wheat. an annual plant of gramineae or poaceae family genus triticum species: triticum aestivum l
TRANSCRIPT
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Wheat
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WheatAn annual plant of Gramineae or Poaceae family
Genus Triticum
Species: Triticum aestivum L.
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Triticum aestivum or common wheat or Bread wheat
Types: many kinds of wheat in the world today.
The two most common are common wheat, Triticum aestivum, also known as bread wheat account for some 95% of all the consumed wheat in the world today; and durum wheat T. turgidum ssp. durum, which is used in pasta production.
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T. turgidum & T. durum (durum wheat)
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Dru na gu Dzongkha Bumthapkha Sharchopkha Lhotshamkha
Rice Bja/ray Thrung Bara Dhan
Maize Gheyza Ashom Aashum Maakai
Wheat Ka Ka Bong Gaow
Barley Naa/Nay nak Phemong Zaoun
Sweet Buckwheat Jarey Cha-rey Khala Methey Fapar
Bitter Buckwheat Bjo Brathma Gungtshung/ Braima
Tithey Fapar
Finger millet Memja Kongpo Kongpo Kodo
Foxtail millet Yangra Ran Yangra Kaguni
Common millet Chham Cheyra Kodo
Amaranth Aaiam/Zim tse maap
Moo/Lasom Lathey
Mustard Paeka Yungkar Mema Tori
Pulses Sem sem Sem chung rik Dal
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Importance of wheat in the world• wheat, rice and corn account for 75% of the world’s grain
production and 56% of the world’s food energy.• wheat is the second most-produced food among the cereal
crops• Wheat grain is a staple food used to make flour for breads;
cookies, cakes, breakfast cereal, pasta, juice, noodles; and for fermentation to make beer, alcohol, vodka or biofuel.
• Although wheat supplies much of the world's dietary protein and food supply it contains a protein called gluten – coaliac diseases –wheat allergy (sensitive)
In Bhutan• source of income, (3rd most important food crops
grown in Bhutan after rice and maize).• uses same as mentioned above
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Top Ten Wheat Producers — 2005(million metric ton)
China 96
India 72
United States 57
Russia 46
France 37
Canada 26
Australia 24
Germany 24
Pakistan 22
Turkey 21
World Total 626
Source:UN Food & Agriculture Organisation (FAO)
Important growing countries
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Source: MoA, 2006: Agriculture Statistics.
In Bhutan
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• Cropping system: • generally grown in dry land (53.9%) as main crop
from 300m to 3000masl.
• Also grown in wet land as secondary crop after rice (rice-wheat system, consists of 80%), maize, potato & in rotation with Buckwheat at higher altitude.
• significant part of the wheat crop is generally cut as green fodder for cattle, the remaining is harvested to supplement food consumption.
• For eg. Winter fodder up to 2500 masl & for haymaking at elevations of 3500-4000 masl.
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Origin:
11000BC in middle east; 4000 BC in asia, europe and NAmeriaca..earliest grown crop.
• In Bhutan: believed to have been introduced from Tibet.
History: wild ancestor is Triticum boeticum, fertilized with wild grass called aegilop speltoids to give the modern wheat.
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Species & Varieties• 18 species recognized• Most important to agriculture are:• T. aestivum (common wheat); T.monococcum (Einkorn or
Europena wheat), T. turgidum & T. durum (durum wheat), T. compactum (club wheat); T. dicoccum (emmer wheat - wild sp. Wheat & closely related to durum wheat).
Genetics: Some wheat species are diploid, with two sets of chromosomes, but many
are stable polyploids, with four sets of chromosomes (tetraploid) or six (hexaploid).
• T. aestivum: A hexaploid species that is the most widely cultivated in the world.
• T. durum: The only tetraploid form of wheat widely used today, and the second most widely cultivated wheat.
• T. monococcum (Einkorn): A diploid species with wild and cultivated variants. Domesticated at the same time as emmer wheat, but never reached the same importance.
• T. dicoccon(Emmer): A tetraploid species, cultivated in ancient times but no longer in widespread use.
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In India
• T.aestivum or vulgare (common bread or bread wheat) – chapati & bakery products – grown all over India
• T.durum (durum wheat) – suji, sphagetti & macaroni – grown in Central & South
• T.dicoccum – (emmer wheat) grown in South India.
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In Bhutan• Many landraces or indigenous wheat varieties
replaced by Jaga ka• All wheat varieties grown in the rice-wheat system
are Introduced spring wheat grown during winter
1. Sonalika: – early maturing variety – susceptible to yellow (stripe) or brown (leaf) rust.
2. Bajoka -1 & 2.
2a. Bajoka-1: recommended for medium & low alt.
– matures 155-160 days
– Grows to a height of 80-85cm tall- Yields 2.5 – 3.0 tons per hactare
- moderately resistant to yellow and brown rusts.
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Bajoka-2:
• - recommended for low altitudes
• - matures 150-160 days
• - Grows to a height of 100cm tall
• - Yields 2.5 – 3.0 tons per hac
• - highly resistant to yellow and brown rusts
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Dist. Features:
Sonalika and Bajoka variety
Sonalika:
Height taller than Bajoka 1&2,
Spike turns yellow, leaf blade bit bigger. In
Bajoka
Bajoka I spike remains white & straight until maturity while spike bends at maturity for Bajoka 2 but colour remains unchanged.
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Morphology
• Two distinct parts: Root and Shoot system• Root System: Pry or temporary root system
Secondary root system/permanent root system
- Starts with the formation of a radicle (embryonic root) at the time of seed germination –
- Arises at the depth where the seed is planted- absorbs nutrients for young seedling- Growth progresses, the pry root system dies and
is replaced by more permanent Secondary Root System (PRS)
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Secondary Root System
- Arises at the point above the PRS as the main organ of absorption of nutrients for matured seedling/plant
- Arises near the soil surface at about 21-25 days after seed sowing (i.e. at the time of crown root initiation stage)
-
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• Shoot System –all parts above the ground• - Stems, leaves and inflorescence
(flowering & fruiting)• Stem & inflorescence = culm1. Stem: round & cylindrical, hollow except
at the node (solid)2. Leaves: 4 parts – Leaf sheath, leaf blade,
ligule, auricleLeaf sheath: basal part of the leaf –
surrounds the culm (stem) & protects the growing point and auxillary buds from weather – also provide support to culm (stem).
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http://www.missouriplants.com/Grasses/Triticum_aestivum_page.html
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• Leaf blade – flattened, parallel venation – function?
• Ligule – soft membranous part at the junction of the sheath and the blade
• Auricle – claw-like appendages projecting from the collar of the leaf.
3. Inflorescence – flowering portion – ear or head or spike – consist of spikelet, florets, kernel
- spikelets are systematically arranged in a zigzag manner along a common axis (rachis)
- Wheat is a monoecious plant with perfect flowers. It reproduces sexually as a self-pollinated crop.
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• Spikelet: composed of flowers called florets
• No. of florets in a spikelet vary from 1-5
• Florets in each spikelets are enclosed by two glumes
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• Florets: outer covering – lemma & palea• These are hardened, modified stems that protect the floral
organs. • The lemma is relatively larger than the palea. • When the spikelet is closed, the lemma partly encloses the
palea. • The pointed end on top of the lemma is called an awn.
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Grain or Kernel or caryopsis - fruit formed from a single carpel
- The caryopsis is popularly called a grain and is the fruit typical of the family Poaceae (or Gramineae), such as wheat, rice, and corn.
- 3-10 mm in length, 3-5 mm in diameter
- Embryo – rich in protein called gluten- coaliac
diseases –wheat allergy (sensitive) & fats
- Bran – testa or pericarp – by-product of milling & used as feeds.
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Carbohydrates 51.8 g
- Dietary fiber 13.2 g
Fat 9.72 g
Protein 23.15 g
Thiamine (Vit. B1) 1.882 mg 145%
Riboflavin (Vit. B2) 0.499 mg 33%
Niacin (Vit. B3) 6.813 mg 45%
Pantothenic acid (B5) 0.05 mg 1%
Vitamin B6 1.3 mg 100%
Folate (Vit. B9) 281 μg 70%
Calcium 39 mg 4%
Iron 6.26 mg 50%
Magnesium 239 mg 65%
Phosphorus 842 mg 120%
Potassium 892 mg 19%
Zinc 12.29 mg 123%
Manganese 13.301 mg
Wheat germ, crudeNutritional value per 100 g
Energy 360 kcal 1510 kJ
Percentages are relative to USrecommendations for adults.
Source: USDA Nutrient database
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Carbohydrates 79 g
- Sugars 0.12 g
- Dietary fiber 1.3 g
Fat 0.66 g
Protein 7.13 g
Water 11.62 g
Thiamine (Vit. B1) 0.070 mg 5%
Riboflavin (Vit. B2) 0.049 mg 3%
Niacin (Vit. B3) 1.6 mg 11%
Pantothenic acid (B5) 1.014 mg 20%
Vitamin B6 0.164 mg 13%
Folate (Vit. B9) 8 μg 2%
Calcium 28 mg 3%
Iron 0.80 mg 6%
Magnesium 25 mg 7%
Manganese 1.088 mg 54%
Phosphorus 115 mg 16%
Potassium 115 mg 2%
Zinc 1.09 mg 11%
Rice, white, long-grain, regular, & raw
Nutritional value per 100 g
Energy 370 kcal 1530 kJ
Percentages are relative to USrecommendations for adults.
Source: USDA Nutrient database
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http://weedsoft.unl.edu/documents/GrowthStagesModule/wheat/wheat.htm#
http://sanangelo.tamu.edu/agronomy/wheat/whtmang.htm (Refer)
Growth Stages
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Jointing Stage- Is a part of the veg. stage, characterized by:- Stem elongation- Most tillers have formed by this stage and the secondary
root system is developing- Plants begin to grow erect from its previous prostate growth- the number of spikelets per spike (head size) is determined. - The first node just above the soil surface is visible on the
main stem followed by second node as well as nodes on tillers
- rapid spike expansion take place. - Flag leaf becomes visible just after the second node on
main stem
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At the boot stage, the head is developed and can be seen in the swollen section of the sheath of the flag leaf.
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Heading and Flowering
Heading
- At this stage awns are visible and heads are emerging through the slit of the flag leaf sheath, with approximately 50% of heads emerged from the flag leaf in a given area.
Flowering
- At this stage heading is complete.
- Flowering begins about 3 to 5 days after heading, first on the main stem followed by on the tillers.
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Ripening
- This stage denotes physiological maturity. This is followed by kernel ripening and grain drying.
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Climatic requirement – Wide adaptability- Prefer areas with cool, moist weather during
growing period followed by dry, warm weather.
- Optimum temperature range for ideal germination of seed is 20 – 25 degree Celsius
- Can germinate in the temp range of 3.5 – 35 deg.C
- Areas with warm and damp climate are not suited for wheat growing.
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• Cloudy weather, with high humidity and low temp. is conducive for rust attack.
• Requires about 14 -15 deg. C at the time of grain filling & is crucial for yield
• Temp above 25 deg C tend to affect yield
Soils: SOIL- Soil type is the most important local physical
feature affecting cropping potential and management practices.
- Wheat grown in variety of soils- Preferred soil types are clay loam & heavy soils
with good drainage.
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- Eg. Gangetic alluvium of UP and Bihar, Indus alluvium of Punjab and Haryana etc.
Field Preparation
- Requires a well pulverized soils for good germination
- Field after the harvest of previous crop should be properly ploughed and harrowed 2-3 times followed by planking
- Pre-sowing irrigation (wetland) 7-10 days before sowing seed is needed for proper germination.
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• Light leveling is required before sowing seed.
• In rain-fed areas (dry land) – FP should be done with care as conservation of moisture is dependent on it.
• Fields are deep ploughed and done planking
• Usu. done in evening times and furrow should be kept opened whole night to absorb moisture from dew.
• Planking should be done in the morning
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Seed and sowing
- Certified seed of right variety suitable for a particular locality should be selected
- Seeds should be treated with Vitavax @ 2.5g/kg seed to control loose smut.
Time of Sowing
- One of the important aspects in obtaining good yields of wheat
- Varies widely over the wheat growing areas
- Depends on soil temperature, irrigation facilities and duration of wheat varieties
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- Rainfed wheat is sown in 2nd week of Oct – beginning of November.
• Irrigated varieties sown in the beginning of November
• Sonalika (short duration variety) is sown sometimes in the month of Dec.
• However, when wheat is sown in the month of Dec., there is a drastic reduction in yield.
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Method of sowing: Four methods1. Broadcasting – uniformly broadcast and
then covered by harrowing (commonly practiced in Bhutan)
2. Behind local plough – commonly practiced in India – seeds are dropped by hand into furrows that have been opened with last plough
3. Drilling – sown by seed drill by dropping seeds at uniform depth - Results in uniform germination
- Seed drill may be bullock or tractor driven
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4. Dibbling: – used in case supply of seeds is limited – done with the help of a small implement called “Dibbler”
- Not commonly used – time consuming
Management practices
Manures and Fertilizers:
- MF both play an impt roles in crop prodn – impt in wheat cultivation
- About 5 t/ha of well decayed FYM at final
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- land preparation and is mixed well- for better yield supplement with inorganic
fertilizers @ 50:30:20 NPK kg/ha- half of N and all of P & K should be applied
basally while the rest of the N should be top-dressed at first irrigation
Seed rate: 100-130 kg/haSpacing: 20 - 22.5 cm between rows is
recommended & when sowing is delayed a closer spacing of 15-18cm adopted.
Irrigation- Adequate soil moisture is required for normal dev. of
wheat plant at all stages of growth.
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- A total 5 irrigation – crown root initiation (CRI) (20-25); tillering stage (40-45); jointing (booting) stage (70-75); flowering (90-95); dough stage (110-115).
- vary depending on soil type, winter rainfall, amount of water applied per irrigation; 3 sufficient.
• The crown root initiation (CRI) stage and heading stage are the critical stages when plant suffers most due to moisture stress.
• 1st Irrigation: 20-25 or 25-30 days (hilly areas like Bhutan) after sowing i.e. at the CRI stage.
• Delay avoided – upset root growth, tillering, heading and yield.
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• 2nd Irrigation: at booting or jointing stage (70-75 days after sowing)
• 3rd Irrigation: At milk stage (90-100 days)
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Harvesting
- when leaves and stems turn yellow and become fairly dry – before it is dead ripe.
- Done manually using serrated sickle - In villages using 2 short sticks called “Khrip or
Kreow”
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Harvesting
- Usually done by cutting the head with sickle or cutting the entire stem
- The cut stem with ears are bundled up and hanged to dry
- When dry, ears are cut from the peduncle and beaten with stick or crushed with feet.
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Threshing: after harvest dry the crop for 3-4 day, then stack and thresh.
- Manually using a flail (Kubji or yarjung) or power thresher.
- made of two sticks joined by a knob, one for a handle and the other which swirls in a clockwise direction, threshing the crops
Storage:- Moisture content for
safe storage is 10-12 %
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Weeds – both dicot and monocot
- Major dicot weeds are: Chenopodium album, Fumaria parviflora, Cirsium arvense, Anagallis arvensis etc
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- Monocot weeds include: Phalaris minor, Avena fatua (wild oat), Cyperus rotundus, Cynodon dactylon
Phalaris minor (Dwarf Canary Grass)
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Cyperus rotundus or Nutgrass
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Weed control
– eradicated with the help of hoe and uprooting by hands
- Chemical weedicides are used - Common & effective herbicide (liquid & solid)
used to kill broad-leaved weeds is 2,4 D (2,4-dichlorophenoxy acetic acid).
- 700 ml/625gm is mixed with 400-600 lts of water for spraying in an area of one hectare.
- Sprayed 32-35 days after sowing
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- Spraying after 40 days not effective or not beneficial.
• Avoid drift of spray in the adjoining crop fields, a slight drift may spoil pulse crop (pea, lentil, mustard)
• Monocot weeds like Phalaris minor can be controlled by spraying Tribunil/Dosanex/
Isoproturon @ 2kg per ha in 400-600 lts of water at 32-35 days.
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Wheat Diseases
- Major diseases of wheat are rusts, loose smut, alternaria leaf blight & powdery mildew.
- Rusts (brown & yellow) – caused by fungus sp. Puccinia. Black rust also appears in fields that are sown late.
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Brown rust
– Puccinia recondita tritici
• Generally develop on leaves but in severe attacks - on sheath and stem (scattered)
• uredial pustules are bright orange in color, which are in small clusters or irregularly scattered.
• Spreads during warm and humid conditions
• In severe attacks, plant mature early, produce light and shrivelled grains & poor dev. of roots.
• Most widespread in India
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Yellow rust• Fungus Puccinia straciformis • Generally develop on leaves but in
severe attacks - on sheath, stem and glumes
• uredial pustules are lemon-yellow in color, which are in rows
• Appearance of lemon-yellow pustules in rows is characteristic feature
• In severe attacks, these pustules become large patches & plant gets completely covered
• Common in areas where temp gets considerably low during the wheat growing season
• Problem of the hills, foot-hills.
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Black rust:
Puccinia graminis tritici
- Uredial pustules occur on stem, sheath, leaves and earheads
- stem severely affected.
- Formation of dark, black, elongated telial pustules
- Spreads during warm and humid conditions
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Rust control measures- Avoid growing single variety in entire field – adopt
2-3 varieties- Avoid late sowing as late sown crop is susceptible- Avoid excess use of nitrogenous fertilizers as high
dose of nitrogen favours rust formation- Spraying Zineb or Dithane M-45 with Sandovit- Spraying is recommended if good crop is
threatened- 1st spray when pustules are seen @ 375 lts solution
per ha- 2nd spray after 10 days @ 750 lts solution per ha- 3rd & 4th spray at the interval of 14 days @ 1000 and
1250 lts soln per ha, respectively
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Other diseases:• Loose smut – smut fungus,
Ustilago nuda tritici• Distinguishable after heading from
healthy plants• Production of black powder in
place of grains in the ears -every ear is converted into black powder
• Is a mass of olive-green microscopic spores – blown, germinate on the female organ, stigma leading to infection of developing seed.
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Control: - resistant variety, Vitavax- uproot the infected plant (cover the black spores) and burn it.
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Alternaria leaf blight - Fungus, Alternaria triticina- Lowermost leaves show
the sign of infection first and spread to upper leaves
- Small, oval, discoloured lesions, irregularly scattered spots on leaves
– become dark brown and irregular - Death of entire leaf
Control – Vitavax and spraying Zineb
or Dithane M-45
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Powdery Mildew: - Fungus, Erysiphe graminis
tritici- Characterized by formation
of white, powdery growth of the fungus (spores) on the upper surfaces of leaves
- Leaf sheaths, stems and earheads may also be affected when severe
Control – resistant variety – burn crop residues after
harvest
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