels:• Intimate 18 inches apart • Personal 18 inches to four feet • Social 4 to 12 feet • Public 12 feet plus



• Children go through three stages in the development of

the self

1) Imitation –Children imitate significant others

2) Play – “Dressing Up”

3) Games – Generalized Other – What the groups thinks

about the individual; the individual takes on multiple

roles

Mead and Role Taking Mead and Role Taking (Socialization Process)(Socialization Process)

Freud and the development of personality • Personality consists of three elements

1. The Id2. The Ego3. The Superego

• As sociologists we reject this because Freud’s view is that these elements are inborn and unconscious, it denies that social factors influence our behavior.

78

Mead’s parts of the Self:

• The “I”: spontaneous, unpredictable, impulsive, acts without considering social consequences

• The “me”: the reflexive part of the self, formed through role-taking, that knows the rules of society and attempts to control and direct the “I” into socially acceptable behavior• The “me” requires the ability to take the role of

others, anticipating others’ reactions


Parts of the Self

• Resocialization: the process of abandoning one or more social positions in favor of others that are more suitable for a newly acquired status

• Resocialization may occur in a total institution, in which people are isolated from the outside world and lead bureaucratically regimented lives


The Process of Resocialization

• Families use positive and negative sanctions to help teach children right and wrong

• The number and type of sanctions shape the socialization process and the self

• Family socialization differs by• Culture

• Sub-culture

• Number of children in the household and birth order


Families: Micro-Level Socialization

• Social class: the wealth, power, and prestige rankings individuals hold in society

• Social class and socialization: Parents socialize children to meet expectations of the social class into which they are born• Middle class: autonomy, creativity, self-direction

• Working class: rule-following, respect authority

• Class socialization in the family impacts later socialization in school


Social Class: Meso-Level Socialization

• Electronic media as socialization agents: television, computers, internet, DVDs, video games, audio

• Concerns:• Those who control the mass media can influence

socialization within the home• What messages do these agents of socialization send

to children? • What is the impact of children spending more time with

media and less time with caregivers and peers?


Electronic Media: Meso-Level Socialization

Socialization in a globalized world

• Transnationalism: the situation of individuals or families who have national loyalty to more than one country, often a result of migration• May result in multiple and conflicting messages about

appropriate behaviors

• Global communications and events • May lead us to interact with diverse others, or solidify feelings of

“we” vs. “they”


Socialization and Macro-Level Issues

• Many policy questions and topics require understanding of socialization• Parenting and child-care• The education system• Retirement• Community development • Patriotism and global citizenship

• Sociologists provide and interpret data for policymakers and try to solve problems by working with state agencies, consulting firms, and foundations


Policy and Practice

Sociological Significance of Social Structure• Guides Our Behavior• Behavior Decided by Location in Social

Structure Culture

• Group’s Language, Beliefs, Values, Behaviors, Gestures

• Material Objects• Page 88


The Macrosociological PerspectiveThe Macrosociological Perspective

Social Class Divides People by…

1. Income

2. Education

3. Occupational Prestige



Social Status – Position a person occupies

• Ascribed –a status one is born with

• Achieved –a status one earns

• Master Status-cuts across all other statuses one

holds

• Status Set-all of the statuses one holds



Roles – Behaviors associated with ones status

• You Occupy a Status

• You Play a Role

• Ones role will change as ones status changes



Groups – People Who Regularly and Consciously

Interact and think of themselves as belonging together

Social Institutions – Means Developed by Societies to

Meet Basic Needs

• The more industrialized the society the more formal the

institution


Groups and Groups and Social InstitutionsSocial Institutions

what is sociology? sociology: the scientific study of social life, social change, and the social...

Documents