what is PISCOThe Partnership for Interdisciplinary Studies of Coastal Oceans is a long-term program of scientific research and training dedicated to advancing the understanding of the California Current Large Marine Ecosystem along the U.S. West Coast. PISCO is pioneering an integrated approach to studying this complex, rich, and economically important environment.

PISCO is distinguished by its interdisciplinary approach, large geographic extent, and decades-long time frame. PISCO conducts monitoring and experiments along more than 1,200 miles (2,000 kilometers) of coastline, as well as laboratory and theoretical studies. The research incorporates oceanography, ecology, chemistry, physiology, molecular biology, genetics, and mathematical modeling to gain novel insights into systems ranging from individual animals and plants to the whole ecosystem.

PISCO’s findings apply to conservation and resource management issues. PISCO scientists participate in local, regional, national, and international initiatives for marine environmental planning. Through its university courses, PISCO helps to train the next generation of scientists in interdisciplinary approaches to marine research and policy.

Established in 1999 with funding from The David and Lucile Packard Foundation, PISCO is led by scientists from Oregon State University (OSU), Stanford University’s Hopkins Marine Station, University of California at Santa Cruz (UCSC), and University of California at Santa Barbara (UCSB). As of 2005, core PISCO activities are funded by collaborative grants from The David and Lucile Packard Foundation and the Gordon and Betty Moore Foundation. The core support and additional funding from diverse public and private sources make this unique partnership possible.

1 View from the Wave Crest

2 Patterns of Change Reproductive Hotspots Fish Population Genetics Physics of Rocky Shores Identifying Fish Birthplaces

6 Oceanographic Frontiers Monitoring Oceanography Modeling Drifting Young Currents and Dispersal Paths

10 Ecological Linkages Changes in Kelp Forests Oceans Affect Shore Ecology Effects of Climate Warming

14 Interdisciplinary Training & Research PISCO Training Courses Student Showcase

16 Sharing the Science Teaching Groups to Monitor PISCO Advises California Straight Talks on Fishing Methods of Stock

Assessment

View from the Wave Crest

PISCO Coastal Connections Program Coordinator: Kristen Milligan PISCO Coastal Connections Coordinators: Satie Airamé, Liz Riley, Cinamon Vann, Amy Windrope

Editor & Writer: Peter H. TaylorCreative Director: Monica PessinoGraphics Assistant: Julia KwintoGIS Support: Will McClintockLine Drawings: Linda D. Nelson

Cover photo: Painted greenling (Oxylebius pictus) © 2006 Luke Miller. Cover photo insets, top to bottom: Wyatt Patry, Francis Chan, Jane Lubchenco, Monica Pessino. Opposite page photos, left to right: Gretchen Hofmann, Giacomo Bernardi, Luke Miller, Amy Wagner

PISCO Coastal Connections is a publication of the Partnership for Interdisciplinary Studies of Coastal Oceans (PISCO). Contents © 2006.For more information about PISCO or to join the mailing list for future publications, please contact the consortium at the addresses listed on the back cover.

PISCO Coastal ConnectionsVolume 5

Table of Contents PISCO Coastal Connections is an annual publication of the Partnership for Interdisciplinary Studies of Coastal Oceans (PISCO). We welcome you to the fifth issue in the series that highlights major findings, research projects, as well as outreach and education.

The interdisciplinary PISCO consortium is an interconnected group of estab-lished scientists and postdoctoral fellows, science and policy coordinators, data managers, graduate students, and research technicians. The consortium’s work is further strengthened by its collaborations with government agencies, non- government organizations, and academic institutions. This issue of PISCO Coastal Connections reflects these cumulative efforts and their value for marine policy and management.

Articles in this year’s “Patterns of Change” section feature some of our latest findings about variations over time and distance in the marine ecology and oceanography of the U.S. West Coast. “Oceanographic Frontiers” describes PISCO’s extensive ocean-observing network and our research into oceano-graphic processes in coastal waters. The “Ecological Linkages” section explores new findings about the connections between oceanography and ecological changes. Results from PISCO’s graduate student programs, including our new marine policy course, are highlighted in “Interdisciplinary Training.” “Sharing the Science” showcases examples of PISCO’s initiatives to communicate scien-tific findings and methods to broader audiences.

We invite you to enjoy this issue of PISCO Coastal Connections and the achievements described on the following pages.

PISCO principal investigators (top to bottom, left to right): Libe Washburn (UCSB), Pete Raimondi (UCSC), Steve Gaines (UCSB), Mark Denny (Stanford), Margaret McManus (UCSC), Jane Lubchenco (OSU), Jack Barth (OSU), Robert Warner (UCSB), Steve Palumbi (Stanford), George Somero (Stanford), Mark Carr (UCSC), and Bruce Menge (OSU). Not shown: Gretchen Hofmann (UCSB). Photo: Satie Airamé

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OFpatterns change

Geographic Differences in Barnacle ReproductionIn monitoring surveys, PISCO scientists found that barnacles living on the coast near Cape Perpetua, Oregon, produced approximately five times as many offspring as barnacles near Cape Foulweather, Oregon. This reproductive difference may arise from differences in food availability. The waters near Cape Perpetua contain much more phytoplankton, one of the barnacles’ major foods. In targeted experiments, the scientists uncovered even greater differences, as Cape Perpetua barnacles produced 120 times more young than barnacles from Cape Foulweather (see figure above). Other marine species are likely to have reproductive hotspots, and identifying these hotspots could improve management of marine ecosystems (see article, next page).

Hotspots for

Marine scientists have long suspected that populations of invertebrates living in different places in the sea may differ in their production of young, but scientists have rarely tested this idea empirically. Using the acorn barnacle (Balanus

glandula) as a model, PISCO/OSU doctoral student Heather Leslie examined geographic variation in barnacle reproduction along the Oregon coast to find out whether food supply affected the number of offspring produced. Her research builds on PISCO’s prior findings that phytoplankton, which barnacles eat, are abundant near Cape Perpetua but scarce near Cape Foulweather. Leslie’s research offers an example of how marine scientists can effectively gather information on spatial variation in reproduction and link it to ecological and oceanographic processes. Leslie collaborated on the research with PISCO principal investigators Jane Lubchenco and Bruce Menge, postdoctoral fellow Francis Chan, and OSU honors student Erin Breck.

The research highlights the value of understanding how ecological and oceanographic processes influence marine populations. Apparently similar habitats along the coast differ markedly in their ecological functioning (see findings, opposite page). Particular sites may be especially significant sources of young for some marine invertebrates, serving as reproductive hotspots. Leslie’s findings are relevant to design of marine protected areas because they suggest the potential to identify and conserve sites with high reproductive rates for certain species.

Heather Leslie is now a postdoctoral fellow at Princeton University.Publication: Barnacle reproductive hotspots linked to nearshore ocean conditions. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 102 (2005): 10534–10539.

Reproduction and Conservation

Barnacles (Balanus glandula) on the rocky shore. Photo: Sheri Etchemendy

Science of Marine Reserves

Marine reserves offer greater protec-tion than any other type of marine protected area (MPA) by completely protecting animals, plants, and their habitat from removal or alteration. Other MPA designations may allow certain human uses, like recreational fishing. Design of marine reserves and other protected areas can be informed by scientific research regarding species distributions, abundance, dispersal, population replenishment, and inter-actions with other species. Research shows that marine reserves can help to protect marine habitats and species, and in some cases restore populations of depleted species. Fish, shellfish, and seaweeds inside marine reserves tend to be larger, more abundant, and more diverse than they are in non-reserve areas. These benefits of marine reserves can boost marine ecosystem resilience and productivity. For more information about the science of marine reserves, visit www.piscoweb.org.

Heather Leslie studying barnacle reproduction at Fogarty Creek, along the Oregon coast. Photo: Jane Lubchenco

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Caption

Finding Shelter on the RocksPISCO/Stanford graduate student Michael “Moose” O’Donnell explored the fluid mechanics of wave-battered shores to understand how topography affects ecological patterns. His research revealed that crevices on rocky shores do not necessarily protect invertebrates and seaweeds from pounding waves—and may, in fact, do the opposite. Depending on size and orientation, a crevice can funnel water, creating intense wave forces. Yet, in some cases, snails, seaweeds, and other shore-dwelling species actually benefit from the stronger wave forces, as water splashing from the crevices enables them to live higher on the rocks than they otherwise could. In contrast, O’Donnell has found that mussel beds do create shelter for small animals. Wave forces experienced by a snail, for example, drop by 40 percent within 10 centimeters of a mussel bed—and by 90 percent within one centimeter. This research provides insight into how components of the physical environment interact to create habitable space for marine animals and plants along the coast.

Michael O’Donnell is now a postdoctoral fellow at the University of California, Santa Barbara.

Genetics Show Distinct Rockfish Populations PISCO/UCSC graduate student Martha Burford is studying geographic varia-tion in the population genetics of blue rockfish (Sebastes mystinus) and kelp rockfish (S. atrovirens) along the California coast. Adult rockfishes generally do not travel far from the kelp beds and rocky reefs where they live. However, long-distance dispersal of their young might link the state’s rockfishes into one genetically similar population. Burford uses genetic markers, called microsat-ellite loci, to detect genetic differences among adults and juveniles of both species. Her research reveals substantial geographic variation in the population genetics of juvenile rockfishes in California’s waters, indicating that the state has multiple genetically distinct populations. Burford’s findings have implica-tions for fisheries management. For example, a network of several marine pro-tected areas or marine reserves might protect the genetic diversity of rockfish better than one large area.

O’Donnell measures wave forces in mussel beds. Photo: Luke Miller

O’Donnell has found that rocky crevices can increase the wave forces experienced by marine animals and seaweeds. Heights of bars indicate wave forces measured by wave-force recorders (white balls below bars). When a two-meter wave hits, the force in a small crevice (red bars) can be double that outside the crevice (orange and green bars).

Green box indicates location of close-up photo (left). Photo: Michael O’Donnell

Martha Burford prepares DNA from blue rockfish for analysis. Photo: Lydia Bergen

crevice

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patterns of change

PISCO/UCSB scientists collected larval kelp rockfishes from three areas near Santa Barbara and analyzed the trace elements in the fishes’ otoliths, or ear bones. They measured seven elements: strontium (Sr), barium (Ba), lead (Pb), magnesium (Mg), manganese (Mn), iron (Fe), and zinc (Zn). Because the relative amounts of the elements varied from site to site, the trace elements acted as distinctive tags identifying where each fish was born.

Natural Tags Indicate Fish BirthplacesPISCO/UCSB scientists have discovered that water chemistry along the open coast varies enough to leave identifiable chemical signatures in the otoliths, or ear bones, of newborn kelp rockfishes (Sebastes atrovirens). These signatures may prove to be useful as natural “tags” that identify the birthplaces of rock-fishes caught as adults.

The scientists collected larval rockfish from three areas along the mainland and islands near Santa Barbara. The scientists removed otoliths from the tiny fish and analyzed the chemical composition using mass spectrometry (see sidebar). They found detectable levels of several trace elements in the otoliths, and the chemical signatures varied in a way that was distinctive among the study sites (see figures and caption).

Results suggest that otoliths could be used to identify the birthplace of adult rockfishes, after geographic and temporal patterns in otolith signatures along the coast are understood. Ultimately this method could reveal the connections among fish populations, enabling better fisheries management.

Researchers are Jennifer Caselle, Georges Paradis, Michael Sheehy, and Robert Warner (PISCO/UCSB); and Stephen Swearer (University of Melbourne, Australia).Publication: Natal trace-elemental signatures in the otoliths of an open-coast fish. Limnology and Oceanography 50(2005): 1529–1542.

Deciphering the Tags

Trace elements are incorporated from ocean water into a fish’s ear bone, or oto-lith, as it grows. The otolith grows by add-ing calcium layers, like rings in a tree. Trace elements vary among places in the ocean, so as the fish travels, these differences are recorded in the otolith layers. PISCO scientists use lasers and mass spectrom-eters to measure the trace elements in the layers. By matching the layers’ signatures to particular places in the ocean, the scien-tists intend to use the otolith like a natural “flight recorder” of where a fish was born and where it traveled. For more informa-tion about the technique, see PISCO Coastal Connections, Volumes 1 to 4.

Kelp rockfish (Sebastes atrovirens). Photo: Marc Chamberlain

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NMS = National Marine Sanctuary

SBC-LTER = Santa Barbara Coastal Long-Term Ecological Research

Locator Map

oceanographicfrontiers

PISCO scientists are working to identify how oceanographic conditions help shape coastal ecosystems. To study the marine environment near shore, PISCO deploys and maintains dozens of oceanographic moorings from Oregon to southern California. Partnerships with the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration’s (NOAA’s) National Marine Sanctuaries (NMS) program and the National Science Foundation’s Santa Barbara Coastal Long-Term Ecological Research Program (SBC-LTER) enable greater coverage and expertise. PISCO’s database experts and scientists are developing new systems to manage the vast amounts of oceanographic data from PISCO moorings. The data are available by contacting PISCO staff, or through online data catalogs at www.piscoweb.org.

Network of Oceanographic Moorings

Monitoring Detects Ocean Anomalies

In early summer 2005, many people began to notice unusual changes along the North American west coast—warmer ocean temperatures near the shore, decreased concentrations of plankton in some coastal waters, a drop in groundfish catches, and an increase in dead seabirds found on beaches.

A delay of nearly two months in the onset of normal springtime, southward winds resulted in little or no upwelling of cold, nutrient-rich deep waters. This led to warm surface waters, scarce nutrients, and lowered productivity along the coast. During this apparently anomalous event, PISCO researchers detected unusual ocean conditions and consequent ecological impacts.

• Warmer water (figure, left) – Most pronounced in Oregon during the late spring, the water reached 18 degrees Celsius—5 to 7 degrees above normal. Coastal waters of California were 1 to 3 degrees Celsius warmer than normal early in 2005.

• Changes in phytoplankton – Surveys in Oregon found approximately half as much phytoplankton in May and June as in previous years. In Mon-terey Bay, a shift occurred in the phytoplankton; dinoflagellates dominated in summer 2005, whereas diatoms were dominant in 2002 (Jim Sullivan, University of Rhode Island).

• Low population replenishment and larval abundance – Mussel population replenishment was the lowest ever observed in Oregon for at least the last decade. Along the central coast of California, six species of rockfish failed to add young to their populations in kelp forests. Offshore surveys by NOAA revealed very few larvae.

PISCO scientists are now working with researchers at other institutions to evaluate the ecological impacts of the unusual period of warm water.

PISCO researchers are Jack Barth, Francis Chan, Anthony Kirincich, Jane Lubchenco, Bruce Menge (OSU); Mark Carr, Patrick Drake, Margaret McManus, Pete Raimondi (UCSC); Jennifer Caselle, Chris Gotschalk, Libe Washburn (UCSB).

Unusual wind patterns were the driving force behind major ecosystem anomalies along the Oregon coast in 2005. PISCO/OSU researcher Jack Barth and OSU researchers Steven Pierce and Renato Castelao analyzed wind records from the last 20 years for compari-son with 2005. Southward winds drive the upwelling of cold, nutrient-rich waters to the ocean surface. One measure used by researchers to determine the onset and magnitude of upwelling is called “cumulative wind stress.” The figure (right) shows cumulative south-ward wind stress (negative values) as measured from an offshore NOAA buoy. Normally, these winds blow strongly enough for upwelling to fuel the coastal food web through the summer. In 2005, upwelling was delayed by about two months due to lack of favorable winds. From June to July 2005, cumulative wind stress was the least ever observed in the past 20 years. In late July 2005, upwelling-favorable wind stress finally reached more typical conditions, but then it went into overdrive with more persistent upwelling than normal. By mid-September, the total amount of upwelling caught up to the historical average—but it was too late for the fish, birds, and other species that rely on upwelling during summer.The graph (right) shows the 20-year average (black line) for cumulative wind stress and the variation around this average (shaded); the blue line indicates conditions in 2005.

The Cause: Delay in Southward Winds

Red lines on the graphs indicate average daily water tem-peratures on the ocean surface in 2005 at PISCO moor-ings. Blue lines show the averages for 2001 to 2004 and variation around this average. When the red line is above or below the blue region, temperatures in 2005 differed significantly from previous years. Moorings in Oregon are deployed only from spring to fall each year because of intense winter storms; therefore data are not available for winter and early spring months.

Oregon

Central California

Southern California

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Modeling Dispersal of Young Fish

Off southern and central California, oil and gas platforms serve as reef-like homes for large numbers of juvenile rockfishes. The juveniles settle at the platforms or at natural reefs after drifting with ocean currents. Scientists, resource managers, and conservationists have debated the ecological consequences for rockfishes if decommissioned platforms are removed. Do the platforms help boost rockfish numbers by providing additional habitat, or do the platforms simply attract fish that otherwise would settle at natural reefs? In collaboration with scientists funded by the U.S. Minerals Management Service, PISCO/UCSB scientists developed a model that offers insights. Using data from high-fre-quency radar that measures the speed and direction of ocean currents, the scientists simulated the likely paths of juvenile rock-fishes drifting near a platform located off Point Conception. The model showed that most of the juveniles would drift offshore, away from suitable natural reefs, if there were no platform at which they could settle. This result suggests that oil and gas platforms provide supplemental habitat for juvenile rockfishes that otherwise would perish offshore. However, the model does not yet account for swimming efforts since little is known about the behavior of juvenile rockfish in the coastal ocean. PISCO scientists now seek to incorporate behavior into the model, enabling more ac-curate understanding of the role of oil and gas platforms as rockfish habitat.

Researchers are Brian Emery, Milton Love, Mary Nishimoto (UCSB), Libe Washburn (PISCO/UCSB), and Carter Ohlmann (Scripps).

Publication: Do oil and gas platforms off Cali-fornia reduce recruitment of bocaccio (Sebastes paucispinis) to natural habitat? An analysis based on trajectories derived from high-frequency radar. Fisheries Bulletin, in press.

Young bocaccio rockfish (Sebastes paucispinis). Photo: Donna Schroeder

Models Link Oceanography and Animal Behavior Because many fish and invertebrate species release their young into the water to spend weeks or months drifting, the dispersal of young serves as an im-portant link among populations. A major goal of PISCO is to understand the interconnections of fish and invertebrate populations. Tracking the tiny young is extremely difficult, so PISCO is developing numerical models, based on oceano-graphic and ecological data, to simulate the dispersal. Such models traditionally treat the young as passive, drifting particles. Yet the young of many species actively regulate their depth in the water, moving upward or downward over time. Currents move in different directions and speeds at different depths, so this behavior can affect the path of dispersal.

PISCO is working to integrate the behavior of young invertebrates and fish into dispersal models to better mirror actual conditions. Scientists at PISCO/UCSC have created a model for Monterey Bay that combines physical oceanographic data with information on barnacle larval growth and behavior. The coupled physical-biological model simulates current speeds and directions throughout the bay at various depths. During the simulation, the model releases barnacle larvae at points along the coast and then tracks them as they drift. The larvae in the model change depth with each developmental stage, just as real barnacle larvae do. Taking into account each larva’s depth over time and the currents at that depth, the model determines the trajectories of the larvae through the ocean. Larvae may be swept out to sea, where they would perish, or they may be retained near the coast, where they could settle and mature. The scientists found that the proportion of larvae retained—and therefore potentially surviv-ing to adulthood—depends on where the larvae were born and the oceano-graphic conditions during the period that they drift (see figure above).

Researchers are Anna Pfeiffer-Hoyt, Margaret McManus (PISCO/UCSC/ University of Hawaii), Pete Raimondi (PISCO/UCSC), and Yi Chao (Jet Propulsion Laboratory).Publication: Dispersal of barnacle larvae along the central California coast: A modeling study. Limnology and Oceanography (in review).

Lines indicate dispersal trajectories of barnacle young in the oceanographic model. Stars indicate points on the shore where young were released in the models. During upwelling conditions, young tended to be carried southward and away from shore (black lines). During periods without upwelling, called “relaxation,” more young were retained and moved to the shoreline (red lines).

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oceanographic frontiersCurrents Influence Population ReplenishmentThe island of Santa Cruz near Santa Barbara, California, lies at the convergence of two major ocean currents. PISCO/UCSB scientists Carol Blanchette and Bernardo Broitman used the unique setting to examine how currents affect the timing and abundance of young invertebrates arriving to inhabit the rocky shore. For five years, the scientists monitored the population replenishment of mussels and barnacles at several sites on the island; every two to three months, they counted the young that had settled onto collectors fastened to the rocks. Over the same period, the researchers used satellite remote sensing of seawater temperatures to track ocean currents around the island.

Oceanographic conditions and rates of population replenishment differed strikingly between the island’s eastern and western sides. Persistently warm water bathed the eastern shore, where large numbers of young barnacles and mussels settled. Meanwhile, cold water prevailed at western sites, and few bar-nacles and mussels settled. Differences also emerged in the settlement patterns of the two species. Population replenishment of barnacles happened sporadi-cally and tended to be simultaneous around the island. Mussels, in contrast, settled more continually over time, and sites differed markedly in the number of young. The findings suggest that the warm currents brought high numbers of larvae to eastern sites, while cold currents brought few larvae to western sites, and differences in mussel and barnacle behavior or development appar-ently caused different patterns of population replenishment. The findings may have implications for the design and effects of marine protected areas such as those recently established in the Channel Islands.Publication: Recruitment of intertidal invertebrates and oceanographic variability at Santa Cruz Island, California, U.S.A. Limnology and Oceanography 50(5), 2005, 1473–1479.

Because of ocean currents, the western shores of Santa Cruz Island, California, have colder water (blue colors) than the eastern shores, which are bathed in warmer waters (yellow-red colors).

Barnacle Life History

Barnacles, mussels, and many other marine invertebrates begin life as tiny larvae that are carried by ocean currents, possibly long distances. After a period of weeks or months, they attach onto rocks and other hard surfaces, where they live as adults. Ecologists often study barnacles as model species to gain insight into the ecology of invertebrates with free-swimming larvae. The illustration above shows generalized adult and young life stages of barnacles. The adults release free-swimming young, ranging in size from 0.25 to 1 millimeter, into the water. The young, or larvae, molt several times, developing from the nau-plius stage to the cyprid stage. Eventually, cyprids settle onto hard surfaces, attach-ing themselves with adhesive and matur-ing into adults. Ocean currents strongly affect where and when barnacles settle and live as adults along the coast. PISCO’s long-term program of oceanographic and ecological monitoring is investigating the complex effects of ocean circulation on the arrival of young barnacles to replenish local populations. The research is essential to understanding fluctuations in abundance of shellfish and other invertebrates and will enable better resource management.

Large numbers of young barnacles (upper graph) and mussels (lower graph) settled along the island’s eastern shores (red lines), while few settled along the western shores (blue lines), suggesting that the warmer current carried more young to the island. In addition, mus-sels settled over a long period between winter and summer, whereas barnacles settled in pulses during the spring and summer, indicating that differences in biology affected their settlement patterns.

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linkagesecological

Year

Posi

tion

alo

ng c

oast

Kelp canopy biomass (tons/kilometer of coast)

PISCO scientists at UCSB and UCSC analyzed data from monthly aerial surveys to produce this figure showing changes in kelp beds in southern California over 34 years. Green indicates abundant kelp. Large kelp beds characterize some sections along the coast, such as at sites A, B, and C, but the amount of kelp at any site varied over time. At site C, for example, the strong El Niño in 1997-1998 caused a die-off of kelp. Survey data from ISP Alginates, Inc.

Kelp researchers are Dan Reed (UCSB); Brian Gaylord, Brian Kinlan, and Libe Washburn (PISCO/UCSB); and Peter Raimondi and Patrick Drake (PISCO/UCSC). Brian Gaylord is now an assistant professor at the University of California, Davis.

Publications: Physical-biological coupling in spore dispersal of kelp forest macroalgae. Journal of Marine Systems 49 (2004): 19-39.

Macroalgal spore dispersal in coastal environ-ments: Mechanistic insights revealed by theory and experiment. Ecological Monographs (in review).

A metapopulation perspective on patch dynamics and connectivity of giant kelp. In J.P. Kritzer and P.F. Sale (eds.). Marine Metapopulations. 2006. Academic Press, San Diego.

Long-term Changes in Kelp Forests

U nderwater forests of giant kelp are extremely important habitats along the U.S. West Coast, supporting numerous fish and invertebrate species. El Niño and storms strongly affect the locations and sizes of kelp forests by removing kelp from the sea bottom, which in turn influences the animals that live there.

To understand how climate change might affect kelp forests, PISCO scientists collaborated with UCSB researcher Dan Reed on a project funded by the National Science Foundation to investigate the long-term trends in giant kelp abundance along 500 kilometers of the southern California coast over 34 years. Together, they combined monitoring data, oceanographic modeling, and field experiments to estimate extinction and colonization rates of kelp patches in relation to oceanographic conditions, patch size, and connectivity with other kelp forests.

Data from monthly aerial surveys showed that patches of giant kelp under-went frequent extinctions and recolonizations over time scales from several months to over a decade (see figure, opposite page). In most cases, kelp forests disappeared for less than two years before being recolonized by new kelp. Small, isolated kelp forests were more likely to go extinct than were large forests surrounded by other forests. Conversely, recolonization was more likely for large patches and less likely for isolated patches.

The scientists also studied the dispersal of kelp spores, which enable the kelp to recolonize the sea bottom (see sidebar). This investigation of kelp forest dynamics provides new insights into the degree of connectivity among kelp forests and tools for better predicting effects of changing ocean climate.

Dispersal of Kelp Spores

To reproduce, kelp release spores that drift some distance away before settling onto the sea bottom. Knowing typical dispersal distances of kelp spores is critical to understanding regional changes in kelp forests. PISCO researchers in collabora-tion with UCSB biologist Dan Reed have created a mathematical model that incor-porates coastal oceanography and spore biology to mimic spore dispersal. Predic-tions from the model compared favorably to real-world measurements of spore dispersal from an experimental kelp popu-lation. The model allows the scientists to examine the importance of factors such as wave height, current speed, turbulence, and height at which the spores are released above the sea bottom in affecting spore dispersal patterns. The research shows that while many kelp spores settle close to their parent, a sizeable fraction travel hundreds to several thousands of meters before settling on the seafloor. While shorter-distance dispersal is adequate for the maintenance of extant kelp forests, longer-distance dispersal is needed for the recolonization of kelp in forests that have gone locally extinct.

A large kelp forest in the Channel Islands is visible from the air. Photo: Ben Waltenberger

Kelp rockfish (Sebastes atrovirens) in a kelp forest (Macrocystis pyrifera). Photo: Luke Miller

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Ecological Monitoring

A major component of PISCO is a coor-dinated, large-scale program of ecological and oceanographic monitoring along the U.S. West Coast. The monitoring program includes:

• measuring population replenishment of key shoreline invertebrates and reef fish from spring to late fall,

• biological surveys at approximately 50 rocky reef and kelp forest sites and 100 shoreline sites, and

• monthly coastal transects in Oregon to monitor conditions at representative sites.

Through these integrated monitoring efforts, PISCO identifies changes in the ecosystem and designs experiments to understand the underlying causes. More than six years of large-scale monitoring data from PISCO provides scientists and resource managers with detailed informa-tion on species distributions, population fluctuations, shifts over time, and oceano-graphic changes along the coast.

For more information: www.piscoweb.org

Regional Oceanography Shapes Ecological PatternsEcological studies of marine systems traditionally focus on local biological inter-actions such as predation and competition. However, large-scale events like El Niño or climate change can alter local ecology by affecting supplies of larvae, nutrients, and phytoplankton. In multi-year studies along 1,300 kilometers of the coast, PISCO scientists are finding that ecological patterns on the scale of capes and bays can arise from interactions between regional-scale oceano-graphic events and local-scale ecological processes.

In northern California and Oregon, two distinct oceanographic regimes occur. North of Cape Blanco, Oregon, the strong jet of the California Current flows parallel and close (20-50 kilometers) to shore, and summertime upwelling of cold water is sporadic; this regime is called “intermittent upwelling.” South of Cape Blanco, the jet meanders as far as 300 kilometers offshore, and upwell-ing is more consistent; this regime is called “persistent upwelling.”

Spanning both regimes, PISCO scientists have measured numerous ecological parameters. The results show clear patterns, such as relatively high chlorophyll concentrations and lower nutrient concentrations in the intermittent upwell-ing regime and inverse relationships between macrophyte and invertebrate abundance. Researchers are now evaluating the extent to which large-scale oceanographic conditions determine differences in the patterns and underly-ing processes in ecological communities, such as population replenishment rates, organism growth, and species interactions.

PISCO/OSU researchers are Bruce Menge, Francis Chan, Sally Hacker, Maria Kavanaugh, and Christopher Krenz. Maria Kavanaugh is now a doctoral stu-dent at the College of Oceanic and Atmospheric Sciences at OSU. Christopher Krenz is now a John A. Knauss Marine Policy Fellow in Washington, D.C.

From 1999 to 2005, PISCO measured many ecological parameters at multiple sites at each cape indicated on the map. Patterns found in four parameters are illustrated above. Abun-dance of macrophytes (seaweeds and seagrasses) correlated inversely with invertebrate abundance at many capes. At Cape Foulweather in Oregon, for example, macrophytes were abundant, and invertebrates were scarce. Concentrations of the important nutrient nitrate were lower in the intermittent upwelling regime than in the persistent upwelling regime, and phytoplankton were more abundant. Cape Perpetua consistently had low nitrate concentrations and high chlorophyll concentrations.12

ecological linkagesEffects of Water Temperature on Urchin SurvivalSea urchins develop from fertilized egg to larva in an uncertain world, drift-ing with the ocean currents. Prevailing oceanographic conditions can expose these vulnerable life stages to new environmental conditions and transport them away from their adult habitat. PISCO/UCSB scientists are studying the effects of temperature changes on the pluteus larvae of four common ur-chins in the genus Strongylocentrotus. The goal is to understand the role of water temperature in setting the northern and southern limits of the species’ ranges along the west coast. The scientists have found that differences as small as one degree can have dramatic effects down to the molecular level. Interestingly, urchin larvae from colder, northern waters are more sensitive to changes in temperature than their southern relatives. The geographic range of northern urchins likely is limited by temperature at its southern end. Know-ing how urchin larvae respond to changing temperatures at large geographic scales may enable predictions about the impacts of both short- and long-term climate changes on the distribution and abundance of these ecologically and commercially important species. For example, northern species are likely to be more susceptible to ocean warming than their southern relatives.

PISCO/UCSB researchers are Gretchen Hofmann, LaTisha Hammond, and Kevin Fielman.

Are Intertidal and Subtidal Species at Equal Risk? Climate warming is expected to have profound effects on the ocean. Research by PISCO/Stanford scientists shows that some of the ecological outcomes may seem paradoxical. The researchers tested the physiological tolerances of intertidal and subtidal snail species and determined the snails’ capacities for acclimating to warmer temperatures. A surprising finding was that intertidal snail species, despite tolerating higher temperatures than their subtidal rela-tives, face a greater threat from climate warming. Two factors account for this result. First, the intertidal species currently experience temperatures closer to their limits of heat tolerance. Second, they have more limited abilities to accli-mate to higher temperatures. Consequently, intertidal snails are vulnerable to the warming climate, while subtidal species have the capacity to tolerate some warming.

PISCO/Stanford researchers are Emily Stenseng, Caren Braby, and George Somero. Caren Braby is now a postdoctoral fellow at the Monterey Bay Aquar-ium Research Institute.Publication: Evolutionary and acclimation-induced variation in the thermal limits of heart function in congeneric marine snails: implications for vertical zonation. Biological Bulletin 208 (2005): 138-144.

Map (above): White and green sea urchins occur from southern Puget Sound to Alaska. Purple and red sea urchins are found from Baja California to Alaska.

Graph (right): Percent mortality of the young (pluteus larvae) of four urchin species exposed to different tem-peratures in the laboratory. Young red and purple urchins tolerated high temperatures better than white and green urchins, which inhabit colder, northern waters.

The body temperature of the shoreline-dwelling snail Tegula funebralis (green line) sometimes went above the temperature at which its heart function was impaired (green horizontal line). The body temperature of the deeper-water snail T. brunnea (blue line) did not cross the threshold (blue horizontal line). This result indicates that climate warming threatens T. funebralis more than T. brunnea. Body temperature fluctuation data from Tomanek and Somero (1999).

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interdisciplinaryresearchtraining&

n 2005, PISCO offered two interdisciplinary courses in marine research and policy as part of its training program for the next generation of scientists. The participants hailed from the four PISCO campuses—UCSB, UCSC, Stanford, and OSU—and twelve other institutions.

PISCO’s new Marine Conservation Science and Policy graduate course was held at Hatfield Marine Science Center in Newport, Oregon. PISCO scientists Jane Lubchenco and Steve Gaines taught this course with marine policy experts Andy Rosenberg (University of New Hampshire) and David Festa (Environmental Defense). PISCO policy coordinators Liz Riley, Satie Airamé, and Cinamon Vann co-instructed and provided logistical support. The intensive ten-day course engaged students in hands-on, interactive learning about the political and legal aspects of marine management, the role of science in marine policy, and the communication of science to wider audiences. “There is nothing else like this course in terms of quality and its unique combination of topics and approach,” said one participant.

In 2005, twenty students attended PISCO’s month-long Biomechanics, Ecological Physiology, and Genetics of Intertidal Communities course at Stanford University’s Hopkins Marine Station. PISCO scientists Mark Denny, Steve Palumbi, and George Somero taught the course. “It was an absolutely fantastic experience,” said one participant. “I learned some good practical skills, [and] I’m thinking about ecology in very different ways.”

IInterdisciplinary Courses Train the Next Generation

interdisciplinary training & research

PISCO/UCSC student Jared Figurski. Photo: Wyatt Patry

Former PISCO/UCSB doctoral student Kim Selkoe (left) with fishing assistant Merit McCrea. Photo: Roland Takayama

PISCO/OSU student Laura Petes. Photo: Jane Lubchenco

Does Detritus Determine Differences?PISCO/UCSC doctoral student Jared Figurski is in-vestigating the ecological significance of kelp detritus, a rich mix of decaying kelp and microorganisms. He has found that reefs along the central coast of California vary greatly in the quantity of detritus. Because clumps of detritus are important as food and shelter for fish and other animals, Figurski is testing the hypothesis that the abundance of detritus leads to ecological differences among kelp forests. In 2004, his experiments showed that young-of-the-year rockfish actively seek out patches of kelp detritus as a nursery habitat. In 2005, he studied the importance of kelp detritus as habitat and food for fish, shrimp, amphipods, crabs, sea stars, and snails.

Student Showcase

Using Genetics to Explore Ecological LinkagesPISCO/UCSB doctoral student Kim Selkoe used genet-ic techniques to examine possible interdependence of fish populations across the U.S.-Mexican border. She studied kelp bass (Paralabrax clathratus), which supports a large recreational fishery in southern California and an artisanal fishery in Baja California. Many scientists and policy-makers believe that south-ern California populations of kelp bass are replenished during strong El Niño years by young fish spawned in Baja and carried north by currents. However, Selkoe found that kelp bass of southern California have very different genetic traits and higher genetic diversity than those of Baja. Her findings indicate that kelp bass populations in California are self-sustaining, not dependent on Baja populations.

Kim Selkoe is now a postdoctoral researcher at the Hawaii Institute of Marine Biology.

Physiology and Ecology of Mussel ReproductionPISCO/OSU doctoral student Laura Petes is studying the effects of environmental stressors on the reproduction of mussels on rocky shores. She found that mussels at the upper edge of the mussel bed, an area of high heat stress, grow more slowly, allocate less energy towards reproduc-tion, and spawn earlier than do mussels in the lower edge of the mussel bed. She also has discovered new patterns of pigmentation in mussel reproductive tissue. Whereas males traditionally have been identified by white reproductive tissue and females by orange tissue, Petes found that both male and female mussels in the upper edge of the mussel bed have orange reproductive tis-sue. The orange color arises from carotenoid pigments, which protect against damage by oxygen free radicals. Petes is testing whether the high carotenoid content helps to protect gametes from heat stress.

Opposite page photos, left to right: Mike Nish, Jane Lubchenco, Satie Airamé

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sharing scienceTHE

ISCO partnered with the Mexican nonprofit Comunidad y Biodiversidad (Community and Biodiversity, or COBI) and a local fishing cooperative in August 2005 to initiate monitoring of subtidal biological communities in no-take marine reserves near Isla Natividad on Mexico’s Pacific

coast. Members of the cooperative decided to close portions of their fishing area for six years, with a plan to evaluate the effects and possibly increase the size of the marine reserve system later. Scientists and the fishermen worked together to identify local species of commercial and ecological importance. These species will be monitored regularly, both in areas closed to fishing and those that are fished, to determine the effects of the no-take reserves. This collaboration represents the first of many under a newly formed project focusing on small-scale fishing cooperatives in Mexico. PISCO/UCSC technician Amanda Jensen traveled to Mexico to work with COBI and the fishermen to modify PISCO’s protocols to enable the local fishermen, often using hookah diving apparatus, to monitor changes in key species.

For more information about PISCO’s subtidal monitoring program, including diver training, visit www.piscoweb.org.

PPISCO Teaches Monitoring Methods to

sharing scienceTHE

Mexican Fishermen

sharing the science

The California Resources Agency is working to implement the Marine Life Protection Act (MLPA) enacted by California in 1999. The agency selected the central coast from Point Conception to Pigeon Point for the first phase of a network of marine protected areas (MPAs). PISCO scientists Steve Gaines, Mark Carr, and Steve Palumbi serve on a Science Advisory Team, sharing their scientific knowledge through presentations to MLPA decision-makers and stakeholders on topics from larval dispersal to MPA network design. The scientists helped to identify species that may benefit from MPAs, and Carr met regularly with stakeholders from the central coast region. PISCO policy coordinators Satie Airamé and Cinamon Vann interact closely with state and federal officials, fishermen, and environmental groups to ensure that PISCO’s research findings and data are available to answer questions and inform policy. For more information on the MLPA, go to www.dfg.ca.gov/mrd/mlpa.

Comparing Methods of Stock Assessment

In 2003 and 2005, PISCO worked with commercial live-fish fishermen and the California Department of Fish and Game to compare two methods of assessing fish stocks. Accurate information about the stocks is crucial for setting sustainable catch limits and evaluating marine pro-tected areas. In Carmel Bay, the scientists and fishermen compared estimates of fish abundance from visual surveys by scuba divers with those estimated from catch-per-unit-effort (CPUE) by fishing. As expected, divers counted more fish species (38) than were caught by fishing gear (20), and fish abundance and number of species varied with fishing gear type and method of deployment. One key result was that some fish species were sampled better by fishing (e.g., cabezon, grass rockfish), while other species were sampled better by div-ers (e.g., kelp rockfish, kelp greenling). Find-ings from the 2003 and 2005 studies will be used to improve fish survey programs by integrating fishing and diver surveys for more comprehensive assessments.

sharing the science

Opposite page photos: Matt Robart (left), Luis Bourillón (right)

Coastal Management in Oregon

PISCO is participating in an initiative to update Oregon’s Rocky Shore Management Strategy, which was adopted in 1994 and provides a framework for coastal manage-ment, focusing on 39 rocky shore sites. The PISCO/OSU policy coordinator sits on the Technical Advisory Committee that guides the project, PISCO staff compiled data sets for decision-makers, and PISCO field researchers are monitoring human use of Oregon’s rocky shores.

Straight Talks on FishingFollowing on the success of the first series of Straight Talks, a second series is being organized by PISCO, California Sea Grant, and representatives of the central California fishing community. The Straight Talk forums bring together scientists and fishermen to share their knowledge of the coastal ocean environment and fishing. PISCO/UCSC scientist Mark Carr and Sea Grant Advisor Rick Starr will lead discussions as they did in the initial Straight Talks. The forums create an informal, congenial setting where people can freely discuss topics that often are contentious.

Cape Meares, Oregon. Photo: Matt Robart

Partington Point, near Big Sur, is one area that will be considered for protection under the MLPA. Photo: Haven Livingston

PISCO Advises California on Marine Protection Science

PISCO scientists Steve Gaines and Steve Palumbi work with Monterey Bay National Marine Sanctuary representative Holly Price during MLPA proceedings. Photo: Satie Airamé

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Partnership for Interdisciplinary Studies of Coastal Oceans (PISCO)

For more information:Web site: www.piscoweb.orgE-mail: pisco@piscoweb.org

PISCOOregon State UniversityDepartment of Zoology3029 Cordley HallCorvallis, OR 97331

PISCOUniversity of California, Santa CruzLong Marine Laboratory100 Shaffer RoadSanta Cruz, CA 95060

PISCOUniversity of California, Santa BarbaraMarine Science InstituteSanta Barbara, CA 93106-6150

PISCOStanford UniversityHopkins Marine StationOceanview BoulevardPacific Grove, CA 93950

Photos, top to bottom and left to right: Roly Russell, Gretchen Hofmann, Monica Pessino, Jane Lubchenco, Luke Miller, Sean Hoobler, Monica Pessino, Jared Figurski, Gil Rilov, Jared Figurski, Cristine McConnell, Gil Rilov, Tui Anderson, Luke Miller, Cristine McConnell, Haven Livingston

Paper stock contains 50% recycled content, 15% post-consumer content. Printed with linseed oil-based inks.