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White Women as Postmodern Vehicle of Black Oppression: The Pedagogy of Discrimination inWestern AcademeAuthor(s): Ronald E. HallSource: Journal of Black Studies, Vol. 37, No. 1 (Sep., 2006), pp. 69-82Published by: Sage Publications, Inc.Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/40034373

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WHITE WOMEN ASPOSTMODERN VEHICLEOF BLACK OPPRESSIONThe Pedagogy of Discriminationin Western AcademeRONALDE. HALLMichiganState University

At the behestof White Americans s a postmodern orm of Blackoppres-sionvia Whitewomenas vehicle.In thepreferential iringof Whitewomenfacultyextended romthe women'srightsmovement n academe s the rac-ist discrimination gainstBlack and otherpeople of color. Thehistoryofwomen'srightsevolved in the context of racismapparentn thepopularityof the Women'sKu Klux Klan(WKKK).Suffice it to say,thatmodernistictraditionn thepreferential ireof Whitewomenis aprerequisiteo Whitesupremacy.Thus, in this postmodernera the gap between White womenand Black folk hired at prestigiousinstitutionsof higher education hasintroduceda more covert but no less formidablestrategyfor sustainingBlackoppression.Academe must confront his issue to sustain tsprestigeandcredibility.Keywords: discrimination; lack;oppression;WhiteWomen;ostmodern

Accordingto Western tradition discrimination efers o anabilityto differentiate asedon discretecriteria Agier,1995).Inthis con-text, discriminationmay be harmlessand, indeed, a compulsoryelementof the assessmentprocess.Academic nstitutionsdiscrimi-nate in admissionsto enable selection of the brighteststudents.Employersdiscriminate t theworkplace o enable selection of themostqualifiedand ableapplicant.Suchmanifestations f discrimi-nation are ethically soundand germaneto objectiveassessment.Discrimination spertains o thespiritof law,however, s unethicalJOURNALOF BLACKSTUDIES,Vol. 37 No. 1, September2006 69-82DOI: 10.1177/0021934705277286 2006 Sage Publications

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and refersto unfairpracticesattributedo the dominationof West-ern academe by White power structures(Hall, 1996). Conse-quentlyat the behest of White Americans s ananalogousdomina-tioninthehiringof Whitewomenwhoseekemploymentasfaculty.Said domination is apparentin the disproportionate tatisticsreportedon White women andpeople of color who are full-timefacultyat prestigious nstitutionsof highereducation(IntegratedPostsecondaryEducationDataSystem [IPEDS],1995). Injuxta-positionto the rhetoricof equal opportunity he disproportionatehiringof White womenby prestigious nstitutions s characterizedasurgentdespitea criticalabsenceof peopleof color,that s, Afri-can Americans.As intimate associates of the White male powerstructure,White women are less inclined to activelyabhorracialdisparitiesn facultyhires.While theirapathy s notillegal,it is noless facilitative of discriminationas pertainsto the spiritof law.Genderactivismprioritized nthepartofWhitewomensubjugatestheiractiveobjection oracialdiscrimination. ubsequently ace ssubjugated by gender manifested via a preference for Whitewomen as avehicleof oppressionvis-a-vis Black and otherpeopleof color.As existentialfact,race in lieu of gender s crux of discrimina-tion in WhiteWesternacademe.White womenby virtueof theirrace category have remainedpersonally aloof from the conse-quencesof discrimination y race as a matterof practicalityHall,2000). Theirpotentialasaccompliceorbeneficiary nthe outcomeof racialdiscrimination as notgoneundetected.Cognizantof theirroleracialdiscrimination or all but few amongWhite women hasbecome an intellectualabstraction ndpoliticalschism. Notwith-standing s the perpetuationof discriminationby race. Said dis-criminationprecipitatesthe inability of Black scholars to gainaccess to facultypositionsatprestigious nstitutionsof higheredu-cation commensurate with their intellectual talent and skills(Newman,1999).Extended rom hat act s no less amatterof self-preservation n thepartof Whitewomen.Withoutnecessarilycon-scious effort to do so, White women have become willing partici-pantsas a postmodernvehicle of discriminationn the oppressionof Blackpeople.This latest version is a contrivedeffortto further


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Hall / DISCRIMINATIONN WESTERNACADEME 71

institutionalizeWhitedominationof academe.Thateffort s rootedintheracisthistoryof thewomen's, hat s, White,rightsmovement.Racismis the foundationof discrimination hat,accordingtoBanton(1997), refers to the efforts of a dominantrace grouptoexcludea dominatedracegroupfromsharing n the materialandsymbolicrewardsof status andpower.It differs fromthe variousother forms of oppressionin that qualification s contingentonobservableand assumedphysiologicaltraits(Banton, 1996). Saidtraits mply the inherentsuperiorityof dominantracegroupsthatare thenrationalizedas a naturalorderof the biological universe(Streicker,1997).The most zealous proponentsof racism would profess thatWhitefacultyregardlessof genderaresuperior o Black and otherpeople of color as a matterof fact (Kolawole,1997). Theywouldpostulatethat White women as an extension of White suprem-acy havebeen endowedwithcapacitiesnecessary o successfullycontribute o the advanceof Westernacademe.As orchestrated,hewomen'srightsmovementbeganas a thinlyveiled form of racistdogmadedicated o theurgencyof equalrights or Whitewomen asmore deserving among oppressed populations (Daly, Jennings,Beckett,&Leashore,1995).Afterdecadesof struggle, he effort oeliminatesexismhas beenpreemptedby auniversal,almostmysticbelief in thepowerof race to elevate or taint(Hyde, 1995).Thehistoryof women'srightsevolvedin thecontextof racismapparentnthepopularity f the Ku Klux Klan(KKK;Blee, 1991).Extended romthe Klan'sracistobjectives,White women inpar-ticularthe middle-class discriminatedagainstpeople of color:Black, Asian, Latino,and Native Americans.Academe has beenreluctantto acknowledgeWhite women's association with dis-crimination ia Klanideals; however, ts documentation s no lessavailablein the history of the Women's(White) Ku Klux Klan(WKKK).The WKKKwasaprecursoro the women'srightsmovement nthat t was madeup entirelyof ProtestantWhite Americanwomenwho recognizedno relevancy n the strugglesof Black folk. Theirobjectiveswereequality or White women attheexpenseof peopleof color. Thus Whitewomen of the WKKKespousedracialsegre-


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gation,quotasfor immigrants,and the "eternal upremacyof theWhite race"(Blee, 1991). Theydiffered ittlepoliticallyfrom theKKKexceptfor one conspicuousdetail:The WKKK ncorporatedthe racistagendaof the KKKfor the eventualrealizationof equalrightsbetweenmen and "WhiteProtestantwomen"(Blee, 1991).Furthermore,hey objected to miscegenationnot for the Whitemalerapingof Black and Nativewomenbut because such liaisonsdiminished he appealof White women to same.The eventualwaxingandwaningof the WKKKwas commensu-ratewith thatof the KKK.However, hestrugglesof White womenforrightsequalto those of White men have remained onsistentasan historicalobjectiveof women'srights. Accordingto Newman(1999),WhitewomenintheProgressive rasoughtgreaterpartici-pation n thepoliticaldomainrelative o White men based on theirProtestantWhiteidentity.Hence,Newmancontended"by empha-sizinga racialandcultural uperiorityharedwithProtestantWhitemen andby claiming specialroles as women civilizers of raciallyinferiorpeoples" (theycould accomplishthis feat) (p. 21). Racistrhetoricwas utilized in theirobjectivesincludingdiscoursesbor-rowed from eugenics biology thatsubstantiatedhe evolutionofWhite as the assumedsuperior ace.One of the luminariesof the women'srightsmovementduringthe Progressiveera was Alice Fletcher.By occupation,Fletcherwas an anthropologist.She attempted o apply racist notions ofWhitesuperiorityo NativeAmericans. ndoingso (perNewman),Fletcher nsisted thatNative Americanwomen forfeitedthe free-dom andstatusaccorded hembyNativecultureandaccepted"sub-ordination"oNativeAmericanmen as a meansto theirbeingcivi-lized (p. 125).Inthisway,theymighteventuallyaspire o thesamebiologicalevolution as the White race.Perhapsmost nfluentialof all Whitewomenduring heProgres-sive erawasCharlottePerkinsGilman.Gilmanwasregarded stheprincipal cholarof hertimeamongWhitewomen,withinthe envi-ronmentof thinkerswho influencedher andwith whom shesoughtdiscourse (Newman, 1999). Gilman believed that the restrictedroles of White women impededthe evolutionof the White race.White women investedentirelytoo much time, she thought,on


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Hall / DISCRIMINATION N WESTERNACADEME 73

domestic activitieswhen their advancedbiological developmentwould allowthem to contributen a morespecializedfashion andhelp furtherdevelop the race. What's more, Gilman criticizedWhite men for sexual exploitationof Black women not for theirparticipationn institutionalized apebut its disruptionof Whitepropagation.For this reason and others, accordingto Gilman,White women should be allowedequalrightswith men thattheymight"take harge" f mateselection nbenefit o futureoffspring.No doubt the articulation f the historicalrole of the women'srightsmovement n theracistoppressionof Blackpeoplewill stircontroversy Hall,2003). Some in the academywill arguethat toinvestigate heunspeakablessue of discrimination y race versusgenderwill do more harm hangood because the issue todayis soprovocative.However,whattheyfail to realize is thatconfrontingsuch a provocative opic is a civil andsocially appropriateway torescueacademe via Blackoppression from the historicalperilsof modernracial discrimination.The dictates of emergingracialdiversity n this thepostmodern ra necessitatediscoursevis-a-visWhitewomen aspreferredacultyhires to sustain heprestigeandvalidityof theWesternacademy.

MODERN FACULTYHIRESA recentinvestigationof women (White)andpeople of color(Black) employedas facultyat Ivy Leagueinstitutionswas con-ductedandreported o thepublic. Althoughwomen andpeopleofcolorhavemademinimalprogress, tatisticaldataconfirmsa muchgreaterabilityon thepartof White women to gain employmentatsuch prestigiousinstitutions.Accordingto The New YorkTimes(2005) 433 professorswere hired on Ivy League campusesintofull-timepositions.Of thatnumber,14 were listed AfricanAmeri-can andamere8 as Latino.Thesamedata or women accounted or150 positions.Datafor the investigationwas extrapolatedromafederalsourcecompliedby a Yalegraduate tudent.Despiterecentcontroversial tatementsby Harvard's residentabouttheinferior


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abilitiesof womenin mathandscience,beingWhite wouldappearless disparaginghanbeingBlack and/orLatino(Luecek,2005).Institutionssimilarin prestigeto the Ivy League suggest theexistence of a pattern. Among the largest public institutions,women andpeopleof color face analogousobstaclesin becomingmembers of the faculty. Accordingto dataprovidedby IPEDS(1995),ata select numberof institutionswomen,that s, White,areat no less of an advantageas prospective faculty than theirIvyLeaguecounterparts.Hence, Westernmodernismas normin thehire of academicpersonnel s arguablya reaction o the historicalrigidityof variousdoctrines rom which anequallyrigidset of rac-ist intellectual raditionshad beenderived.Themotiveis to enablea facade of fairnessandequal opportunity. n fact, by definition,modernism n facultyhires is the recapitulationof a narcissisticexaggerationof what is modern,thatis, White (Riley, 1996). Ingeneral, t maybe said thatmodernismwasinitiallyconstructedofacilitatethe radical ransformation f conventional hinkingrele-vantto the Whitedominationof academe.Liberatingheacademyfromthedogmasof Whitedominationdidlittle morethanmodern-ize racialdiscrimination ertaining o Black folk.Underthe cloakof equality,modernism eplacedovertracialdiscriminationn fac-ulty hiring as a more temperatebut ultimatelyno less effectivemeans of sustainingWhite control via Black oppression. Saidoppression s manifested n the availablestatisticaldatacontainedinTables1through3. Thecontentdramaticallyllustratesdifferen-tiationsbetweenWhite women hiredasfacultyatprestigious nsti-tutions of highereducation versus their Black and/ornon-Whitecounterparts. uch disparitiesexist despite publicizedrhetoric orecruit, tenure, and/or maintainBlack scholars as a means todiversifya traditionallyWhite institution n a White-dominatedWestern ociety.Accordingto the data illustratedn Table1, amongprestigiouspublic nstitutions f highereducationnthe UnitedStates he aver-age of percentiles orwomenwas 27.5% of all full-timefacultyinthe fall of 1995.The samedata llustratedn Table2 for non-WhitesincludingAfrican Americanswere 12.4%in the fall of 1995. InTable3 is themost recentdata hat llustratesby averageof percen-


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TABLE 1Full-Time Female Faculty: Fall 1995

Public Institutions % FemaleUniversityof Oregon 36.3MichiganStateUniversity 31.6Rutgers 31.4Universityof Pittsburgh 30.8Universityof California-Los Angeles 30.3Universityof Colorado 30.0Universityof NorthCarolina 29.9Ohio StateUniversity 29.9Universityof Washington 29.4IndianaUniversity 29.3Universityof Missouri 28.9Universityof California-Berkeley 28.8Universityof Texas 28.6Universityof Arizona 28.0Universityof Maryland 27.1StateUniversityof New York-Buffalo 26.7Universityof Michigan 26.2Universityof California-SantaBarbara 26.1Universityof Nebraska 26.1Universityof Florida 25.7Universityof Illinois 25.5PennsylvaniaStateUniversity 25.3Iowa StateUniversity 25.0Universityof Iowa 24.8Universityof Virginia 24.2Universityof California-SanDiego 24.1Universityof Minnesota 23.8Universityof Wisconsin 23.7PurdueUniversity 20.4Averageof Percentiles 27.5SOURCE: ntegratedPostsecondaryEducationDataSystem(1995)tiles being 31%for women and 15%for non-Whitesamongfull-timefacultyatprestigiouspublicinstitutionsn 2003.

POSTMODERN DISCRIMINATIONThe dogmaof modernism mposes itself on everyfacet of dis-criminationnWestern cademe Riley,1996).Suffice ttosay,that


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TABLE 2Full-Time Non-White Faculty: Fall 1995Public Institutions %Non-WhiteUniversityof California-LosAngeles 23.4Universityof California-Berkeley 19.4Universityof California-SanDiego 19.3Universityof California-SantaBarbara 18.3StateUniversityof New York-Buffalo 17.0Universityof Maryland 14.5Universityof Pittsburgh 13.6Rutgers 13.5MichiganStateUniversity 13.5Universityof Michigan 13.5Universityof Florida 13.0Universityof Illinois 12.3Universityof Colorado 12.1Universityof Missouri 11.9Universityof Texas 11.4Universityof Arizona 11.2PurdueUniversity 11.2Universityof Iowa 10.9Ohio StateUniversity 10.9Universityof Washington 10.2PennsylvaniaStateUniversity 10.1Universityof NorthCarolina 9.9IndianaUniversity 9.5Universityof Virginia 9.1Universityof Wisconsin 9.1Iowa StateUniversity 9.0Universityof Oregon 8.4Universityof Nebraska 8.0Universityof Minnesota 7.5Averageof Percentiles 12.4%SOURCE: ntegratedPostsecondaryEducationDataSystem(1995)modernistic raditionn thepreferentialhireof Whitewomen is aprerequisiteo Whitesupremacy.However,Western cademebeingmodernisticn its hiringpracticesdoes not acknowledge his. In aWhite-dominatedociety, t has incurredno need tonegotiate tselfin harmonywith an increasinglyBlack and otherwise raciallydiverseenvironment,which s universallyapparentHacker,1992).Furthermore,sregardso thepreference orWhitewomen atpres-tigious institutionsof highereducation, t is necessaryto distin-


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superioritybut are no less inclinedin theirtolerance or racialdis-crimination.Thus,in thispostmodernerathe gapbetween Whitewomen and Black folk hired at prestigious nstitutionsof highereducation has introduceda more covert but no less formidablestrategy or sustainingracial discrimination.

CONCLUSIONThe thesis thatWhite women have becomepostmodern trategyfor theoppressionof Blackpeopleis deemedby stealthprogressiveandacceptable.Equalopportunitys accordinglymanifestedas thetraditionalWhite bias in facultyhiresthat imitsthepool of Blackandother non-White applicants.This revelation s contrastedbythe coexistence of postmodern hetoricand statisticaldifferentia-tions. Simultaneously, here has emergeda profoundlyobviousadvantageor Whitewomenentering heacademyat theexpenseofBlack scholars.Suchdisparityn thepostmodern ra is counter odemocraticprinciplesandthe eliminationof Blackoppression.The oppressionof Black scholars in academe is historicallyrootedin the ethos of Westerncivilization(Andrews, 1991). Themost dramaticaccounts include investigationsof the antebellumSouth and the personaltragediesof Black folk there in general.However,academe has been less amenableto investigationsofBlack oppressionvia White women within its own ranks.In apostmodern ivil rightsera,a declinein overtracialdiscriminationhascreated heillusion that he effortto ascertain quality s allbutuniversal.Unfortunately,heoppressionof Blackpeopleis no lessdramaticn thedisparities etweenwomen that s, Whitehiredasfull-timefacultyat prestigious nstitutionsandpeople of colorthat s, Black hiredat same.Particularly mongthenation'seliteuniversities hat commandthe highestrates of compensationandacademicprestigeare Whitewomen recruited ojoin the ranksoftheirWhitemalecounterpartswhoprefer heiremployment o sus-tainWhitedominance Feagin,1992).By hiringWhitewomen ntothe elite academicranks,powerremains he domain of the Whitepower structure. n the aftermath,withoutnecessarily intending,


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White women become vehicle for the postmodernoppressionofBlack andothernon-WhiteAmericans n theirwillingnessto sub-jugate racialdiscrimination o discriminationby gender.Subse-quently s theperpetuationf Blackoppression imultaneous o therhetoricof equalopportunity.As a result of investigating he differential tatisticsfor facultyhiresacademewill become morecognizantof its misconceptionspertainingo discrimination.What'smore,objectivediscussionofoppressedpopulations s also germaneto education(Potocky&Rodgers-Farmer,998).Conversely,nstitutions hatremaincom-mitted o theillusions of equalopportunityhetoric ustain he illu-sion of Whitesupremacy.nthe absenceof anobjectiveanalysisoftheproblem,knowledge s disservedcastingfurtherdispersionsonaheretofore-ubiquitousocial ill. Illumination f anotherwiseaca-demic failure will facilitate the developmentof intellectual dis-courserelevant o oppressedpopulations.The culturalapparatusfacademewill move forward rom the gains broughtby investiga-tion.Thus, t is imperativeodisplay willingnessto applythesameinvestigativetechniquesto academe when analyzingthe role ofWhite women in Black oppression. Only then can the Westernacademyrescue its ethos from thepedagogyof discrimination.Inconclusion,theproblem or anyonewho attempts o charac-terize a groupof which he or she is not amember s errorsof inter-pretationhatan insiderwould notnormallymake.Whenthat nter-pretationreacheswidespreadpublication, t increases the risk ofdoingadisserviceto all. The solution ies in maintaining pennessanda willingnessto confrontnew ideas. Academe is much betterservedhavingconsideredWhitewomen as vehicle of Blackoppres-sion thannot simplybecause theperceptionof raceas crux of dis-criminationmaybe divisiveor subjectto misinterpretation. hus,enlightenmentwouldnecessitate hat hose whoponder hethoughtmovepast stereotypes ndmisinterpretations.heyareaptlycharg-ed, ontheinauguration f anewmillennium,withusingthisinfor-mation nsteadasstartingpointsfordialogue n aquestto eliminateBlack oppressionand elevatehumankindo its next level of civilevolution.


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REFERENCESAgier, M. (1995). Discrimination,culture and Black identityin Brazil. Bulletinof LatinAmericanResearch,74(3), 245-264.Andrews,F. M. (1991).Stabilityandchange n levels and structure f subjectivewell-being:USA 1972 and 1988. Social IndicatorsResearch,25, 1-30.Banton,M. (1996).The culturaldeterminants f xenophobia.AnthropologyToday, 2(2), 8-12.Banton,M. (1997). Power andprejudice:Thepolitics anddiplomacyof racial discrimina-tion. New Community,3(1), 133.Blee, K. (1991). Women f the Klan:Racismandgenderin the 1920s. Berkeley:Universityof CaliforniaPress.Daly,A., Jennings,J., Beckett,J.,&Leashore,B. (1995).Effectivecoping strategiesof Afri-can Americans.Social Work, 0(2), 240-248.Feagin,J. (1992).Thecontinuing ignificanceof racism:Discrimination gainstBlack stu-dentsin Whitecolleges. Journalof BlackStudies,22(4), 546-578.Hacker,A. (1992). Two nations: Blackand White,separate,hostile,unequal.New York:Maxwell Macmillian nternational.Hall, R. (2000).From feminismto womanism:Purgingracism from the Westernwomen's

right'smovement.Psychologia,8(2), 20-28.Hall,R. (2003).Eurocentric iasin women'spsychology ournals:Resistance o issues sig-nificant o people of color.EuropeanPsychologist,8(2), 117-122.Hall,R. E. (1996).Impactof skin coloruponoccupationalprojection:A case for Black maleaffirmative ction. Journalof AfricanAmericanMen,7(4), 87-94.Henry,S. (1999).Ethnic dentity,nationalism, nd nternationaltratification: he case of theAfrican-American.Journalof BlackStudies,29(3), 438-454.Hyde,C.( 1995).Themeaningsof Euro-Americanness.QualitativeSociology,75(1),87-95.IntegratedPostsecondaryEducationData System. (1995). New Brunswick,NJ: Rutgers

University,Office of InstitutionalResearch.IntegratedPostsecondaryEducationData System. (2003). East Lansing:Michigan State

University,Office of InstitutionalResearch.Kitano,H. (1985).Race relations.EnglewoodCliffs,NJ: PrenticeHall.Kolawole,M. (1997). Womanism nd African consciousness.Trenton,NJ: Africa WorldPress.Laird,J. (1994). Lesbian families:A culturalperspective.SmithCollegeStudies in SocialWork, 4(3), 263-296.Luecek,T. (2005, February13). 3 presidentscriticize Harvard hief's comments.TheNewYorkTimes,p. A35, col. 5.Newman,L. (1999). Whitewomen'srights:The racial origins of feminismin the UnitedStates.New York:OxfordUniversityPress.TheNew YorkTimes.2005,March1 .Littlechange nIvy Leaguehiring.TimesDigest,p.3.Potocky, M., & Rodgers-Farmer,A. (1998). Social work research with minorityand

oppressedpopulation:Methodologicalssues and nnovations Special ssue].JournalofSocialServiceResearch,23(3/4).Riley,A. (1996). Murderand social work.AustralianSocial Work, 9(2), 37-43.Streicker, . (1997).Spacialreconfigurations,maginedgeographies,and social conflicts inCartagena,Colombia.CulturalAnthropology, 2(1), 109-128.


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RonaldE.Hall is a scholar at the Research nstitute n theSchoolof UrbanAffairs,associateprofessor n theSchoolof Social Work, nd an affiliatedscholarwith theJulianSomoraResearch nstituteand theAsian Instituteat MichiganState Univer-sity.He testifiedas expertwitness to America's irst skin color discrimination asebetweenAfricanAmericans:Morrowvs. IRS(1990).He later devised thebleachingsyndrome o explaindiscriminationamongpeople of color and identityacross thelifespanas an alternativebiracialidentitymodel.He has to his creditmorethan 150(co)authoredpublications,interviews,andpresentationson these topics.His mostrecentbook s titled:AnEmpiricalAnalysisof theImpactof Skin Coloron African-AmericanEducation, ncome,andOccupation2005).

white women as postmodern vehicle of black opression---r

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