where is transportation going? - northwestern...
TRANSCRIPT
Where is Transportation Going?
Conventional Engines
Biofuels
Electricity
Hydrogen
George Crabtree
Materials Science Division
Argonne National Laboratory
Big Picture: Major Energy Challenges
EIA Intl Energy Outlook 2004http://www.eia.doe.gov/oiaf/ieo/index.html
0
10
20
30
40
50
%
World Fuel Mix 2001oil
gas coal
nucl renew
85% fossil
2100: 40-50 TW 2050: 25-30 TW
0.00
5.00
10.00
15.00
20.00
25.00
1970 1990 2010 2030
TW
World Energy Demandtotal
industrial
developing
US
ee/fsu
Hoffert et al Nature 395, 883,1998
Energy DemandFuel Security / Sustainability
2
Big Picture: Greenhouse Gases
Relaxation timetransport of CO2 or heat to deep
ocean: 400 - 1000 years
J. R. Petit et al, Nature 399, 429, 1999 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, 2001
http://www.ipcc.chN. Oreskes, Science 306, 1686, 2004
D. A. Stainforth et al, Nature 433, 403, 2005
Climate Change 2001: T he Scientific Basis, Fig 2.22
12001000 1400 1600 1800 2000
240
260
280
300
320
340
360
380
Year AD
Atm
osph
eric
CO
2(p
pmv) Tem
perature (°C)
- 1.5
- 1.0
- 0.5
0
0.5
1.0
1.5
-- CO2-- Global Mean Temp
300
400
500
600
700
800
- 8
- 4
0
+ 4
400 300 200 100Thousands of years before present
(Ky BP)
0
∆T
relative
to
pres
ent
(°C)
CH4(ppmv)
-- CO2
-- CH4
-- ∆T
325
300
275
250
225
200
175
CO2(ppmv)
CO2 in 2004: 380 ppmv
3
Consumer Picture: Buying Priorities
Fuel Economy: 16th on the list
CO2: not on the list
Survey of 55,000 Buyers of 2007 New Carsfrom Strategic Vision's 2007 New VehicleExperience Study (bought Oct 06 - Mar '07,surveyed after 3 months of ownership)
Courtesy John GermanAmerican Honda Motor Co
4
Conventional Gasoline Engines: Efficiency
Combustion and transmission of power: 20% - 35%
Most of the energy: “waste heat”
Thermoelectrics: use waste heat
8
Thermoelectric Conversion
thermal gradient ⇔ electricity
figure of merit: ZT ~ (σ/κ) TZT ~ 3: efficiency ~ heat engines
no moving parts
TAGS
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400RT
2.5
1.5
0.5
ZT
CsBi4Te6
Bi2Te3
LaFe3CoSb12
Zn4Sb3
Si Ge
�PbTe
Temperature (K)
Bi2Te3/Sb2Te3superlattice
PbTe/PbSesuperlattice
LAST-18AgPbAgPb1818SbTeSbTe2020
Scientific Challengesincrease electrical conductivitydecrease thermal conductivity
nanowire superlattice
nanoscale architecturesinterfaces block heat transport
confinement tunes density of statesdoping adjusts Fermi level
Mercouri Kanatzidis
9
Biomass Fuel Research
• Renewable Diesel– Oils are hydrotreated with the introduction of hydrogenand are co-fed with diesel in the presence of a catalyst– End products are propane and renewable diesel.– Typical renewable diesel is paraffinic (C13-C18).- No oxygen, no double bonds, in the heart of diesel fuel (C10-
C22), high cetane, feedstock independent
• Cellulosic biomass to liquid fuels– Pyrolysis- Can create a thick black tarry fluid with viscosity as heavy oil- Hydrotreat to create renewable diesel
– Gasification, followed by Fischer-Tropsch process
11
Projected Cost of Alternatives
Gasolinepredictions
2004 2007
BrazilSugar cane
Corn ethanolUS EU
CellulosicEthanol
Fischer-Tropsch
Production cost in 2012$/
gal g
asol
ine
equi
vale
nt
A. Farrell and D. Sperling, May 2007
12
Electricity as an Energy Carrier
communication
digital electronics
lightingheating
refrigeration
13
coalgas
heat mechanicalmotion electricity
hydrowind
fuel cells
solar
power grid
transportation
industrynuclearfission
35% of primary energy34% of CO2 emissions
63% of energy lost
Transportation29% of primary energy31% of CO2 emissions73% of energy lost
Electricity for Transportation Alternatives
Hybrid 3-4 mile range on pure electricityReduced gasoline useReduced CO2Higher cost
Plug-in Hybrid10-40 mile range on pure electricityTrades gasoline for electricityHigher cost
All Electric
Challenge: Batteries, Batteries, Batteries
14
The Importance of Batteries
Conventional, Hybrid, Plug-In Hybrid
vs conventional vehiclevs hybrid
Courtesy John GermanAmerican Honda Motor Co
15
Alternative Fuels
Energy Density of Fuels
30
Volu
met
ric
Ener
gy D
ensi
ty
MJ
/ L
syst
em 20
10
00 10 20 30 40
Gravimetric Energy DensityMJ/kg system
gasoline
liquid H2
chemical hydrides
complex hydride
s
compressed gas H2
batteries
16
Battery Options
SystemNegativeelectrode
Positiveelectrode
OCV(V)
Th. Cap(Ah/kg)
Th En.(Wh/kg)
Lead – acid Pb PbO2 2.1 83 171
Ni-Cd Cd NiOOH 1.35 162 219
Ni-MH MH alloy NiOOH 1.35 ~178 ~240
Na-S (350°C) Na S 2.1-1.78 (2.0) 377 754
Na-MCl2(300°C)
Na NiCl2 2.58 305 787
Li-Ion LixC6 Li1-xCoO2 4.2-3.0 (4.0) 79for x=0.5
316 for x=0.5
(632 for x=1)
Li-polymer Li VOx ~3.0-2.0 (2.6) ~340 ~884
Courtesy Michael Thackeray, ANL
17
Hydrogen Transportation
H2Oautomotivefuel cells
solarwindhydro
gas orhydridestorage
stationaryelectricity/heat
generation
consumerelectronics
nuclear/solar thermochemical
cyclesH2 H2
fossil fuelreforming
+carbon capture
bio- and bio-inspired
production storage use in fuel cells
9M tons/yr
150 M tons/yr(light trucks and cars in 2040) 9.72 MJ/L
(2015 FreedomCAR Target)
4.4 MJ/L (Gas, 10,000 psi)8.4 MJ/L (LH2)
$3000/kW
$30/kW(Internal Combustion Engine)
$200/kWmass production
18
Hydrogen Storage Today: Gas and Liquid
gaseous storage5000 psi = 350 bar10000 psi = 700 bar
fiber reinforced composite containers
liquid storagestandard in stationary applications
portable cryogenics for auto30-40% energy lost to liquifaction
19
within technological reach
Hydrogen Storage Challenges: Hydride MaterialsHydrogen Storage Challenges: Hydride Materials
Based on Schlapbach and Zuttel, Nature 414, 353 (2001)
LiAlH4
NH3BH3⇒ NHBH + 2H2
Mg(NH3)6Cl2
20
Fuel Cell Challenges: CatalysisPure Pt-skin
Pt48Ni52Pt87Ni13
Pt3Ni crystalPt75Ni25
21
V. Stamenkovic et al, Science 315, 493 (2007)V. Stamenkovic et al, Nature Materials 6, 241 (2007)
Pure Pt crystal
Oxygen Reduction
1/2 O2 + 2 H + + 2 e- ⇒ H2O
+
+
+
+
++
+
+
e-H2
O2
H2O
Pt
(111) (100) (110)
Specific Activityin 0.1 M HClO4at 0.9 V vs RHE
Pt3Ni
Pt
Crystal Surface
I kki
neti
c cu
rren
t de
nsit
y
Requires catalysis
Pt is most effective
Expensive and limited supplyCourtesy Nenad Markovic, Argonne
Research ChallengesMaterials, Materials, Materials
• Advanced batteries for hybrids
• Energy capture from waste heat in exhaust and coolant
• New materials, including
– Methods to automate production of carbon fiber
– High-gloss plastic
- Lightweight metals
• Cellulosic feedstock to fuels compatible with existing vehicles
• Breakthrough energy storage for plug-in hybrid and electric vehicles
- e.g., supercapcitors
• Breakthrough hydrogen storage materials for fuel cells
• Catalysts for fuel cells
22