wilderness survival

Wilderness survival

Paul M. Morton, MDa,b,*, Peter Kummerfeldtb,c

aDepartment of Emergency Medicine, San Antonio Uniformed Services

Health Education Consortium (SAUSHEC) Emergency Medicine Residency Program,

59 MDW/MCE, 2200 Berquist, Suite 1, Lackland AFB, San Antonio, TX, 78236-5300bUSAF Survival School, US Air Force Academy, Colorado Springs, CO, USA

cOutdoorSafe, P.O. Box 62039, Colorado Springs, CO, 80962 USA

Survival training does not presume to provide people with the skills torun naked into the woods or to jump onto a raft in the open sea, lookdirectly into the eyes of nature, and say, ‘‘I’m going to beat you.’’ Rather,the intention is to help people find answers that will teach them how not tochallenge nature.

Throughout the world, many people find themselves surprised by badweather, caught out after dark, injured, or ill (ie, becoming a victim to oneof the topics discussed elsewhere in this edition), or lost and forced tospend a night or two in an austere environment. Spending an unexpectednight out does not have to become an emergency or a ‘‘survival situation.’’When one plans on the possibility of spending an unexpected night out, itbecomes more of an inconvenience than an ordeal. Mental preparation isas important, if not more important, than the physical steps one needs totake.

This introduction to wilderness survival discusses basic survival rules andpsychology, mental preparation, selected survival skills, and essentialequipment. The skills discussed include shelter building, fire starting, wateracquisition, signaling, and navigation. Among the litany of other survivaltopics in the literature, these skills are the most important. An effort hasbeen made to concentrate on the skills and lessons that are simple, straight-forward, and most easily used in a wilderness emergency. More complicatedskills described in survival texts, such as trapping, elaborate shelter building,and very primitive fire starting, are not discussed herein. The basics ofsurvival specific to different environments are detailed.

* Corresponding author. 4815 Abo Lane, Monument, CO 80132.

E-mail address: [email protected] (P.M. Morton).

Emerg Med Clin N Am 22 (2004) 475–509

0733-8627/04/$ - see front matter � 2004 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

doi:10.1016/j.emc.2004.01.009

mailto:[email protected]

476 P.M. Morton, P. Kummerfeldt / Emerg Med Clin N Am 22 (2004) 475–509

The information presented herein is not a substitute for properly equippingoneself, clothing oneself, or practicing life-survival skills. The purpose is tohelp readers to learn how to survive with the least amount of pain and thegreatest possibility of success.

Preparation for the survival situation

One person’s survival situation is another’s backyard. Humans live insome of the harshest conditions, and many argue that, the harsher theenvironment, the happier the people (eg, trauma surgeons, Eskimos,Indians). Survival is replaced by routine when we understand our envi-ronment well enough to know its potential to support life as well as take it.For most Americans, survival training involves things like crossing the street,using an automatic teller machine, changing lanes while dialing a cell phone,or learning how to build a retirement account. Most of our lives are spentovercoming our environment rather than living with it. So how do we becomeprepared?

Mental preparation begins with accepting the possibility that some-where, sometime in the future, you might be in trouble. Accepting thispossibility is the first step toward preparing for it. The next step isanalyzing the risks and measuring your skills, your clothing, and yourequipment against those risks and evaluating how well prepared you are tosurvive.

Our ability to cope in a crisis is difficult to measure. As biased individuals,we would like to believe that we would never be in trouble and, if we were,that we could all cope with an unplanned night or two out. The reality issomething different. If you let this belief interfere with the need to preparefor a survival situation, you may find yourself grossly unprepared to copewhen the time comes to do so.

One must arrive in the wilderness clothed and equipped. Contrary tosome survival books, improvising the clothing and equipment you may needwill be difficult, if not impossible, to do. Arrive clothed and prepared tosurvive.

One must practice survival skills. Once you have learned how to ridea bicycle, you never forget. The same can be said of survival skills. Onceyou have built a fire under difficult conditions, with simulated injuries,using procedures that are no longer second nature (striking a match), youshould be able to do it again when your life hangs in the balance. Survivalskills are not intuitive but must be learned. ‘‘Survival’’ cannot be learnedon the job.

No matter how well prepared, skilled, or determined an individual is,a little good luck will always be appreciated. Well-prepared people maketheir own luck. As a wise philosopher once said, ‘‘It is better to be luckythan good, but when your luck runs out you had better be very, very good!’’

477P.M. Morton, P. Kummerfeldt / Emerg Med Clin N Am 22 (2004) 475–509

Psychologic versus physical skills

Who will survive? Although how people react in the midst of a crisisvaries from one person to another, studies have identified three broadbehavioral patterns that are consistent [1]:

Ten percent to 15% of people will remain relatively calm. These people willbe able to collect their thoughts quickly; their awareness of the situationwill be intact; and their reasoning abilities will not be impaired to anysignificant extent. They will be able to assess the situation, make a plan,and act on that plan.

Seventy-five percent of people will be stunned and bewildered. Theirreasoning ability will be significantly impaired, and they will havea difficult time thinking clearly. These people will behave in a reflexive,almost automatic or mechanical manner. Their field of attentionbecomes very restricted, and, visually, they may suffer tunnel vision.These people are unable to express any feelings or emotions.

Ten percent to 15% of people will tend to show a high degree ofinappropriate behavior that is ineffective in coping with a life-threatening situation and that may be counterproductive, adding tothe danger. Uncontrolled weeping, confusion, screaming, and paralyz-ing anxiety characterize this group.

Panic is one’s greatest enemy and must be controlled. In the authors’experience as survival instructors at the Survival, Escape, Resistance, andEvasion (SERE) School at the United States Air Force Academy, we haveseen some of the ‘‘best and brightest’’ officer candidates panic or not knowwhat to do in a survival situation. The purpose of the school is to preparemilitary aviators to survive in the environments over which they fly. Thetraining has helped bring back many of those aviators to friendly hands afterbeing shot down or ejecting. Those who have had the training and who havelived through a real survival situation tout the importance of the preparationbeforehand. Coping with a survival emergency has been said to be 80%mental, 10% equipment, and 10% survival skills. Having had some priorpreparation is key to the psychologic component, in addition to the skills andequipment component.

If you can use your head, you can survive. Because panic is a noncerebralfunction, maintaining a logical approach to staying alive can most effectivelycontrol it. When you get lost, the first thing you must do is admit to yourselfthat you do not know where you are. Get as comfortable as possible;priorities should be first aid, warmth, and shelter. Sit down. Get off your feet.Give yourself at least 30 minutes to regain control. Control the urge to keepmoving. Try to relax. Think about the clothing you are wearing and firebuilding potential, and then take stock of your supplies and situation. Somepeople use the acronym STOP (sit down, think, observe, plan) to help them.If deer mice, chickadees, and squirrels can survive the worst conditions


nature can offer, so can you. People choose to live in desert regions and in thearctic!

The decision to travel or stay put

When you are as comfortable and protected as possible, try to rememberthe path you took earlier in the day. Look at your map. What landmarks didyou see along the way? Can you identify these landmarks on your map? Haveyou been going uphill or downhill? How many rivers did you cross? Howmany ridges did you climb? Did you leave tracks? It helps to draw a map onthe ground. By a process of deduction and using common sense, you may beable to unscramble your thoughts and reorient yourself. Often, you will findthat you are not as lost as you first thought you were.

Unless you can positively locate yourself, the best advice is to stay put andnot travel. Do not run around looking for something familiar. This activitywill not only cause confusion but will also exhaust you, dehydrate you, andincrease the likelihood of injuring yourself. It will also make the searcher’s jobmuch more difficult; you may move into an area that has already beensearched and that may not be searched again until all other possibilities havebeen investigated. Wait for rescuers to find you. They are trained andequipped to rescue the lost and injured. Sit tight, protect yourself, signal, andlet them find you. Most rescues in the United States are accomplished within72 hours, especially when the person has told someone else where he or shewas going. Your job is to survive until they arrive. The time it takes to befound and recovered may seem to drag on forever, and remaining in oneplace, waiting to be found, will take all of your willpower. History shows thatsurvivors who have been able to overcome their impatience and desire to walkout and who have stayed in one place have had a better chance of survivingthan persons who continued to move. Sit tight, survive, and wait for rescue tocome to you.

On the other hand, if you have located yourself and decide to travel, take iteasy on the march back to civilization. A forced march will tire and hurt you.Do not fall into the trap of underestimating the distance and overestimatingyour ability to travel. Navigational skills are discussed in a later section.

Basic survival rules

Now that you have calmed yourself, it is time to prioritize. The followingrule of threes gives a framework from which to select the most importanttasks first. People can survive 3 minutes without air, 3 hours without shelter,3 days without water, and 3 weeks without food.

Air—This need is self-explanatory. Avalanches, fires, near drowning,altitude, toxic gases, and so on can result in situations where the lack ofoxygen becomes a problem for the survivor.


Shelter—Frequently, we ask our students, ‘‘If you were lost in a snowblizzard late in the day without any gear, what would you do?’’ Theanswer we hear most is, ‘‘Build a fire and start building traps for wildfood.’’ This is not exactly the best answer. Although shelter and warmthare early priorities, wasting energy on a difficult skill such as trappingmight not be the best option.

Water—Hydration becomes a huge priority in any survival experience.Dehydration quickly reduces a survivor’s ability to function safely andefficiently. One should drink enough to urinate approximately 1 quartper day (1 quart = 32 oz = approximately 40mL of urine produced perhour, which is adequate hydration per standard medical practices). Ittakes an average human approximately 60 seconds of timed urination ina day to provide 32 oz of urine.

Food—Are you low on energy when you feel that impatient funnythrumming in your gut? No. For every extra pound of fat, there isapproximately 4000 calories of energy. This energy source does notbecome mobilized until 18 to 24 hours of fasting. Practice going 24 to 48hours without food. Once you get past the initial 18 to 24 hours, it getsmuch easier.

Ten basic survival rules

Ten basic rules for surviving a wilderness emergency will help you returnto safety.

Tell two reliable people where you are going and what route andequipment you will be taking. Being involved with search and rescue(SAR) groups, the authors realize how important this information is inexpediting and preparing for a search. It governs the search method(hasty teams, line searches, dog searches, or air searches), the equipmentneeded (technical climbing gear, medical supplies), the number ofsearchers and teams, and so on (Figs. 1 and 2).

Tell those persons when you are going to return. In addition, plan toreturn to your camp or vehicle before dark.

Call those persons when you return.Sign into backcountry logs and ranger stations when available.Never travel alone; often, you cannot assess your own medical condition,especially with altitude sickness, dehydration, hypothermia, and so on.

Take along two compasses and a topographic map specific to your locale.A second compass serves two purposes—it can be used if your primarycompass is lost or broken, and it helps confirm the findings of the firstcompass. Many lost individuals tend not to trust a single compass,trusting instead their own directional abilities and thinking that thecompass may not be functioning properly.


Do not leave messages outside your vehicle. Leave them inside the vehicleupside down on the seat so that thieves do not use the information andauthorities can find it.

Stop and look back frequently; know what the way out looks like.Carry a survival kit (see the section on survival kits).Practice your survival skills.

You should not count on anyone else to help you when you get introuble. These rules and the skills and equipment discussed in the nextsections will help you to take care of yourself.

Survival skills

A multitude of skills may be useful in a survival situation. The followingsections cover some of the more important skills.

Shelter building

In most situations, protection from the elements is the immediate need.The first shelter will be the clothes you are wearing, any extra clothing youmay have, and the waterproof windproof material in your survival kit.Although fire can be very beneficial, it may not be necessary if you are wearinggood clothing and can construct an effective shelter.

The need for an emergency shelter in which to spend the night or sit outa storm often becomes apparent to the inexperienced person only as the sunis about to set or the storm about to occur. By the time a shelter is needed,

Fig. 1. SAR teams require vastly different types of equipment and gear depending on the rescue

scenario. The more information the SAR team has about your skills and your equipment, the

better off you are. Photograph shows one of the authors (PMM) involved in a high-angle rescue

drill. (Courtesy of Paul M. Morton, MD and Peter Kummerfeldt, MD).


the survivor may be already dehydrated, hypothermic, and possibly injuredas it is getting dark. All of these conditions can result in the survivor beingunable to construct the shelters diagrammed in survival manuals.

The following factors should be considered when selecting a shelter site:

Seek protection from the prevailing weather.Move into the tree line or overthe crest of the hill to get out of the wind so that you only have tocontend with ambient air temperature and not wind chill. The differencecan be life saving.

Seek protection from natural hazards. Do not put yourself in harm’s way,such as in the possible path of an avalanche or near a cliff or rockfall.Check carefully for any thing that can fall on you during the night, suchas dead trees, tree limbs, or rocks.

Stay dry and well drained. Select an area that will not flood if it rains. Thisis especially important in the desert.

Fig. 2. The Upper Valley Wilderness Response Team (Hanover, NH) in action with a survivor

who was lost and injured in the woods of New Hampshire on Mt. Lafayette. Photograph shows

another example of the different type of equipment and manpower needed to perform a rescue.

More than 50 people helped carry this individual in a litter down the mountain. (Courtesy of

Paul M. Morton, MD and Peter Kummerfeldt, MD).


Find an open southern exposure. In the Northern Hemisphere, south-facing slopes will be more open, dryer, and warmer than north-facingslopes. Under hot weather conditions, north-facing slopes may providea cooler shelter site.

Set the entryway facing east. If practical, orient the doorway of yourshelter to the east. When the sun rises in the morning, the sunshine willflood the shelter, warming it quickly.

Seek level ground. Unless the shelter site is level and long enough for thesurvivor to stretch out comfortably, a restful sleep is not possible.

Stay free from animal and insect hazards. Check carefully that your sheltersite is free from ants, scorpions, snakes, and any other animal life thatcould cause you harm. Move away from feeding areas, denning sites,and animal trails.

Cold air will collect in any low-lying area. Cold air, like any other fluid,flows downhill. Situate your shelter site out of depressions and awayfrom any drainage. On higher ground, the ambient air temperature canbe many degrees warmer than the lower ground close by.

Other types of shelters can be manufactured out of items that you cancarry in your pack to help you prepare for an unexpected night out. Some ofthese shelters are definitely better than others are. Shelter-building itemsinclude the following:

Bivouac bag.Many climbers, mountaineers, and backpackers carry ‘‘bivy’’bags as their primary source of shelter (Fig. 3). They function asweatherproof covers over sleeping bags and sleeping pads with thecapacity for one person. The best bags are made from a breathablewaterproof fabric such as Gore-Tex with a coated nylon floor.

Fig. 3. Examples of bivy sacks. A garbage bag or tarp can be laid underneath each sack. The

bivys helped one of the authors (PMM) endure a frigid winter night in the Adirondack

Mountains of New York. (Courtesy of Paul M. Morton, MD and Peter Kummerfeldt, MD).


Ventilation and insect protection options include a hoop or flexible stiffwire sewn across the head area and mosquito netting and are highlyadvisable. One should be prepared to spend $100 to $200 for a goodquality bivy sac and realize that they protect only one person at a time.

Commercial immediate action shelters. Commercial immediate actionshelters include space blankets, Mylar plastic bags, thermal blankets,tube tents, survival blankets, and others. Most of these devices aredesigned for one-time use in an emergency andwill not withstand ruggeduse.

Mylar plastic blankets and plastic tube tents. Do not count on thin Mylarplastic space blankets or bags to provide the protection that you willneed. They can be difficult to open, require two hands to hold, are toosmall for the average adult, and are very noisy, making it difficult to hearapproaching aircraft or searchers. They tear very easily when a hole ispoked in the fabric or when the material is nicked or cut. The survivalblanket may be most useful as a second layer or as a reflective shield toharness fire heat (see the section on a lean-to). To fit into survival kits,plastic tube tents are usually made from very thin plastic and will notstand up to rugged use. They can be used either as a ‘‘tube tent’’ or tococoon the survivor and provide good protection from the weather butdo not provide any insulation.

Plastic bag shelters. Of all the products available for use as an immediateaction shelter, heavy-duty orange plastic bags are the most durable andthe most versatile (Fig. 4). In addition to providing shelter, a largeplastic bag can be used for signaling; for protecting clothing,equipment, and firewood; and for carrying water. It can also be usedas an improvised raincoat or cloak and as improvised flotation.

Vehicle shelter. Your vehicle (car, truck, or the remains of the aircraft thatyou were flying in) may provide the best shelter. In extremely hotenvironments, it is best to get out of the vehicle and to shelter in the shadeit provides, returning to the vehicle at night for the added protection itoffers. In cold, windy, and wet conditions, the interior of the vehicleprovides immediate shelter. Leaving the protection it provides to builda survival shelter from natural materials is not recommended.

Natural shelters can be built as well. The environment may providea natural shelter that can be used in an emergency, but one should not counton this. Carry emergency shelter material with you, and use it in conjunctionwith any natural shelters you may find. Examples of natural shelters includethe following:

Tree well shelters. The space beneath the branches of evergreen trees thatsweep down to the ground can be used as shelter. Branches can beremoved and a space enlarged close to the trunk that is large enough tocrawl into (Fig. 5). Remove the snow from the tree’s base, making anarea big enough for you and your equipment. If you are able, dig until


you reach bare ground. During the winter, snow will often accumulateon the outer edges of the limbs while the area that they shelter will belargely snow free. Removed branches can also be used for additionaloverhead cover.

Lean-to shelters. A lean-to made from a tarp or tree limbs and boughs isa simple shelter to make. When used with a fire in front, it makes a snugshelter. Hanging an aluminized space blanket, silver side down, on theinside of the roof will reflect the radiant heat from the fire down ontoyou. Never sleep directly on the ground. Instead, build up a thick layerof boughs, leaves, pine needles, or other duff to sleep on and insulate youfrom the cold ground. Lacking a sleeping bag, fill the interior of theshelter with other dry vegetation and crawl into it, pulling the vegetationaround you. Shelters built from natural materials take time andconsiderable skill and materials to build. A survivor, particularly aninjured survivor, would be hard pressed to construct the types of shelterspromoted in many survival manuals. In view of the difficulty ofconstructing shelters quickly, persons who are at risk of findingthemselves stranded should carry waterproof material large enough tocrawl into (plastic bag) or to crawl under (6� 8 ft tarp).

Thermal shelter. In extreme cold conditions, building a thermal shelter isappropriate. This feat involves scraping the snow away from the ground

Fig. 4. Large heavy-duty orange plastic bags can be used for shelter and for protection from

precipitation. They can also be used for signaling; for protecting clothing, equipment, and

firewood; for carrying water; and for improvised flotation. (Courtesy of Paul M. Morton, MD

and Peter Kummerfeldt, MD).


and building a framework over the exposed area (Fig. 6). Find a treewith a forked branch that is 3 to 4 ft above the base of its trunk andscrape the snow away next to this. Place a ridgepole (a fallen tree 12- to15-ft long and about the diameter of your wrist) into the forked branch,forming about a 30-degree angle between the pole and the ground. If youare unable to find a tree with a forked branch, lash the ridgepole to thetree. Other options are to locate a fallen tree that is at an appropriate 30-degree angle to the ground, or to lay a strong ridgepole against a 3- to 4-ft high stump. Lay support poles across the ridgepole, on both sides, ata 60-degree angle to the ground. Support poles need to be long enoughto extend above the ridgepole slightly, and they should be placedapproximately 1 to 1.5 ft apart. If the support poles end up above theroof materials, moisture will run down them and into your shelter.Crisscross small branches into the support poles. Cover the entirestructure with a layer of boughs or other branches, starting at thebottom, and with a tarp, if a spare one is available. Next, cover theframework with a minimum of 10 in of snow—more is better. Crawlinside, and seal the door behind youwith a plug of snow, your backpack,or a woven mat of branches. The heat released by the ground combinedwith the heat given off by the human body, and possibly a candle, willraise the internal temperature of the shelter to around 25�F regardless ofthe outside air temperature. Again, this shelter takes time, considerableeffort, and tools to build.

Snow trench. One of the easier emergency snow shelters to construct isa snow trench (Fig. 7). Using whatever digging tools you have available

Fig. 5. A tree well can be used for a quick and effective shelter. Clearing out the lower branches

and digging into the soft snow around the base of the tree can provide protection from the

elements. (Courtesy of Paul M. Morton, MD and Peter Kummerfeldt, MD).


Fig. 6. Thermal shelter built by one of the authors (PK). (A) Step 1. Scrape snow away from the

ground. Find a tree with a forked branch that is 3 to 4 ft above the base of its trunk. Place

a ridgepole (a fallen tree 12–15 ft long and about the diameter of your wrist) into the forked

branch, forming about a 30-degree angle between the pole and the ground. If you are unable to

find a tree with a forked branch, lash the ridgepole to the tree. (B) Step 2. Lay support poles

across the ridgepole, on both sides, at a 60-degree angle to the ground. Support poles need to be

long enough to extend above the ridgepole slightly, and they should be placed approximately

1 to 1.5 ft apart. If the support poles end up above the roof materials, moisture will run down

them and into your shelter. You can lash a short log of larger diameter above the doorway to

maintain the opening. (C) Step 3. Crisscross small branches into the support poles. Cover the

entire structure with a layer of boughs or other branches, starting at the bottom, and with a tarp

if a spare one is available. (D) Step 4. Cover the framework with a minimum of 10 in of snow;

more is better. Crawl inside and seal the door behind you with a plug of snow, your backpack,

or a woven mat of branches. (Courtesy of Paul M. Morton, MD and Peter Kummerfeldt, MD).


(boots, ice axes, crampons), dig a trench in the snow, preferably down tobare ground, that is a foot longer than your body, just wider than yourshoulders, and deep enough so that if you sit up your head will not touchthe roof. Lay tree boughs in the trench to insulate your body from theground or snow. Snow blocks may be used to enclose the roof, or sticks,skis, or snowshoes can be laid across the trench. A tarp can be laid overthe supports and then snow piled over the roof supports. The door canbe sealed off with tree boughs, snow blocks, or perhaps your pack.

Under cold conditions, if possible, one should always build a fire beforestarting to build a shelter. With a fire burning nearby, you can rewarmyourself whenever your hands become cold and at risk from frostbite.

Fig. 6 (continued )


The primary objective for persons whomust survive in hot deserts is shade,either finding it or building it. Getting above the desert’s hot surface orremoving the super-heated surface soil will also improve the situation. Tominimize water loss, all work should be done during the early morning hoursand after the sun goes down. To further minimize water loss, clothing shouldbe kept on to capitalize on evaporative cooling and to reduce sweating.

Fig. 7. Snow trench. (A) Using whatever digging tools you have available (boots, ice axes,

crampons), dig a trench in the snow, preferably down to bare ground, that is a foot longer than

your body, just wider than your shoulders, and deep enough so that if you sit up your head will

not touch the roof. The illustrated snow trench is much neater secondary to the use of an

available shovel. Lay tree boughs in the trench to insulate your body from the ground or snow.

(B) Snow blocks can be used to enclose the roof, or sticks, skies, or snowshoes can be laid across

the trench. The door can be sealed off with tree boughs, snow blocks, or perhaps your pack.

(Courtesy of Paul M. Morton, MD and Peter Kummerfeldt, MD).


To maximize shelter from heat, try to get under your car and 12 to18 inbelow ground. You can also improvise a desert shade shelter with orangeplastic bags. Ideally, locate an area between rocks or dunes that has an 18-to 24-in depression. As an alternative, you can dig an 18- to 24-in deeptrench that is large enough for you to lie down in. If a trench is dug, pile theremoved sand around three of the four sides, and make an entryway on theremaining side. Cover the trench with your plastic bag or tarp, and secure itin place by weighing down the edges with sand or rocks. Next, place anotherlayer of opaque plastic or a tarp 12 to 18 in above the bottom layer to trapcool air below. Sand can be piled up on the edges to do this.

Regardless of how tempting, avoid dry stream beds. These areas are verysusceptible to flash floods from an unknown far away storm.

Prior clothing preparation is essential in the desert environment. Oneshould cover all skin and wear light colors. Ripstop cotton readily permits theevaporation of sweat. Polypropylene or wool socks decrease blistering. Try tokeep your feet dry by cleaning them each evening before sleeping. Realize thatyou usually need more clothing than you expect to stay warm at night,because temperatures drop drastically in most deserts. A hat is necessary,preferably with a brim. A soaked cravat or bandanna worn underneath a hatcan provide some air conditioning. Sunglasses are also essential to protectfrom solar (UV) keratitis and corneal abrasions from wind blown sand.Sunblock and protective lip balm are very useful. Leather gloves can provideprotection from cacti and hot objects.

Fire building

The ability to ignite a fire may be critical to survival. Relying onimprovised fire starting methods (ie, rubbing sticks together) is extremelydifficult and is asking for trouble. Because of injury or loss of finger dexterityowing to frostbite, even the usual methods of starting a fire may become verydifficult. How do you strike a match if you only have the use of one hand?Could you still flick a lighter if your fingers were cold and stiff? Although itcan be done, it is not easy.

Survival books describe primitive and other improvised methods of firestarting. Although it is true that fires can be ignited using these methods, itis extremely unlikely that most people will take the time to develop theproficiency needed to use these methods to start a fire, especially whenconditions are bad. It is also very unlikely that these methods could be usedwhen the victim is injured or suffering from hypothermia, dehydration, or anyother physical impairment that limits the use of one’s hands. It is moreappropriate to carry reliable fire-starting equipment that you have practicedwith and have developed confidence in to be able to start a fire under difficultconditions. When such equipment is lacking, it may be better for the survivorto forgo fire building and to concentrate on obtaining protection from theprevailing weather by building a shelter quickly.


Each of the benefits of fire will affect the success, or lack thereof, ofa survivor’s efforts to adjust to a new environment. Depending on theenvironment, one benefit may have a more important role than another may.

Fire requires three things to burn: a fuel supply, a heat source, and oxygen.Without any one of these ingredients, there will be no fire. When oneencounters difficulty igniting a fire, the questions become, ‘‘What’s missing?Fuel, sufficient heat, or enough oxygen? What am I doing wrong?’’

The amount of heat needed to ignite tinder is determined by the size of thetinder. Fine tinder equals a small heat source. A common mistake made byinexperienced fire builders is trying to light material that is too large inrelation to the heat source. When using matches, cigarette lighters, or metalmatches, the tinder must be very fine. Examples of good tinder include drygrass, pine needles, leaves, wood shavings, twigs, and birch bark. Be sure togather a good supply of this material near the fire so that you can readily addmore when needed. In snowy or wet environments, digging down will helpyou find dry (although frozen) pieces of wood or tinder. Warming the woodupmay allow one to get to the dry wood underneath. Removing the wet outerbark may also be helpful.

Many types of matches are available for sale. Still other varieties arefound in survival kits. Unfortunately, many of these matches are of poorquality and difficult, if not impossible, to light in a survival situation.

Waterproof matches. These matches have been dunked in a waterproofinglacquer, whichmakes some of them difficult to light.When striking thesematches, the waterproofing material impregnates the striker surface,rendering it useless. With other kinds of waterproof matches, the head iscovered with so much lacquer that multiple strikes are needed to ignitethe match head. Some resources recommend coating matches in wax,but this practice is time consuming, and, once again, the striking surfaceis quickly worn out. Some matchboxes only have a striking surface onone side of the box, compounding the problem even further. You willend up with matches, but nowhere to strike them.

Windproof matches. These matches usually have a much bigger head thannormal matches, both in terms of the length of the head and thethickness. These matches can be difficult to ignite. Once they are lit,some smolder with little or no flame.

Safety matches. These matches must be struck on the striker material onthe side of the matchbox to be ignited. If the matches are removed fromthe original matchbox and placed in a match case, a piece of the strikermust accompany thematches. SAFETYNOTE:When placing a piece ofthe striker in the match case, one must ensure that the striking surface istoward the wall of the container. Not doing so can result in the matchesigniting when the match heads rub against the striker.

‘‘Strike anywhere’’ matches. The popular belief is that rubbing the head onany available surface will ignite this style of match. Nothing can be


further from the truth. Persons who believe this will find themselveslacking a surface that is abrasive enough to ignite the match yet not soabrasive that the head is torn off or the match stem breaks.

REI storm-proof matches (Recreational Equipment Incorporated, Seattle,Washington, www.rei.com). These matches are the best available in theUnited States. They light easily, burn well in high-wind conditions,burn longer that any other match available, and will continue to burnin very wet conditions.

How should you store your matches? Because the original packaging thatcontains the matches disintegrates quickly, matches should be carried ina waterproof match case. The best available case is the orange plastic screw-top variety. This type is modeled after the military version that has beentime tested in the field. Other varieties do not compare in simplicity, ease ofuse, durability, and waterproofness. The ease with which a match case canbe opened one-handed is important. The metal variety is one of the mostdifficult to open one-handed or when hands are stiff from the cold andshould not be included in emergency equipment.

Cigarette lighters are a useful means of igniting a fire but have somesignificant limitations.

BIC-style lighters (BiC, Clichy Cedex, France) are pressure sensitive (thehigher the altitude, the less the fuel will vaporize) and temperaturesensitive (the colder the ambient temperature, the more difficult theyare to light). They also require considerable hand and finger dexterityto operate; if accidentally dropped in a fire, they are explosive.Additionally, the flame from BIC lighters remains only as long as thethumb continues to depress the fuel release. Once the thumb is removed,the flame is quickly extinguished. A further problem with BIC-stylelighters involves the child-proofing mechanisms that require consider-able hand dexterity to overcome. Choose a lighter from which the child-proofing mechanism can be removed.

Piezo-ignition system lighters use an ignition system similar to electronicbarbeque lighters. These lighters are much easier to use than the BICstyle, especially one-handed. The other limiting factors listed pre-viously apply equally to these lighters.

Zippo lighters (Zippo, Bradford, Pennsylvania, www.zippo.com) havebeen used in the field for over 70 years. They are easy to use, relativelywindproof, can be refueled, are not affected by altitude or temperature,and, unlike the pressurized types (eg, BIC), remain lit. In an emergency,the Zippo can be lit, propped up with some earth, small sticks placedover the flame, and the lighter quickly removed once the sticks areburning. The disadvantage of a Zippo lighter is that the fuel tends toevaporate rather quickly.

The Colibri Quantum series (Colibri, London, England, www.colibri.com) are high-end lighters that work well if you elect to carry a lighter

http://www.rei.com


despite their shortcomings. They are water resistant, shockproof, andwind resistant, and ignite at high altitudes.

Metal matches come in all shapes and sizes. They are similar to the flintused in lighters, only bigger. Most metal matches are made from a mixtureof metals and rare earth elements that are alloyed at high temperatures andshaped. Some metal matches are imbedded in a block of magnesium thatcan be scraped with a sharp metal edge, and the shavings collected in a pieceof paper or other flammable material. The metal match produces hot sparkswhen scraped with a sharp edge. When these sparks are directed into themagnesium shavings, they ignite and, in turn, ignite the material thatsurrounds them. Metal match sparks will ignite a wide variety of naturaltinder as long as it is fairly fine. Metal matches are unaffected bytemperature, altitude, and moisture (except sea water), and they can be usedto start hundreds of fires. When used in conjunction with good tinder, theyare the method of choice for starting emergency fires. The S.O.S. StrikeForce (Survival, Seattle, Washington) is an example of one of the morecommon commercial brands available. It has a one-half inch round alloyflint attached to a hollow hard plastic handle that houses emergency tinder.It also has a flint cover with a hardened steel striker that is attached,making this system completely self-sufficient. It is somewhat bulky butlightweight at less than 4 oz. You may not need the striker if you alreadyhave a knife.

Additional items are helpful to bring into the wilderness if you anticipatethat tinder and other fuel for a fire might be hard to come by.

Solid compressed fuel tablets.Esbit (Esbit, Hamburg, Germany), Trioxane,and Hexamine are the three basic tablets currently available. Esbit isthe newest and, unlike the other two and its predecessors, is nontoxic.This nonexplosive virtually odorless and smokeless tablet can generateup to 1400�F of intense heat, providing 12 to 15 minutes of usable burntime per cube. These tablets easily light from a spark and can also beused as tinder to start a fire. They can be somewhat difficult to find andto store in your kit.

Cotton balls plus petroleum jelly (Vaseline).Regular household cotton ballsfluffed up and then saturated with petroleum jelly make the very bestmaterials to start a fire. The cotton ball–petroleum jelly combinationshould be made up at home and placed in a screw-top match case (orcamera film case) until needed; they will last indefinitely. To ignite a fire,remove a cotton ball from the container, fluff it up again, and direct thesparks from ametal match toward the fine tips of the cotton. The cottonserves as a wick for the petroleum jelly that will then burn. Unlike othernatural and commercially available tinder, cotton balls saturated inpetroleum jelly will burn in high-wind situations for many minutes. Themore petroleum jelly infused into the cotton, the longer the material willburn.


Fire preparation is key. Before the first match is struck, all materials mustbe readied. Separate by size into three piles the wood that has been collected(Fig. 8). Ensure that the method you use to ignite the tinder works well andis appropriate for the size of the tinder. Ensure that the area where you willbuild the fire is safe.

Survival books, woodcraft articles, Boy Scout materials, and othersimilar sources of ‘‘how to build a fire in the outdoors’’ overcomplicatea rather straightforward process of laying a fire. The authors recommendthe following simple process (Fig. 9):

Build a stick base large enough to support the first stage of the fire. Thisfirst step is especially necessary if the ground is wet.

On the edge of the windward side of the stick platform, place a log that isapproximately 4 in in diameter.

Place a cotton ball (or whatever tinder you are using) in the lee of the logwindbreak, and ignite it with a metal match or whatever heat sourceyou have available.

Immediately place a handful of twigs over the burning cotton ball, withone end of the twigs braced against the log.

When the flame burns through the first layer of twigs, place a secondhandful of slightly larger twigs at 90 degrees to the first layer and, onceagain, allow the flames to burn through.

Continuing adding larger and larger sticks until the fire is self-sustaining.

Contrary to popular belief there is a safe way to use petroleum products tostart a fire, an incorrect dangerous way is to pile up sticks, pour gasoline over

Fig. 8. Separate tinder into three piles of different-sized material. Keep this readily available for

addition to your fire. (Courtesy of Paul M. Morton, MD and Peter Kummerfeldt, MD).


the sticks, stand back, and then throw matches at the pile until the fuel vaporignites, which will result in an explosion and very possibly injury to the pitcherof matches. The safe way is to pour a small amount of fuel into a container(the bottom inch of a soda can works well), pile small sticks over the fuelreservoir, ignite a match, and then ignite the fuel vapors on the surface of the

Fig. 9. Fire building. (A) Build a stick base large enough to support the first stage of the fire. This

first step is especially necessary if the ground is wet. On the edge of the windward side of the stick

platform, place a log that is approximately 4 in in diameter. (B) Place a cotton ball (or whatever

tinder you are using) in the lee of the log windbreak and ignite it with a metal match or whatever

heat source you have available. (C) Immediately place a handful of twigs over the burning cotton

ball, with one end of the twigs braced against the log. (D) When the flame burns through the first

layer of twigs, place a second handful of slightly larger twigs at 90 degrees to the first layer and,

once again, allow the flames to burn through. Continue adding larger and larger sticks until the

fire is self-sustaining. (Courtesy of Paul M. Morton, MD and Peter Kummerfeldt, MD).


fuel. The fuel will not explode but will burn and, in so doing, dry out the woodif it is wet and then cause the wood to burn. SAFETY NOTE: One must becareful to not knock over the fuel reservoir as wood is added to the pile. Doingso will result in a large dangerous flare-up and very possibly an explosion.Lacking a container, one can dig a shallow hole in the ground and pour fuelinto the depression. Much of the fuel will seep into the ground, but the vaporwill still burn when lit with a match.

Mosquito repellant, if available, may also be flammable and helpful in anemergency. Emergency flares may also be used. They are probably bettersaved for their intended use of signaling but may be very effective in anemergency with no other successful method of staring a fire.

Fig. 9 (continued ).


The best solution to fire maintenance is to stock it and care for itthroughout the night and day, if necessary. If it is expected that there will betimes when you cannot maintain it, you can ‘‘bank’’ the fire for later use byplacing two or more large logs directly on the burning ashes. When it is timeto restart the fire, most likely a smoldering heat will remain under the logsfor up to 24 hours. One can also make a ‘‘fire bed’’ after the fire goes out.Pile at least 4 in of dirt on the top of the spread-out hot coals and lay on topof it for a warm bed. Be very careful not to burn yourself.

Water and food acquisition

Once you have shelter and warmth, the next priority is water andhydration. In most survival scenarios, you will need to obtain water. Thehuman body can function for long periods without food but does very poorlywithout hydration. Skills such as trapping animals and gathering wild edibleplants can be difficult. These skills are not practical and usually result inunnecessary energy expenditure. One should carry some extra foods withcarbohydrates but avoid products that require large amounts of water todigest (eg, beef jerky, protein bars).

Although collecting water from open water sources is obviously theeasiest, these sources are often contaminated with Giardia or Cryptosporid-ium. If no other source is available, you can use any open water, but you mustrealize the possible consequences of moderate-to-severe diarrhea. For themost common infectious agents in the backcountry, Giardia and Cryptospo-ridium, the incubation time is 1 to 3 weeks. If you anticipate rescue within thistime period, it may be worth the risk to use this water. Escherichia coli,campylobacter, Shigella, or viruses such as hepatitis A/E can be contractedfrom poor sanitation of food and water in developing nations (usually fecalcontamination), especially in tropical regions. Symptoms from these agentsoccur much faster, within 1 to 4 days, and one must be cognizant of this factbefore using those water sources.

If you have antibiotics that protect against protozoan and bacterialdiarrhea (ie, Flagyl and ciprofloxacin), it may be reasonable to use the openwater and to take the antibiotics prophylactically; however, there is always thelow likelihood of having a side effect such as diarrhea from the medicationsthemselves. After weighing the risks, if this is your only option, use it.

Rainwater is free of contaminants and can be collected by setting outcontainers or by digging a small hole and lining it with plastic or anothernonporous material. After the rain has stopped, try to find water in fissures,rock formations, and low-lying areas.

Do not drink seawater. The high concentration of salt will actuallydehydrate the body as it attempts to process and eliminate the salt. Sea icethat has been frozen for a year or more may lose most of its salt. Such iceoften has rounded corners, shatters easily, and is bluish or black. When indoubt, perform a taste test. If it tastes salty, do not use it.


Snow and ice also can be considered contaminant free but must be meltedbefore consumption. Do not eat snow or ice. The energy lost during thisprocess is not equal to the benefit. Melting snow and ice in a canteen, cup, orcan is a laborious, time-consuming way to obtain a small amount of water.You can add snow or ice to a partially full container and then shake thecontainer or place it between layers of your clothing so that your body’sradiant heat will melt it. Be careful not to expose yourself to hypothermia indoing this. A much easier way is to fill a large cloth bag with snow and ice andthen suspend it from a tripod or from a tree near a fire. Do not place the bagdirectly over the fire. The radiant heat from the fire will melt the snow in thebag, and the water will drain out the bottom into a container. This processalso functions to filter out debris in the water. Keep the bag full to prevent thecloth bag from burning, and you will have a constant steady supply of water.The snow may actually taste a little like smoke. If the sun is out, snow and icecan also be melted by placing them on a dark tarp or an orange plastic bag. Adepression in the snow surface beneath the tarp will create a bowl for thewater to collect in. Alternatively, the tarp can be placed on a slant and themelted water collected as it drains from the lower edge.

Although dew does not provide a large volume of water production, itshould still be used as a source of water. Dew will collect on objects such asleaves, grass, rocks, shrubbery, backpacks, jackets, and other equipment.Sponge this moisture up at dawn and dusk with any porous material andwring the moisture out into a container.

Transpiration bags (T-bags) are a viable option (Fig. 10). Placing a clearplastic bag over the leafy limbs of a shrub or tree is a practical way to collectpure water. If possible, select a thornless tree with large leaves. Close the neckof the bag around the stems of the tree and secure it with line or duct tape. Itmay be necessary to bend the limbs over and tie them off so that the water cancollect in a low area of the bag. The water that the tree transpires out throughthe leaves condenses on the inner surface of the plastic bag, coalesces, andflows down to the lowest point. A piece of aquarium hose or camelbackhydration bladder hose inserted into the bag as the apparatus is beingassembled, reaching down to where the water will collect and extendingbeyond the mouth of the bag, can be used to suck out the water withoutdismantling the T-bag. Three or four T-bags will make a significant differencein satisfying the water needs of a person stranded in an arid region. Theprocess only works during the times of the year when there are leaves on thetrees; it will not work during the winter when most deciduous trees loose theirleaves, nor will it work at night.

Solar stills do not produce the quantities of water alluded to in manysurvival books and should not be considered as a source of water. Morewater will be lost through sweat by the survivor during construction thancan be collected by the still. If urine is used to stoke the hydration in the solarstill pit, it is easy for the collected water to be contaminated by the urea inthe urine.


All surface water to be used as drinking water should be purified before itis consumed. Heating water to a boil is sufficient to purify the water forconsumption at any altitude.

Halogens, such as iodine and chorine, are also effective, but data suggestthat they do not eliminate Cryptosporidium. In addition, the EnvironmentalProtectionAgency advises against using halogenation to purify surface water.Again, you must make the ultimate decision. Iodine comes in tablets andother forms and is the easiest and most available halogen to use. Theeffectiveness of tablets or iodine in any form is dependent on the temperatureof the water, the quantity of suspended material in the water, and the water’spH. When using iodine tablets, collect the cleanest water possible; strain it if

Fig. 10. Transpiration bag (T-bag). Close the neck of a plastic bag around the stems of the tree

and secure it with line or duct tape. It may be necessary to bend the limbs over and tie them off

so that the water can collect in a low area of the bag. The water that the tree transpires out

through the leaves condenses on the inner surface of the plastic bag, coalesces, and flows down

to the lowest point. A piece of aquarium hose or camelback hydration bladder hose inserted

into the bag as the apparatus is being assembled, reaching down to where the water will collect

and extending beyond the mouth of the bag, can be used to suck out the water without

dismantling the transpiration bag. (Courtesy of Paul M. Morton, MD and Peter Kummerfeldt,

MD).


necessary; and insert one tablet per quart of water and allow it to sit for 30minutes or longer if the water is very cold.

Filters are rapidly becoming prevalent. They remove large organisms but,in general, do not remove viruses. When viruses are a concern, a purifiershould be used. Purifiers mechanically remove large organisms and then usehalogenation to kill the viruses chemically.

Obviously, the method of choice for hydration is to take water by mouth.Nevertheless, there is another way to hydrate a person if he or she is unable todrink owing tomental status changes, or if the stomach is too small to toleratewater after several days of drastically decreased oral intake. The rectal routeis very efficacious and can be accessed by placing a tube (eg, from a camelbackor platypus) in the rectum and elevating the reservoir. The colon will tolerateless volume of water than the oral route but will absorb water readily.

Signaling

To vastly improve your chances of rescue, you must signal. A person isa very difficult object to see from the air and can be equally difficult to find byground search personnel unless he or she does something to draw attention.The survivor trying to signal has two objectives. The first signaling task is todraw attention to his or her position. The second task is to make it known tothose who are attracted by the signal that assistance is needed. Communi-cating this need can be done in many ways, and all means at the disposal ofthe victim should be used to expedite rescue. Before an active search isunderway, it may be very difficult to attract the attention of casual passersby. They are unaware that anyone is in trouble and may not react to thevictim’s signals.

The rescue process often starts when one of the people with whom youdiscussed your trip calls 911. The 911 operators will gather preliminaryinformation and then alert the agency responsible for search and rescue.These agencies will vary depending on which state you live in and includestate police, fish and game authorities, state wardens, local law enforcementor fire departments, and local volunteer search and rescue groups. In pro-tracted searches, more than one of these agencies may become involved inlocating and recovering a missing person. The survivor should take heart inthe fact that many dedicated professional rescuers will be in the field and inthe air, searching until you are recovered or all possible leads as to yourwhereabouts have been exhausted. The survivor’s mission during this phaseis to maintain life and to continue signaling until the rescuers arrive.

Aerial searchers in fixed-wing aircraft and helicopters can see hundreds ofsquare miles as they fly along trying to pick out the survivor from thelandscape. To be seen, the survivor must do something to enlarge him orherself, to standout from the landscape, and to make them look different. It isvery demoralizing for the survivor to watch numerous aircraft fly by withoutbeing seen.


An aircraft flying over a survivor is usually very visible and often can beheard approaching from a considerable distance, which gives the survivortime to ready signaling devices and to activate them as the aircraft nears.The survivor’s job is to attract attention by using movement, byconstructing ground-to-air symbols with sharp corners and straight sides,and by using color contrast and light. Different types of devices can be usedto signal.

Commercial signal mirrors. These devices are made of metal (tin), plastic,or glass. Of these materials, glass produces the brightest reflection andhas the most durable surface. Tin and plastic must be protectedcarefully, because they are prone to scratching, and every blemishreduces the brilliance of the mirror. Tins, in particular, and, to somedegree, plastic are also inclined to flex, diminishing the brilliance of thereflected beam. Good glass mirrors are more durable than it might seem.Several sizes are available. The 2� 3 in size is sufficient to meet the needsof the survivor and allows the user to place the reflected sunbeam ona target very precisely. The beam of light reflected by a glass signalmirror is extremely bright (10 million candle power on a bright sunnyday) and is a very effective signal for catching the eye of a search pilot orground search team members many miles away. Twenty or 30 miles isnot uncommon. Instructions for using the aiming device are clearlyprinted on the back of most signaling mirrors. The downside to mirrorsis that they will not work on cloudy overcast days.

Improvised signal mirrors. When one lacks a commercial mirror, anypolished surface can be used to attract the attention of rescuers (ie, metalcontainer, coin, credit card, watch, jewelry, belt buckle, glasses). Reflectthe light onto the palm of your hand with your arm extended. Spreadyour index finger and middle finger. Keeping the reflected light on theinner surfaces of your fingers, rotate your hand until the target isbetween your fingers (Fig. 11). In this way, the target can be tracked, andthe likelihood of the signal being seen is enhanced. Indiscriminatelyflashing at the horizon may not be seen by rescuers.

Pyrotechnics. The advantage of a pyrotechnic flare is that it is visible from360 degrees. There are several disadvantages of pyrotechnics. First, theyhave a relatively short burning duration (many burn approximately 6seconds). Second, they usually can only be used once. Third, there is thepotential for injury to the user or damage to equipment if the person iscareless or excited. For safe use and best results, hold the flare awayfrom your body and perpendicular to the ground. Pyrotechnics thatproduce colored smoke are greatly affected by the wind, significantlyreducing their effectiveness. Generally, pyrotechnics are best used whenasked for by the rescue forces (assumes you have radio contact), or whenan aircraft is coming directly toward your location. Readily availableemergency road flares are effective signaling devices, especially when


used against a snowy background at night. They have the addedadvantage of being long burning and can be used to start fires.

Rescue laser flare. This flare is a strong rugged handheld laser device witha wider-focused beam that allows the user to sweep across an area witha dispersed red light beam that can be seen over 20 miles away (Fig. 12).The device is powered by two 1.5 V batteries that, when usedcontinuously, will last for 15 hours. To aim the rescue laser flare inthe direction of the target, make a ‘‘V’’ with the fingers of youroutstretched hand with the fingers bracketing the target. With the laserline vertical and the device held close to your eye, slowly scan the verticallaser line back and forth between your fingers toward the target. Keepsignaling until the target makes you aware that you have been seen. Theresult, when viewed by the receiver, is a very distinctive red flashing.

Rescue Streamers. (Rescue Technologies Corporation, Honolulu, HI)These new signaling devices provide survivors with a large continuousvisual target for rescue. RescueStreamers consist of an elongated brightorange, high-density polyethylene streamer with sealed air-filled strutsat regular intervals that keep it afloat. The bright orange color offers

Fig. 11. This photograph demonstrates using mirrors or other shiny objects to signal rescuers.

Reflect the light onto the palm of your hand with your arm extended. Spread your index finger

and middle finger. Keeping the reflected light on the inner surfaces of your fingers, rotate your

hand until the target is between your fingers. In this way, the target can be tracked, and the

likelihood of the signal being seen is enhanced. Indiscriminately flashing at the horizon may not

be seen by the rescuers. (Courtesy of Paul M. Morton, MD and Peter Kummerfeldt, MD).


a readily visible contrast with most terrain or water environments. Theintegral air-filled strut design deploys the streamer to full length, keepingit at a maximum visible surface area by minimizing any twisting orcurling. On land or water, the streamer provides the most reliableconstant passive signal available.

Flags. These devices attract attention because of movement and color.Plastic flagging tape is lightweight, compact, and can be used in manyways to catch the attention of aerial and ground searchers. Improvisedflags can be made from clothing and other materials.

Smoke signals. The ability to create a column of smoke is one of thefundamental methods of being rescued. Survival manuals describemanycomplicated ways to produce smoke and suggest that three fires bereadied to produce the needed smoke. This is unnecessary.When a searchis underway, any smoke that is seen will be investigated. The survivorshould gather large amounts of green leafy vegetation (evergreen boughswork well) and stack the material beside the fire. Additionally, a pile ofdry highly flammable material should be readied. When the survivordetects the approach of an aircraft, the dry materials are placed on thefire, and, as soon as they are burning, the green vegetation is placed ontop. The heat from the fire will drive the smoke column upward into theview of the searchers. The hotter the fire, the quicker the smoke isproduced, and the higher it will travel. Green vegetation will producewhite smoke. Adding petroleum products, plastics, foam, or othersimilar materials will darken the color of the smoke.

Fig. 12. Rescue laser flare. This strong, rugged, handheld laser device with a wider-focused

beam allows the user to sweep across an area with a dispersed red light beam that can be seen

over 20 miles away. (Courtesy of Paul M. Morton, MD and Peter Kummerfeldt, MD).


Ground-to-air symbols. Before the advent of helicopters, a survivor oftenhad to communicate a specific need to rescuers flying overhead in fixed-wing aircraft. To accomplish this, a series of 18 symbols were developed,for example, ‘‘X’’ for ‘‘unable to proceed’’ and ‘‘L’’ for ‘‘require fuel andoil.’’ The original list of 18 symbols has since been reduced to sevensymbols. Because helicopters can hover over or near a survivor and canlower a search and rescue technician to the ground or find a nearby siteand land, the need to communicate a specific message is no longernecessary. Once the search is underway, the search and rescue personnelwill investigate any unusual signal, symbol, or other sign made by thesurvivor. When constructed, the symbol should be built as large aspossible in an area that is clearly visible from the air (X’s or letters thatare built with lines that are at least 8 in wide and 10 ft long). Thetraditional SOS is a universally recognized symbol of distress and willalways draw attention once seen. Traditionally, any combination of‘‘three’’ is recognized as an emergency signal. In practical terms, in maynot be possible or even advisable for the survivor to construct threebonfires or three smoke signals. The amount of energy expended shouldbe measured against the increased likelihood of the survivor being seen.A 16-year-old girl who was rescued after the aircraft she was flying incrashed, killing her father, constructed the SOS in the photograph inFig. 13.

Other devices use different methods to signal rescuers.

Electronic beacons. These devices provide the user the ability to alert therescue community quickly by capitalizing on a system of satellites thatreceive the signal and then downlink the signal to a ground station andthe rescuers. The SARSAT system of satellites, which are in continuousearth orbit, monitor the rescue frequencies (406, 121.5, and 243.0MHz).When a signal is received, the information is stored by the satellite untilit passes over a Local User Terminal (LUT), whereupon the signal isdownlinked. The information is automatically passed to a MissionControl Center and then on to a Rescue Coordination Center, fromwhich the SAR assets are dispatched. Beacons that transmit on 121.5MHz are notoriously unreliable. The false alarm rate is about 90%.EPIRBs (Emergency Position Indicating Radio Beacons) transmit on406 and 121.5MHz and are very reliable. At the point of sale, an EPIRBmust be registered; the owner’s name, address, telephone number, andother information are recorded. When an EPIRB signal is received, anattempt is made by telephone to determine the status of the owner. If thewhereabouts of the owner cannot be determined, a search commences.With beacons that transmit on 121.5MHz, a search will not commenceuntil other information is available that verifies the authenticity and theemergency status of the source of the signal. The signals from somebeacons can be detected by aircraft and by ground-based searchers


equipped with direction-finding receivers. In this instance, the searcherscan ‘‘direction find’’ on the signal and locate the survivor.

Whistles. The importance of these short-range (mile or less) ground-to-ground signaling devices should not be discounted. Lacking a whistle,injured survivors or those who have yelled for long periods and lost theirvoice may not be able to alert searchers to their presence. A whistlerequires no particular skill to operate and can be blown for long periods.Three blasts with a pause followed by three blasts repeated is atraditional signal of distress. When equipping yourself, any whistle isbetter than your voice, but, when given a choice, one should select theloudest whistle available, that is, one with a decibel level exceeding 100.

Transceivers, survival radios, family radios, cellular phones, and satellite

phones. These devices are being used more frequently to contactrescuers. The ability to make contact with these devices will varydepending on the terrain, weather, and range. Cell phones can be used tomake emergency 911calls without signing up for cell phone service;however, one should not rely on cell phones as a sole signaling andrescue device. Cell phones are limited not only by their service area butalso are vulnerable to cold, moisture, sand, and heat. Although mosttelephones will allow 911 calls to be dialed without any payment, it isalways advisable to carry some change or a telephone calling card.Despite being in contact with rescuers, you may still have to survive forconsiderable periods.Weather, rough terrain, and the time it takes to getthe rescue organized can all delay your recovery.

Ground search teams are the core of the SAR community and are made upof trained volunteers who work under the authority of local law enforcement

Fig. 13. SOS ground-to-air signal. A 16-year-old girl who was rescued after the aircraft she was

flying in crashed, killing her father, constructed this SOS. (Courtesy of Paul M. Morton, MD

and Peter Kummerfeldt, MD).


or other directing SAR agencies having the responsibility to perform searchesand rescues ofmissing personnel. Skills, training, and resources of SAR teamsvary greatly from one location to another. The number of SAR personnelinvolved in a search will depend on the number available, their experience,and the difficulty of the area to be searched. Despite the availability of SARpersonnel and their dedication, the lost individual must survive until therescuers arrive, which may take hours and sometimes days.

Search dogs used by many SAR teams are extremely valuable aids inlocating missing people and are widely used across the country. They can beground scenting or air scenting and will often be the first resources deployedbefore SAR personnel trample on a search area.

Helicopter rescue aircraft have revolutionized means of locating andrecovering missing and injured people. The ability to hover and land inconfined areas has radically reduced the time needed to evacuate a survivor.Helicopters from the civilian and military communities are often called onwhen a search commences. Unlike most, but not all, civilian helicopters,military aircraft are equipped with a hoist that can lower a rescuer to theground and then recover the rescuer and the survivor. Military helicoptersare more commonly used in rugged terrain, extreme weather conditions, orwhen long-range recovery is needed. SAFETY NOTE: If you are about tobe rescued by a helicopter landing nearby, do not rush out to the aircraft.Wait until a rescue technician approaches and escorts you back to theaircraft. In general, most helicopters need a 100� 100 yd landing zone clearof debris.

Navigation

Asmentioned previously, unless you can positively locate yourself, the bestadvice to follow is to stay put and not travel. All hikers should carry and knowhow to use amap and compass before they travel in the backcountry. Becausea compass is on many ‘‘ten essentials lists’’ and is commonly associated withoutdoor use, it is often included in the equipment carried by people whorecreate in the outdoors. Unfortunately, although many people carrya compass, few know how to use one. If you are going to carry a map,compass, and GPS receiver, you should learn how to use the equipment tolocate yourself and to travel back to your starting point or other knownlocation.

The first step is locating your position and marking that position on a mapbefore you leave your vehicle or camp. You should then identify the bordersthat surround the area in which you will be traveling. These boundaries maybe prominent roads, railways, power lines, fences, or large rivers. Preferably,you should identify boundaries on all four sides of the area. Having locatedyourself on the map and knowing the boundaries, you can then leave campwith the knowledge that, if you get lost, all you have to do is determine whichboundary is closest and walk a straight line to it. In this way, you can relocate


yourself and return to your vehicle or camp. Sometimes this can be a very longwalk out.

Many people experience great difficulty walking a straight line and havewandered in circles until exhausted. The simplest way to walk a straight lineis to use a compass, preferably an ‘‘orienteering compass.’’ Any metal objectthat is nearby radically affects a compass needle. Do not let firearms, knives,large metal belt buckles, or other compasses near your compass when takinga reading or following a compass heading.

The cardinal directions (north, south, east, west) can be determinedwithout a compass using the following procedures. Using a watch with hands,point the hour hand directly at the sun. The point halfway between the hourhand and 12 o’clock will point approximately south (this works only in theNorthern Hemisphere). In the Southern Hemisphere, the halfway point isapproximately north. At night, a line drawn through the two ‘‘pointer stars’’in the bowl of the Big Dipper (the distal two stars of the bowl) and extendedapproximately four times the distance between the two stars, intersectsPolaris, the ‘‘North Star,’’ which is never more than 1 degree from true north.Lay a stick on the ground aligned with north so that you can determine thecardinal directions the following morning.

Everyone should carry and know how to use a map. Many kinds of mapsare available and can be obtained from county, state, or provincial agencies,the United States Forest Service, and other sources. The most useful maps,called topographic maps, can be purchased at many sporting goods outlets,some bookstores, or ordered directly from the United States GeologicalService (800-USA-MAPS). Topographic maps show man-made features(drawn in black or red) and natural features (drawn in green for vegetationand blue for water). Contour lines, lines drawn on a map joining points ofequal elevation, are drawn in brown and show the altitude and terrainfeatures of the land mass covered by the map.

Other useful information can be found in the margin of the map. The scaleenables the user to measure the distance between two points on the map. Thedeclination diagram shows the difference between True andMagnetic North.Changes taking place after the time the map was printed may not be reflectedon the map. Map symbols enable the user to interpret the informationshown. Unless shown otherwise, north is always at the top of the map.

Equipment for a survival kit

A survival kit should be lightweight and compact, always with you, seasonspecific, and periodically checked. Each person should have his or her ownkit. Commercial kits often compromise quality; therefore, you should buildyour own. The following equipment should be included in the kit:

Fire starter (windproof, waterproof matches in a watertight container). Abackup method of starting a fire, such as a lighter or metal match,


should also be included. You should also have tinder for the fire in casenone is naturally available. This material should include petroleumjelly–impregnated cotton balls, compressible fuel tablets, or candles.

Two compasses/topographic map. ‘‘Orienteering compasses’’ with rotatingbezels and directional arrows of travel are recommended. Luminouscompasses can be helpful in low-vision situations.

Two large bright orange industrial strength plastic bags. These bags workas waterproof, windproof shelter material and signaling material.

A knife. Be careful of the ‘‘Rambo’’ or ‘‘Crocodile Dundee’’ type knife.You only need a solid and usable knife. The handle should have a gripwith a finger guard to prevent you from lacerating yourself.

Glass signal mirror. Mirrors with a hole for aiming are useful.Whistle. Try to find the loudest one possible. If you live in a cold and wetenvironment, you might want to consider avoiding whistles with aninternal ball that may freeze in cold conditions. This situation has beenencountered by our SAR team in New Hampshire/Vermont on wintersearches.

Water purification tablets.

Sunglasses.

Flashlight/beta-light. The latter is a small yet very bright LED light thatwill function well for vision and signaling.

Food (bullion cubes, Meal Ready-to-Eat (MRE), bars high in carbohy-

drates that are baked rather than extruded). Foods that do not requiremuch water to digest are much better.

Extra clothing. An extra pair of polypropylene long underwear, socks, ora stocking cap can be critical to warmth and foot health when your firstset gets wet or damaged.

Surveyor’s tape. This material is essential for marking your path orsignaling.

Identity tag. If you are unconscious, rescuers will be able to identify youand contact your family.

Fishing line/hooks. Very lightweight material could be very useful.First aid kit. If you are an advanced medical provider, you shouldconsider carrying the following items for your medical kit:

Painkillers. Ibuprofen and stronger analgesics may be beneficial. Aspirinwill be useful for persons having possible acute coronary syndromes.

Antibiotics. Consider carrying a few tablets of a long-acting, broad-spectrum antibiotic to cover skin infections, diarrheal illnesses, and re-spiratory infections. Later-generation fluoroquinolones are preferable.

Antidiarrheal agents.

Diphenhydramine (Benadryl) or other antihistamine. Consider carryinga nonsedating option such as loratidine (Claritin).

Epinephrine. Carry 1 mL of 1:1000 solution in one to two preloadedsyringes or EpiPen/Ana-Kit for allergic reactions if traveling withothers (unless, of course, you have a history of anaphylactic reactions).


Treatment for high-altitude illnesses (appropriate for region). Such agentsinclude acetazolamide (Diamox), nifedipine, and dexamethasone(Decadron).

A few small bandages. These materials can be helpful for small lacerationsand other wounds.

Compressed vaginal tampon and a feminine napkin. These materials canserve two purposes: feminine hygiene and a trauma dressing. Bandagesfor larger bleeding wounds can be improvised from clothing andother materials. Consider a 3M (3M, Saint Paul, MN) small stapler kitfor larger wounds as well.

Povidone-iodine (Betadine) jelly. This material can be dispensed in smallpackets and can prevent infections. Some have even used it for waterpurification, which is viable if used in the right concentrations.

Moleskin (Schering-Plough Healthcare Products, Berkeley Heights, NJ)/

Second Skin (Spenco, Waco, TX) or other blister material.

Personal prescription medications.

Spare eyeglasses (if you need them).

Safety pins. Safety pins have a multitude of uses, including pinning thetongue to the lip for an airway adjunct, pinning a shirttail above thearm to provide a sling, forming a bandage support, and repairingdamaged clothing or gear.

Summary

How is the person who overcomes tremendous difficulty with minimumresources different from the person who appears to give up without reallytrying and who dies when he or she might have survived? The experience ofthe military is enlightening. Since the late 1940s, military aviators have hadto attend comprehensive survival training programs as part of theirqualifications to become an aviator. These aviators have had to practicesurviving in the environments over which they fly under the guidance ofskilled instructors. This training has paid great dividends and has resulted inmany aviators returning to friendly hands when they might otherwise havedied. In the civilian community, programs such as Outward Bound, theNational Outdoor Leadership School, and many others have provenrepeatedly that ‘‘training’’ provides a degree of life insurance.

This article has provided a framework from which to start learning how tosurvive in the wilderness in an emergency. People must prepare themselvesmentally and physically before going out into the backcountry. One mustarrive in the wilderness clothed and equipped. The survival skills discussedherein are some of the most important and straightforward. The bottom lineis that you can and must choose from one of the two following categories: (1)depending on your will to survive, your ability to improvise, and your luck, or(2) being equipped, clothed, and practiced.


Take some enjoyment in preparing for the unexpected night out. Findcourses that are educational and enjoyable and given by good instructors.The more fun you have and the better prepared you are, the more relaxingand fulfilling your outdoor experiences will be.

Acknowledgments

The authors thank Phillip E.Mason,MD, (Staff Physician, Department ofEmergency Medicine, SAUSHEC Emergency Medicine Residency Program,San Antonio, Texas) for his generous assistance in editing this article.

Reference

[1] Leach J. Survival psychology. New York City, New York University Press; 1994.

wilderness survival

Documents

local law

plastic tube

minimize water

lay support

crisscross

slightly larger

ambient air

support poles