What Theories Do

Developmental theory– Group of ideas, assumptions, and generalizations that

interpret and illuminate the thousands of observations that have been made about human growth

– Framework for understanding how and why people change as they grow older

What Theories Do

Central questions for you to consider…1. Do early experiences-of breast feeding or attachment

or abuse- linger into adulthood, even if they seem to be forgotten?

2. Does learning depend on specific encouragement, punishment, and role models?

3. Do children develop moral principles, even if they are not taught right from wrong?

4. Does culture guide behavior?

5. Is survival a basic instinct, underlying all personal or social decisions?

What Theories Do

Theories produce hypotheses.

Theories generate discoveries.

Theories offer practical guidance.

What Theories Do

Facts and normsNorm: An average, or standard measurement, calculated from the measurements of many individuals within a specific group or population.

Theories are not facts—but they allow us to question norms, suggest hypotheses, and provide guidance.

Backpacks or Bouquets? Children worldwide are nervous on the

first day of school, but their coping reflects implicit cultural theories.

Kindergarten girls in Kentucky bringmany supplies, while elementary children in Russia bring flowers for their teachers.

Grand Theories

Theories– Psychoanalytic– Behavioral– Cognitive

Characteristics– Comprehensive– Enduring– Widely applied

Grand Theories

Psychoanalytic Theory – Proposes that irrational,

unconscious drives and motives, often originating in childhood, underlie human behavior

Freud (1856–1939) – Proposes five psychosexual

stages during which sensual satisfaction is linked to developmental needs and conflicts.

– Suggests early conflict resolution determines personality patterns

– Personality has three parts: id, ego, and superego

Freud at WorkIn addition to being the world’s first psychoanalyst, Sigmund Freud was a prolific writer.

Odd or Common?

FreudThe oddity here is not the biting toddler, but the old leather suitcase, or perhaps Freud’s interpretation of the oral stage.

Everyone who knows babies expects them to mouth whatever they can.

Can you explain this behavior using Freudian theory?

Grand Theories

If Erikson had published his theory at age 73 (when this photograph was taken) instead of in his 40s, would he still have described his life as a series of crises?

Psychoanalytic theoryEpigenetic Theory

– Stresses that genes and biological impulses are powerfully influenced by the social environment

Erik Erikson (1902–1994)– Described eight

developmental stages, each characterized by a challenging developmental crisis

– Proposed five psychosocial stages built on Freud's theory, but added three adult stages

Grand Theories

These adolescents think they are nonconformists, and their short skirts, opaque tights, and hairstyles are certainly unlike those of their mothers or grandmothers.

But they are similar to adolescents everywhere during each particular historical period—seeking to establish their own distinct identity.

Pink or Purple Hair

Comparison of Freud’s Psychosexual and Erikson’s Psychosocial Stages

Grand Theory

Three types of learning• Behaviorism is called learning theory because it

emphasizes the learning process.

Grand Theories

Behaviorism

Conditioning– Proposes that learning takes place through processes

by which responses become linked to particular stimuli

Learning theory – Focuses on observable behavior– Describes the laws and processes by which behavior

is learned

Grand Theories

Behaviorism– Argued that scientists

should examine only what they could observe and measure

– Proposed anything can be learned with focus on behavior

– No specific stages proposed

John Watson (1878-1958)– American psychologist – One of earliest proponents

of behaviorism and learning theory

Grand Theories

Behaviorism

Classical conditioning – Demonstrates that behaviors

can be learned by making an association between an environmental stimulus and a naturally occurring stimulus

– Also called respondent conditioning

Pavlov (1849-1936)– Received the Nobel Prize in

1904 for his digestive processes research.

– Resulted in discovery of classical conditioning

Grand Theories

Behaviorism

Operant conditioning – Proposes that reinforcement or punishment may be

used to either increase or decrease the probability that a behavior will occur again in the future

– Also called instrumental conditioning

Skinner (1904-1990)– Agreed with Watson that psychology should focus on

the scientific study of behavior– Was best known for experiments with rats, pigeons,

and his own daughter

Rats, Pigeons, and People

B. F. Skinner designed a glass-enclosed crib in which temperature, humidity, and perceptual stimulation could be controlled to make her time in the crib enjoyable and educational.

Grand Theories

Three Types of Learning: Behaviorism is also called learning theory because it emphasizes the learning process, as shown here.

Grand TheoriesCognitive theoryProposes thoughts and expectations profoundly affect actions, attitudes, beliefs and assumptions

Focuses on changes in how people think over time

Jean Piaget (1896–1980)Maintained that cognitive development occurs in four major age-related periods, or stages

Intellectual advancement occurs lifelong because humans seek cognitive equilibrium

Would You Talk to This Man? Children loved talking to Jean

Piaget, and he learned by listening carefully—especially to their

incorrect explanations, which no one had paid much attention to

before.

How to Think About Flowers

A person’s stage of cognitive growth influences how he or she thinks about everything, including flowers.

Can you identify the Piagetian stage at which each person is thinking about flowers?

Piaget

Cognitive theory

Assimilation– Experiences are interpreted to

fit into, or assimilate with, old ideas.

Accommodation– Old ideas are restructured to

include, or accommodate, new experiences.

Cognitive Theory

Cognitive Equilibrium

State of mental balance, no confusion– New ideas through past ideas interpreted– Needed for intellectual advancement

Easy equilibrium not always possible– If new experience is not understandable,

cognitive disequilibrium can occur.

Piaget’s Periods of Cognitive Development

Grand Theories

Information processing theory– Representative newer version of cognitive theory– Compares human thinking processes, by analogy, to

computer analysis of data, including sensory input, connections, stored memories, and output

We Try Harder

Details of brain scans require interpretation from neurologists, but even the novice can see that adults who have been diagnosed with ADHD (second line of images) reacted differently in this experiment when they were required to push a button only if certain letters appeared on a screen.

Comparing Grand Theories

Criticism– Many psychologists reject psychoanalytic theory as

unscientific.– Others reject behaviorism as demeaning of human

potential

Contribution– Both behaviorism and psychoanalytic theory have led

to hypotheses that have been examined in thousands of experiments

Toilet Training--How and When?

Research findings• Behaviorist approach was best for older children with

serious disabilities • Almost no method seemed to result in marked

negative emotional consequences• Many sources explain that because each child is

different, there is no “right” way.

What is the goal?

Newer Theories

New theories• Are multicultural• Are multidisciplinary• Are most closely tied to current view of science

of human development• Include sociocultural theory and universal

theory

Newer Theories

Sociocultural theory• Proposes thoughts and human development results from

the dynamic interaction between developing persons and their surrounding society

• Focuses on culture as integral to a person’s development

Lev Vygotsky (1896-1934)• Describes interaction between culture and education• Developed concepts of apprenticeship in thinking and

guided participation

Newer Theories

Zone of proximal development

– Skills, knowledge, and concepts that learner is close to acquiring but cannot master without help

Process of joint construction

– New knowledge obtained through mentoring

The intellectual excitement of that zone is the origin of the joy that both instruction and study can bring.

Taking culture into account

Sociocultural perspective– Is viewed not as something external that impinges on

developing persons but as integral to their development every day via the social

– Influences inclusion of culture into contemporary research

– Sheds new light on cultural differences in many areas, including attachment, gender, and ethnic prejudice

Universal Perspective

Humanism– Stresses the potential of all

human beings for good and the belief that all people have the same basic needs, regardless of culture, gender

Abraham Maslow (1908–1970)

– One of the founders of humanism

– Arranged shared human needs in hierarchy

– Contended that everyone must satisfy each lower level before moving higher

Hope and LaughterMaslow believed in the human spirit

and that it could overcome oppression and reach self-actualization, where

faith, hope, and humor abound.

Moving Up, Not Looking Back

Universal Perspective

Evolutionary theory– Integrates explanations for many issues in human

development– Suggests humans have two long-standing biologically

based drives: survival and reproduction– Proposes concept of selective adaptation– Suggests genetic variations are particularly beneficial

when the environment changes and benefits humanity as a whole

Selective Adaptation Illustrated

As you see, in 100 years, the “odd” gene becomes more common than the normal one—a new normal

What Theories Contribute

• Psychoanalytic theories • Behaviorism • Cognitive theories• Sociocultural theories • Universal theories

Can you identify the contributions of each of the above theories?

Five Perspectives on Human Development

What Theories Contribute

Eclectic perspective– Taken by most developmentalists

– Occurs when aspects of each of the various theories of development are selectively applied, rather than adhering exclusively to one theory

– Helps guard against bias and facilitates open-mindedness to alternative explanations for complexity of human life