CARD 11

EMPEROR DRAGONFL ~ROUP 5: INSECTS« SPIDERS ~ CLASS ORDER FAMILY GENUS &. SPECIES Insecta Odonata Aeschnidae Anax imperator

The bright blue male emperor dragonfly is extremely sharp-sighted and is one of the fastest flying of all insects.

KEY FACTS SIZES Length: Adult, 3 in.; larvae, 2 in .

Wingspan: 4 in . Coloration: Adult male: enamel

blue body with central black stripe

and green head; adult female:

green head and greenish body. Wings: 2 pairs, moved inde­

pendently.

BREEDING Eggs: Cream colored and

elongated; laid in plant stems.

Hatching time: 3-4 weeks.

LIFESTYLE

Habit: Active hawker.

Diet: Adult: winged insects; nymph: invertebrates, tadpoles .

lifespan: Adult, about 4 weeks;

nymph, 2 years.

RElATED SPECIES A subspecies of Anax imperator

occurs in southern Africa.

Range of the emperor dragonfly.

DISTRIBUTION

The emperor dragonfly is found in Europe, the Bri tish Isles,

north Africa, the Middle East, and northwestern India.

CONSERVATION

The dragonfly is extremely susceptible to the effects of water

pollution and drainage. Its future depends on the survival of

clean, unpolluted ponds, lakes, and waterways.

SPECIAL FEATURES OF THE EMPEROR DRAGONFLY

The larva has an extended jaw armed with hooks. It pushes them forward to catch and kill its prey.

The male uses calipers at the tip of his abdomen to grip the fe-

The copulation wheel: the female arches her body under the male to mate. They may fly in tandem while they are mating .

male 's thora~x~. ~~~'Ja-f~' ;:~~~~

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The male transfers sperm from the tip of his abdomen to accessory sexual organs. The female then fertilizes the egg s.

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The emperor dragonfly has remained

unchanged for 230 million years. Despite

being able to beat its wings only 30 times

a second (ten times slower than a bee),

it has no difficulty hunting down more

highly evolved insect species.

~ FOOD & FEEDING The adult dragonfly is able to catch most of its prey while flying . It plucks insects out of the air with its legs. The dragonfly is rarely still, and its huge, multifaceted eyes enable it to detect prey up to 40 feet away.

Almost any flying insect is suitable prey. The dragonfly eats small insects even while it is flying but takes larger prey to a resting perch .

The emperor dragonfly's larvae also hunt. They propel themselves through their underwater habitat by expelling water rapidly from their intestines. Their extend­able jaws, armed with deadly hooks, enable the larvae to catch and kill such food as water lice and nymphs.

Right: The shovel-like jaw of the larva is used to capture a variety of freshwater animals.

~HABITS The male emperor dragonfly is almost continuously airborne, in search of a mate or prey that may stray into its territory.

The dragonfly's territory is always over a freshwater pond or lake. The defending dragon­fly will attack the trespasser

~ LlFECYCLE Most of the dragonfly's life is spent underwater as larva. It emerges as a winged adult for a few weeks a year to mate and lay eggs .

Usually mating takes place in the high branches of a tree along the pond's bank, but sometimes it will occur in the air. The male pursues the fe­male until he is able to settle on her back. The mating procedure is known as the "copulation wheel" (see back cover). The female fertilizes the eggs, then uses her ovipositor (a special egg-laying organ) to lay them. To protect her eggs

Left: The adult dragonfly lives for only a few brief weeks.

Right: The legs form a basket in which insects are caught in flight and then transferred to the jaws to be

immediately by flying under him to force him up and away from the water.

The green and brown female stays away from the water until she is ready to breed, so she is sighted less frequently .

from being eaten by fish, she places them into slits that she has cut into the stems of pondweed.

The eggs develop in about 3 weeks, depending upon the temperature of the water. The larva, or nymph, that hatches is wingless and lives in the water. It molts (sheds its skin) ten to fifteen times during the 2 years it takes to mature. Almost all of its growth occurs in summer months.

In the last stage of develop­ment the larva crawls out of the water and dries its skin in the sun. As the skin splits, the adult dragonfly emerges. Once its soft wings have hardened, it can fly .

DID YOU kNOW?

• Dragonflies always rest with their wings spread open. • Dragonflies and thei r larvae are a popular food in some Asian countries. • There are over 30,000 facets in a dragonfly's eye. • Very few birds can outfly

Above and right: The lifecyc/e of the emperor dragonfly guarantees that its larvae hatch at the same time, allowing a better chance for the adults to breed successfully.

~ NATUREWATCH

The emperor dragonfly is usually recognizable by its large size. The male has a deep blue abdomen, divided by a centra l back stripe. Its head is green. At close range it can be identifi ed by the disti nctive rounded inside edges of the hind wi ngs. The female is green and brown and is much less conspicuous than the male .

and hunt down dragonflies. The fast-flying, agile hobby is a match . • The dragonfly'S front and hind wings beat alternately, not together, as with most insects. This gives them better flight control.

During summer the adult male patrols its territory­weedy ponds and lakes. It usually flies 6-20 feet above the water. When it does rest, it perches briefly on the edge of a reed bed or in a tree.

Adults can be found near any stretch of unpoll uted fresh water in their range. Larvae emerge from the water as ea rly as May.

PRAYING MANTIS '\

ClASS Insecta

ORDER Dictyoptesa

""CARD 12

GROUP 5: INSECTS & SPIDERS "'~ FAMILY GENUS &: SPECIES J

Mantidae Various

The praying mantis ambushes its prey and captures it with its spiny forelegs. A mantis feeds on all types of insects,

including other mantises.

CHARACTERISTICS

Length: Varies from 1/2-12 in.,

according to species.

Mouthparts: Biting.

Wings: Many species have no

wings. Others have 2 pairs.

BREEDING

Breeding season: Summer in

temperate areas. Year-round In the

tropics. Elsewhere during the wet

season. Eggs: 10-400.

Hatching: 3 weeks-6 months,

depending on temperature and

humidity.

LIFESTYLE

Habit: Solitary.

Diet: Other insects and spiders.

Large species will also eat frogs,

lizards, and nesting birds.

RELATED SPECIES

Cockroaches and grasshoppers.

FEATURES OF THE PRAYING MANTIS

• Range of the praying mantis.

DISTRIBUTION

The nearly 2,000 species of mantis are widely distributed

throughout tropical, subtropical, and warm temperate areas of

the world.

CONSERVATION

The only threat to the mantis comes from man's dest ruction of

its habitat. Tropical rainforests and some desert environments

are particularly at risk.

Feelers ----------------" The praying mantis hunts by ambush. Well camouflaged, it waits patiently until its prey passes within reach and then shoots out its spine-covered forelegs to grasp it in a viselike grip.

Eyes-------------~~~~:~

Mouth -----------:~~~~-~~J

Abdomen

Wings

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The cannibalistic habits of

praying mantises ensure that

they remain solitary creatures.

Because they feed on one another,

mantises are widely spaced

within their various habitats.

~ HABITAT Mantises are found in a variety of habitats-including deserts, meadows, and savan­nahs-ali through the warmer

~ FOOD & HUNTING Praying mantises do not actively hunt down their prey. Instead, they wait unmoving and virtually invisible on a leaf or stem, ready to seize any passing insect. When potential prey comes within range, the mantis thrusts its pincerlike

parts of the world, especially in the humid tropical rain­forests, where the majority of

species occur.

forelegs forward to grasp the insect. Any chance of escape is minimized by the viselike grip facilitated by the rows of hooked spines along the inner part of the mantis's front legs. The mantis bites its prey's head off first.

~ BREEDING The female praying mantis is widely known for her peculiar habit of biting the head off her partner while they are mating. This cannibalistic act was once believed to be a regular practice. However, it now seems likely that it is much rarer in female mantises in the wild than in captive mantises kept in a cage.

After mating, the female lays her eggs in batches enclosed in a tough, spongy envelope called an ootheca. The ootheca is attached to fence posts, twigs, stems, or sometimes buried in the ground. The females of some species of mantis stand guard over their eggs until the young emerge. They fend off attacks by parasitic wasps which lay their eggs in the eggs of the mantis.

The eggs hatch 3 weeks to 6 months after being laid. The

young emerge from the eggs through tiny holes in the ootheca. Many species of mantises resemble ants when they are small, but as they go through a series of molts (shed their skin), they begin to look more like adult mantises.

Right: Mantises will prey on almost any insect small enough to be seized.

Right: Mantises mating. Males are always smaller than the females.

Below: Cannibalism is most common among mantises kept in captivity. Here a common green mantis preys upon her partner after mating.

African flower mantis relies on camouflage to avoid being preyed upon.

DID YOU KNOW? • Large mantises will tackle and eat tree frogs and nest­ling bi rds .

• Flower mantises, from Africa and the Far East, so closely resemble flowers that insects will often land on them to get

~ DEFENSE Mantises have a number of enemies, particularly birds. In order to discourage them, large mantises will stri ke out with their sp iny forelegs .

Other species, not large enough to frighten an enemy

OJ in this way, seek to discour-~ age an aggressor by suddenly

~ exposing brightly colored ~ wings, which often have false ~ eye-spots to give the impres­~ sion of a frighteningly ~

ri aggressive face . ::.:: Such tactics are only

necessary when the mantis has actually been seen. The first line of defense is to avoid detection at all . Most man­tises are therefore well camouflaged. Grass-dwellers tend to be green, and tree­dwellers are often mottled

Above: An African mantis in a threat display to deter predators.

nectar.

• Whatever their size, man­t ises lay eggs of virtually the same size.

• The name mantis comes from the Greek word for prophet or soothsayer.

O.C. RouraJNaturai Science Photos L-_______________________ ---'

CLASS Insecta

ORDER Lepidoptera Sphingidae

The poplar hawk moth feeds a~d mates at night. During the day it rests on tree trunks where it is perfectly

camouflaged because of its gray-brown wings.

CHARACTERISTICS

Wings: 2 pairs.

Wingspan: 4 in. Coloration: Gray-brown.

Mouthparts: 2 mouthparts in

caterpillar. 1 short proboscis

(tonguelike organ) in adult.

LlFECYCLE

Eggs: Laid in small groups. Egg to chrysalis: 4-5 weeks.

Chrysalis to hatching: 8 weeks in

summer, 6-8 months in winter.

LIFESTYLE

Habit: Nocturnal.

Diet: Caterpillars, leaves of poplar

and willows. Adults, nectar.

Lifespan: 3-4 weeks as an adult.

RELATED SPECIES

There are no other members of the

genus Laothoe. An infertile hybrid

(mix) has been bred from the

poplar and the eyed hawk moths,

called the "popeye" moth.

Range of the poplar hawk moth.

DISTRIBUTION

Throughout Great Bri ta in and the Channel Islands; a few

scattered populations in Ireland.

CONSERVATION

The poplar hawk moth, like other European hawk moths, is in no danger of extinction. The only hawk moths in serious

danger are those in the tropics, where their habitat is being

destroyed.

LlFECYCLE OF THE POPLAR HAWK MOTH

Eggs laid on food plants.

Caterpillars feed on poplar, aspen, willow, and sallow leaves.

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The adult moth emerges from the chrysalis after about eight weeks in summer, or six to eight months in winter.

The mature cater­pillar makes a shallow depres­sion in the ground , where it changes into a chrysalis.

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The poplar hawk moth is

but one of 1,000 species of hawk moth

throughout the world; most are found

in the tropics. Known also as sphinx moths,

hawk moths display a wide variety

of shapes and wing patterns.

DID YOU KNOW?

• Hawk moths are also called "sphinx" moths because some species resemble the Egyptian sphinx when they inflate their

bodies. • The convolvulus hawk moth migrates more than 1,000 miles from North Africa to northwestern Europe. The hummingbird hawk moth does not migrate during mild winters: it hibernates in dry stone walls .

• The death's head hawk moth mimics the sound of the queen honeybee to gain access to the hive. It punches holes in the cells' wax cover­ing to feed on the honey.

~ Ll FECYCLE The poplar hawk moth mates in Mayor June. The female lays round, shiny, yellow eggs on poplar, aspen, willow, or sallow tree leaves.

Caterpillars hatch from the eggs seven days later. They are mainly green and have a yellow line that runs the length of their bodies. They also have orange-red breath­ing holes, called spiracles, and a thornlike spike near the end of their tails. The caterpillars wave the spiked end to scare away predators. Their backs are lightly colored, as camou­flage, so that they resemble the leaves that they hang

~ DEFENSES A wide range of mimicry and other defense characteristics is exhibited by all species of hawk moth. The poplar hawk moth's brown wings and shape blend in with the bark, as camouflage. But it lifts its forewings and reveals fiery red hind wings to frighten off an intruder.

The caterpillar of the elephant hawk mot h can puff up its body to resemble a snake's head, complete with false eyes. The caterpillar of the convolvulus hawk moth has snake-head markings on its back end.

from while feeding. As caterpillars mature, they

go through five growth stages, called instars, and split and shed their skin four times as they grow larger (this process is called ecdysis). The caterpil­lars leave their food plants and crawl to the ground as they near the final growth stage. They then develop into adults inside a protective case, called a chrysalis.

Each chrysalis hatches into an adult moth in late July. The moth mates, and the female lays a second generation of eggs, which go through all the growth stages .

Adult hawk moths also dis­playa wide range of mark­ings, including spots and fa lse eyes, that resemble those of their predators. The eyed hawk moth, for example, has large markings on its hind wings that resemble a bird's eyes.

The two species of bee hawk moth mimic bumble­bees in form and color. Like bees, they feed on flowers during the day, rather than at night like nocturnal hawk moths .

Above right : The eyed hawk moth scares enemies by mimicking the eyes of a larger animal.

left: A tropical hawk moth imitates a snake.

~ FOOD & FEEDING Caterpillars of the poplar hawk moth eat the leaves they hatch on. In addition to poplar, they also eat the leaves of sallow and willow trees. The caterpillars have enormous appetites and eat several leaves a day.

In contrast, adult moths are

left: Poplar hawk moths die soon after mating.

not constant feeders because they rely on energy stored in their bodies during the cater­pillar stage. For the three to four weeks it spends as an adult, the hawk moth eats just enough flower nectar to allow it to mate and lay eggs before dying.

NATUREWATCH The poplar hawk moth can be seen resting on tree t runks and fence posts du ri ng the day. It is common in both urban and suburban areas. The moth may be found in damp areas, where its food plants grow, such as along riverbanks and in wood­land. The caterpi llar's droppings can also be spotted on the ground beneath popla r trees.

The hummingbird, spurge, and elephant hawk moths also inhabit the popla r hawk moth's range. All th ree of these moths feed from a variety of flowering plants .

"'" CARD 14 DESERT LOCUST ~~----------------------------------------~

ORDER Insecta

FAMILY Orthoptera Schistocerca gregoria

The desert locust's capacity for multiplying very quickly and migrating in enormous swarms, destroying all crops in its path,

has made it a target of extermination throughout its range.

KEY FACTS

CHARACTERISTICS Length: Males, 2 in. Females, 3 in. Mouthparts: 2 powerful jaws for biting plant material. Wings: 2 pairs of separate, membranous wings.

BREEDING Eggs: Laid in pods of 80-100 eggs, several pods per female. Hatching: 10-14 days in tropics, 70 days in cooler areas.

LIFESTYLE Habit: Either solitary or sociable when part of a migrating swarm. Diet: Leaves, stems, fruits, and

flowers. Lifespan: Hoppers, 30-50 days. Adults, 8 months.

RELATED SPECIES Nearest relative is the African migratory locust, Locusta

migratoria.

• Range of the desert locust.

DISTRIBUTION Very common in the Sahel region of North Africa, extending to Arabia, Iran, Israel, Turkey, and southern Spain. Popula­tions expand their range by migration. Large swarms migrate 1,850-3,000 miles within Africa over several months.

CONSERVATION Despite man's efforts to eliminate, or at least control, this pest, it is still in no danger of extinction.

FEATURES OF THE DESERT LOCUST

The locust's abdomen is segmented for easy movement. This is particularly useful for the female, who uses her abdomen when she prepares the hole in the sand where she lays her eggs.

Muscular, jointed legs for hopping. Hooks and pads at tips aid walking .

Membranous wings. Hindwing is twice as large

the forewing .

The antennae are Two powerful short, segmented jaws for biting feelers for into plant

at.

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Since the desert locust can be both solitary

and sociable at different stages of its lifecycle,

it was originally classified incorrectly as two

separate species. It is sandy colored in its

solitary phase but becomes yellow, orange,

and black when it migrates.

~ HABITS Locusts can be both solitary and sociable. When the food supply is plentiful, locusts live alone, rather than in a swarm. But when food is scarce, locusts migrate to­gether to search for food.

Early mornings and

evenings are the times when locusts begin their migration. By flying with the wind, they can easily cover 50 miles a day. The size of a migratory swarm can be enormous.

Below: A brown mass of swarm­ing locusts attacks a bush.

~ lIFECYCLE Desert locusts lay their eggs in warm sandy areas, usually after a rain. Once the female has mated, she makes a hole in the sand with her abdomen. She deposits the egg pods in the hole, and the warmth of the sand incubates the eggs.

Once they hatch, the young, called hoppers, immediately begin to feed. They are yellow and black at this stage, but they molt, or shed their skin, as they grow larger. The hoppers pass through five stages of develop­ment but do not go through a pupal stage as do other insects such as beetles and butterflies. Their development is known therefore as incomplete meta­morphosis-as a pupa, an insect's body changes; for ex­ample, a caterpillar becomes a moth.

In its fifth stage of develop­ment, the hopper's wings mature, and it is able to fly to new areas to feed. The young adult locusts eat all green vegetation in their path.

~ FEEDING ~ LOCUST & MAN The desert locust eats continu- The desert locust is considered ally from the moment it is born until it d ies. It eats a va­riety of leaves, stems, fru it, and flowe rs but prefers cultivated crops such as maize, millet, and citrus fruits, as well as wild grasses and tree foliage.

Desert locusts eat the equiv­alent of their weight in food every day, and a swarm will collectively eat thousands of tons of crops.

Left: Desert locusts use their strong jaws to eat rapidly through the toughest plants.

Right: Desert locusts mating-the male is on top of the larger female.

Below left: The female buries her abdomen in the sand to deposit the eggs.

Below right: The time it takes locust eggs to hatch varies accord­ing to climate. These eggs hatched after 21 days.

to be the worst ag ricultural pest in 60 countries. Swarms can cover up to 20 percent of the land surface, and as much as 8 million dollars' worth of crops are destroyed yearly.

They are controlled some­what through the use of insecticides. Bands of wingless hoppers are sprayed on the ground and from the air, es­pecially in the evening when the migratory swarm has be­gun its flight and is more affected by the chemicals.

DID YOU KNOW? • A swarm of 40 mi ll ion locusts can consume 80,000 tons of crops in a single day. • Locusts a re a good source of prote in and are eaten by some people in Africa. • In the fall of 1988, young desert locusts successfully migrated 3,000 miles across the Atlantic from Africa to the West Indies. The jou rney is t hought to have taken six days and is t he first t ra nsat­lant ic migration ever re­corded.

SILK MOTH

ORDER Lepidoptera

FAMILY Bombycidae

GROUP 5: INSECTS & SPIDERS

GENUS & SPECIES Bombyx mori

The silk moth storts life as a tiny larva that devours mulberry leaves. Eventually it weaves a cocoon of silk within which

it transforms itself into on adult moth.

KEY FACTS ~~--------------------------------------------------~

SIZES Wings: 2 pairs. W ingspan: 4 in. Length: Caterpillar, over 3 in. Mouthparts: Caterpillar, 1 pair for chewing . Adult moth has only remnants of the caterpillar's mouthparts.

BREEDING Eggs: 300-500. Egg to pupa: Varies with temperature. Pupa to hatching: 2-3 weeks.

LIFESTYLE Habit: Nonflying, domesticated

species. Diet: Mulberry leaves. lifespan: Adul t, 3-5 days. Caterpillar, 4-6 weeks.

RELATED SPECIES Related w ild species include the Indian tussah silk moth, Antheraea

paphia, and the atlas moth, Attacus atlas.

Domesticated range of the silk moth.

DISTRIBUTION Once native to Asia, the silk moth is now bred mainly in Japan and China. It is also farmed in the Soviet Union, India, Pakistan, Turkey, France, and Italy.

CONSERVATION The silk moth has been extinct in the wild for centuries. It now lives in large domesticated groups that are bred for size and silk quality. It is carefully protected from disease.

lIFECYCLE OF THE SILK M OTH

5. Adult moth: The adults must mate soon after emerging from the cocoon . The female secretes a strong-smelling substance that the male detects with special hairs on his en larged antennae.

3. Caterpillar: As it grows, the larva sheds several layers of skin and

4. Cocoon: After becomes white and smooth .

6 weeks· of feeding , the caterpillar finds a stalk and spins a silk cocoon , where it pupates.

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1. Eggs: Female lays up to 500 eggs on a leaf. Adults die soon afterward.

2. Larva: Born black and hairy. Hatching time depends on the temperature during incubation.

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The silk moth was first domesticated

by the Chinese nearly 5,000 years ago. Silk is

derived from the cocoon that the caterpillar

spins to complete its transformation into

an adult moth. This beautifully woven cocoon

is produced from a single strand of silk

that can be about a mile long.

~ LlFECYCLE The silk moth has been do­mesticated for 5,000 years and is no longer found in the wild. Selective breeding has made it too large to fly, but it does not have to crawl far to find a mate. The female lays her eggs soon after mating.

The tiny caterpillar, or larva, is fully grown at about six weeks. It then attaches itself to a stalk and spins a large silk cocoon. The silk is produced by the caterpillar's salivary glands and comes out through

an organ called a spinneret that is near the mouthparts.

It takes a caterpillar over two days to spin its cocoon. Within this protective casing, it pupates, transforming itself into a winged moth.

The adult moth emerges after two to three weeks. But the moth damages the silk as it hatches, so most cocoons are collected earlier and the pupae inside are killed. The largest and finest cocoons are left to produce adults for breeding.

~ SILKWORM &: MAN Several insects and spiders produce silk, but only the silk moth produces it in large enough quantities for com­mercial use. The Chinese are credited with discovering how to unwind this fiber from cocoons and turn it into a luxurious, strong fabric.

The first silk came from wild moths, but soon the Chinese began breeding them. By se­lecting only large moths and those that made the finest silk,

Left: The larvae eat continuously to store enough food for the cocoon stage.

DID YOU KNOW? • Legend has it that China lost its monopoly on silk in the fourth century when moth eggs were smuggled out in the headdress of a Chinese princess who mar­ried an Indian prince.

• The wedding dress of Queen Elizabeth 1/ was

they developed the huge flightless insects of today.

Before the silk can be un­wound, the cocoon must be soaked in very hot water to dissolve the sericin a "glue" that makes the silk stick to itself. As the ends of the silk f loat free, they can be wound onto a reel. Because silk is so fine, several strands can be wound together. The remain­ing sericin helps to stick the fibers together.

Right: After two to three weeks, a fully formed adult moth emerges from its cocoon.

made of silk produced by moths in Britain. • Silk is graded according to its fineness, or denier. Denier is the weight of a 1475-foot length of silk.

• "Wild silk" is produced by relatives of the silk moth in cocoons found in the wild.

~ FOOD &: FEEDING The caterpillar must eat nearly all the time. When it is fed only mulberry leaves, it eats continuously and grows quick­ly. It will consume other leafy plants, but tests have shown that caterpillars given a mixed diet do not grow as rapidly or produce silk as fine as those fed only mulberry leaves.

Left: During their brief adulthood, the moths mate, and shortly afterward the female lays more than 500 eggs.

Right: The delicately spun cocoon pro­tects the larva as it pupates, transforming itself into the adult silk moth.

When fully grown at about six weeks, the caterpillar stops eating and spins the cocoon in which it will change into an adult. The main function of the adult moth is to breed. Unlike the caterpillar, the adult moth does not need to feed and thus does not possess true mouthparts.

FIELD CRICKET ______________ ~G_R...;.,O...;;.U_P 5: INSECTS lit SPIDERS

ORDER Orthoptera

FAMILY Gryl/idae

GENUS &: SPECIES Gryllus campestris

The field cricket emerges from its winter hibernation and fills the air with its chirping song. If the summer

weather turns chilly the cricket falls silent.

KEYFA~C~T~S~ __________________________ ~

SIZES Length: Up to 1 in. Mouthparts: Chewing. Wings: Flightless; small hind wings.

BREEDING

Breeding season: May to July. Eggs: Up to 200, laid singly. Hatching: 3-4 weeks. Development: Adult stage after 10 months.

LIFESTYLE Habit: Solitary. Active in warm weather. Diet: Leaves, seeds, roots, some animals. Lifespan: Approximately 3 months as a nymph. 3-4 months

as adult.

RELATED SPECIES

The order Orthoptera contains 20,000 species including crickets, grasshoppers, and katydids.

Range of the field cricket.

DISTRIBUTION

Lives in western, central, and southern Europe, North Africa, and western Asia .

CONSERVATION

The field cricket has declined dramatically in some areas

because of changes to grassland habitats.

FEATURES OF THE FIELD CRICKET

DEVELOPMENT

Eggs: Female injects up to 200 into the soil through her long, thin ovipositor (the egg-laying organ on her rear) . These hatch within three to four weeks.

Nymph: Hatches in early summer. Eats plants, molting (shedding skin) seven to eight times before winter. Molts twice in spring to become adult.

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Hind legs: Enlarged; big muscles aid in burrowing and hopping.

r------ Song: Adult male draws pegged veins across wing membranes to create high-frequency vibration. Sound is amplified naturally in the space between wings and ground or between wings and abdomen.

Mouthparts: For digging and eating.

Hearing organs: Druml tissue on each foreleg. Cricket turns leg to locate source of sound.

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The field cricket is a dark-colored, flightless insect

with long antennae. The field cricket sings by

rubbing its veined wings together seven times

per second, creating a pure note pitched

four octaves above middle C.

~ LlFECYCLE During the cricket's lifecycle it lives both above and below ground. An egg laid in the soil hatches after three to four weeks in early summer. The wormlike larva immediately molts (sheds its skin) and becomes a wingless nymph, a tiny version of the adult.

Throughout the summer, the nymph crawls on the ground, feeding on plants and hiding among the leaves. As it feeds it grows steadily in size, molting its outer skin

seven or eight times. At the onset of cool autumn weather the nymph retreats into hiber­nation. It digs a tunnel into the soil with its mouth, kick­ing debris behind and sealing the entrance.

Winter sleep ends with milder March weather, when the nymph breaks free. It stays near its burrow for two more molts, then finally be­comes an adult. By the end of spring it' breeds; by August its brief life is over.

~ BEHAVIOR The field cricket lives in warm, grassy habitats with short veg­etation and soil light enough for burrowing.

It has poorly developed wings and cannot fly, so it walks or hops as it browses on leaves, seeds, roots, and the occasional small invertebrate.

The hibernation burrow re­mains the field cricket's home until adulthood. The mature female leaves her hole in search of a mate, while the male re­mains at his own burrow, sing­ing at the entrance. If one male meets another, they exchange threat displays and may fight, sometimes to the death.

Left: The field cricket prefers light soil in which it can burrow without difficulty.

DID YOU KNOW? • In parts of southern Europe the musical field cricket is

kept as a pet.

• In China the male field cricket has also been kept as a fighting animal, prized for

; NATUREWATCH

The field cricket is hard to spot since it darts into its burrow at the first sign of danger or disturbance. The best way to watch a field cricket up close is to ap­proach a singing male very slowly, becoming motion­less each time it stops chirping, moving a little closer each time it starts singing again .

~ SONG The field cricket creates its song by rubbing veins on one forewing across veins on the other. The space between the wings and the ground amplifies the sound. The song is a pure note four octaves above middle C.

Top right: The "singing" wing veins.

Right: The male stays close to his burrow even after reaching adulthood.

Below: The field cricket's strong jaws sink into a fly.

its aggressive reactions to a rival. Fights took place in decorated bowls. The win­ner was given special food.

• The field cricket's hearing organs are on its forelegs .

The male sings at his burrow entrance from May to July to attract a mate and to ward off rivals. On cool days the crickets may be silent. In warmer weather they chirp day and night, only ceasing for a short period at dawn.

~ BREEDING When a female field cricket completes her final molt she is ready for breeding. She leaves her burrow and seeks a mate, wandering until attracted by a male's song.

If she shows interest, the

male turns his tail toward her and she receives a packet of sperm at the base of her ovi­positor, or egg-laying organ.

She places her ovipositor into the soil, depositing up to 200 eggs, one at a time.

WOLF SPIDER

CLASS Arachnida

ORDER Araneae

FAMILY Lycosidae Lycosa & Pardosa

The wolf spider gets its name for the stealthy, cunning way in which it hunts its prey-much in the same manner as the wolf.

CHARACTERISTICS

Length: Varies according to

species. Male smaller than female.

No. of eyes: 8.

~ BREEDING

~-l!~ ,~ Breeding season: Temperate

species, summer. Tropical species,

year-round.

No. of eggs: 40-100, depending

on species.

Incubation: 2-3 weeks.

~ LIFESTYLE

~~ ,~ Habit: Free ranging.

Diet: Small invertebrates, espe­

cially insects, but also other types

of spiders.

Lifespan: 1 year in European

species; 2 years in larger North

American species.

~ RELATED SPECIES

~",ls" • ~ The largest European and Ameri-

can species of Lycosa grow up to an inch in length.

• Range of the wolf spider.

DISTRIBUTION

Worldwide except polar regions.

CONSERVATION

There are approximately 125 species of wolf spider in North

America and 50 in Europe. One or two are fairly rare, but

none are endangered .

FEATURES OF THE WOLF SPIDER

Two large forward­

Two large, -------, upward­painting eyes.

looking eyes. -----,:iIP"".: ..

Four small eyes in front see forward and slightly off to one side.-------1 .. -:7~ ....

Palps are the male sex organs.

©MCMXCI IMP BV/IMP INC WILDLIFE FACT FILETM PRINTED IN U.S.A. 0160200141 PACKET 14

Most spiders catch their prey by

ambushing it in the silken webs they spin on

plants, trees, walls, and fences. Wolf spiders,

instead, hunt down and catch their prey

with the help of their acute eyesight

~HABITAT Wolf spiders live successfully in a wide variety of habitats, where they are often the most dominant of the small preda­tors . Their habitats include deserts, temperate and tropical forests, swamps, and moun­tains at lower elevations. Still, the habitat in which they are most commonly found is grassland, and they are espe­cially abundant on the prairies of North America.

DID YOU KNOW? • The hunting wasp stings and paralyzes the wolf spider in its burrow, and leaves its own larvae behind to feed on the dying spider's body. • Young wolf spiders cling to their mother's back but they never cover her eyes, which she uses to spot her prey. • Large American species of

As many as 18 species of wolf spider can sometimes be found in one area. Several of the most numerous species inhabit all parts of the wolf spider's range and are par­ticularly common in back­yards. Others have a more limited range and may be found only on rocky coasts, sand dunes, or stony hilltops, in salt marshes, or near the edges of inland waterways.

Lycosa can carry over 100 young spiders at a time. • Young spiders leave their mother a week after their first molt (shedding of skin) . • The true tarantula is actu­ally a European wolf spider. It is not the large, bird­eating spider that is often referred to as a tarantula .

~BREEDING The male approaches the female cautiously, waving his front legs and the twin palps

(sex organs) that are posi­tioned in front of and below his head. This behavior enables the female to recognize him so that she does not mistake him for prey.

If the female is receptive to his advances, she allows the

Above: Wolf spiders mating. The smaller male fertilizes the female with his palps.

Right: The long-legged British species of wolf spider on its web.

male to climb on top of her. With his head facing her hind part, he inserts each palp alternately into her genital opening.

During mating the female often continues to move around and catch prey with the male on her back.

Right: A female carries her newly hatched young on her back.

NDowner/Planet Earth Pictures

~ MATERNAL CARE After mating, the female spider finds a safe spot and spins a silken pad. She de­posits her eggs on it and en­cases them in a spherical sac made of silk. She then attach­es the sac to her silk-produc­ing organ, called a spinneret,

where it remains for the two to three weeks until the eggs hatch. Throughout this period

~ FOOD &: HUNTING The wolf spider lies in wait for small insects and other spiders and pounces on its prey when it comes within reach. Holding its victim in its strong legs and grasping it between powerful jaws (chelicerae), the spider crushes the animal and feeds on its juices.

NATUREWATCH Wolf spiders are most active in the spring and summer and are easily seen at these times of the year. They like warmth and can be fou nd on logs and stones in direct sun .

Wolf spiders can also be observed during mating. The male is smaller than the fe-

(gr:~~t;..~~~~~1 if I

-....:~~ ...... ~..:...a.......J z

the female defends her eggs fiercely.

The female senses when the eggs are ready to hatch and tears open the tough covering of the sac to release them.

The tiny spiders spend their first few days on the mother's back, and she carries them everywhere. They do not feed during this time.

Wolf spiders generally hunt in the daytime. At night they stay hidden in shallow bur­rows, where they are safe from predators. Some species spin silk to line their burrows, but unlike web-spinning (orb)

spiders, the wolf spider does not use its silk to trap prey.

male and waves his front legs to attract her. Female spiders can be seen carrying their conspicuous white egg sacs on the end of their abdo­mens. The eggs hatch quickly in warm weather, and young spiders can be seen clinging to their mother's back.

MOSQUITO

ORDER Diptera

FAMILY Culicidae

The mosquito is known all over the world for its bloodsucking bite. But it is only the female that feeds on blood-the male drinks

plant juices and is quite harmless.

CHARACTERI STICS Length: 1/3 in. Coloration: Sometimes banded on

legs and abdomen. Mouthparts: Clustered needles for piercing and extracting fluids.

L1FECYCLE Eggs: 30-300. Lifespan: Male, a few days. Female of many species find shelter over

winter, laying eggs in spring. Trop­ical species breed during rainy sea­son or all year if water is present.

LIFESTYLE Habit: Solitary, but large numbers may collect over swamps and pools. Diet: Female, blood . Male, plant

juices and fruit nectar.

RELATED SPECIES 3,000 speciesworldwide, including several hundred in North America. Main malaria carrier is the African

Anopheles gambiae.

Range of the mosquito.

DISTRIBUTION Mosquitoes are found worldwide. Because they thrive on

warmth and humidity, the greatest number of species are in the tropics. Fewer species are found in the desert.

CONSERVATION Throughout history people have tried to get rid of the mosquito. Although this effort continues, there is no sign

of it succeeding.

lIFECYCLE OF THE COMMON MOSQUITO

1. Eggs: Laid in standing or slow­moving water. Float like a raft on water surface.

4. Adult: Female (shown) has less feathery anten-nae than the male. Her wings also beat at a slower rate. Their lower frequency helps the male to identify her by sound for breeding purposes. She alone feeds on human or animal blood, which provides her eggs with important nutrients.

2. Larva: Breathes through tube at tail that clings to water surface. Feeds on microorganisms.

3. Pupa: Does not feed

but remains active. Hatches into adult

HOW THE

MOSQUITO BITES

Mouthparts: The female has four needlelike mouthparts. These surround a long, grooved mouth­part closed by a cover that con­verts it to a bloodsucking tube. A fleshy sheath draws back as the point enters flesh .

after about four days. L-__________ --'

© MCMXCI IMP BV/IMP INC WILDLIFE FACT FILpM PRINTED IN U.S.A. 0160200341 PACKET 34

The mosquito is probably one of the most

unpopular creatures in the world. For centuries

people have swatted at or poisoned it, but it

continues to flourish, feasting on the blood

of humans and animals. With global warming,

some species that are disease carriers

may even spread.

~ HABITS The mosquito is a small, two­winged fly, a slender relative of the house fly and blow fly. It has four wings arranged in two pairs and, like most flies, uses its short, club-shaped hind wings for balance. Known as halteres, these wings vibrate with the front wings and sense changes in direction, helping the mos­quito to fly in a straight line.

Flies cannot eat solid food . They can take in only liquids. They suck the liquids up through their needlelike mouthparts, which function like mops or drinking straws.

The majority of blood­sucking mosquitoes attack only certain types of animals.

In North America the most common mosquito is Culex pipiens, the "house mosquito." Most human mosquito bites in North America are the work of this species. It is common in northern Europe, but there another species does most of the biting.

Below: The male has feathery antennae and eats fruit nectar, unlike the female.

~ FOOD & FEEDING The male mosquito drinks nectar. Only the female drinks blood, which provides nourishment for her eggs. She usually seeks out a victim just before laying, although she can lay her eggs without feeding on blood.

The female uses subtle means to detect a victim. An

Left: In flight the female detects prey using such clues as increases in air temperature.

DID YOU KNOW? • Roughly half the world's population is at risk from the diseases carried by some mosquito species. • The female's wings beat 500 times per second. The male's vibrate even faster and whine at a higher pitch . When a male emerges from

increase in the air's carbon dioxide level alerts her to the presence of a human or other mammal. Flying upwind, she finds her target by sensing increasing temperature and moisture until she touches down. Bare skin is an obvious target, but clothing will not always deter her.

Right: Only the female feeds on blood, which nourishes the eggs she will soon lay.

the pupa, his wings beat at the same rate as a female's, confusing other males . • Mosquitoes lay eggs in unlikely places such as birdbaths. Most die if a pool dries up, but the eggs of some desert species survive years of drought.

~ MOSQUITO & MAN Some species of mosquito carry serious, even fatal diseases such as malaria, yellow fever, and elephan­tiasis. Malaria is carried by mosquitoes of the genus Anopheles, widespread in the tropics. Attempts to control the mosquitoes by draining their breeding swamps and

~ LlFECYClE Like all flies, the mosquito has a four-stage lifecycle-egg, larva, pupa, and adult.

The female lays her eggs in standing or slow-moving water. The floating eggs rapidly hatch into legless aquatic larvae, which feed on microorganisms.

The larva breathes air through a short tube at its tail. The tail is fringed with unwettable hairs that cling to the water surface. The larva hangs upside down from the surface by this tail. If dis­turbed, it flicks the tail to

Left: When it emerges from the pupal state, the adult mosquito is ready to mate.

using insecticides have often proved ineffective.

In the north malaria­carrying mosquitoes are rarely seen, and northern species such as Culex pipiens do not spread the disease. But as global warming takes place, disease-carrying mos­quitoes may move north.

break contact and wriggles into the water, floating up tail first when the coast is clear.

When fully fed, the larva sheds its skin and emerges as a pupa-the stage when it develops adult characteristics. Resembling a large-headed larva, the pupa is active but does not feed. Within a few days, its skin splits open and the adult mosquito comes out. Almost immediately it flies off in search of a mate.

The feathery antennae of the male are sensitive to the whine of a female's wings. Attracted by this, he mates and soon dies, leaving the female to lay her eggs.

EMPEROR MOTH

CLASS Insecta

ORDER Lepidoptera

,",CARD 19

GROUP 5: INSECTS & SPIDERS FAMILY Saturniidae

GENUS &: SPECIES Saturnia pavonia

The emperor moth is one of the largest and most distinctive of Europe's moths. The male is highly conspicuous as it flies by

day, darting swiftly over high forests and open moors.

KEY FACTS

CHARACTERISTICS Wings: 2 pairs. Wingspan: 2-3 in . Female is larger

than the male. Coloration: Female, gray; male,

orange-brown. Mouthparts: None in adult. 1 pair of chewing mouthparts in larva.

lIFECYCLE Eggs: Laid in small clusters. Egg to pupa: 4 to 6 weeks. Pupa to hat ching: Up to 3 years.

LIFESTYLE Habit: Male, day-flying; female,

night-flying.

Range of the emperor moth.

DISTRIBUTION Diet: Larva eats leaves of many plants. Adult does not feed . lifespan: 3 to 4 weeks as adult; 3 years or more total.

Widespread throughout Europe and Asia to the Far East.

CONSERVATION

RELATED SPECIES The giant peacock moth, Saturnia

pyri.

At home in a wide range of habitats and able to exploit a variety of different food plants, it is less vulnerable than many species to environmental changes, and therefore is common throughout much of its range.

lIFECYClE OF THE EMPEROR MOTH 5. Adult female: Larger than male. Mostly night­flying .

6. Adu lt male:

©MCMXCI IMP BV/ IMP INC WILDLIFE FACT FILpM

4. Pupa: Violet­brown , encased in a cocoon that the caterpillar spins in sum­mer. Adult forms inside and may not emerge for two or more years.

3. Caterpillar: Sheds skin in four stages. it develops it becomes bright green with orange or yellow hairy bumps.

PRINTED IN U.S.A.

1. Eggs: Laid by the female in clus­ters of about 20 around the stem of a food plant.

2. Hatching: Cater­pillars emerge at night and feed on food plant.

0160200221 PACKET 22

The emperor moth is recognizable by its four

large eye spots. It uses these spots to confuse or frighten

an attacker. The eyes on its forewings are

prominent, while those on its hind wings

can be 'flashed' for extra effect.

~ HABITS The emperor moth is found throughout Europe and Asia. It has adapted to a wide variety of habitats from high-altitude forests to lowland heaths.

The male and female differ in

~ NATUREWATCH The emperor moth is seen throughout its range from April to June. The brightly colored male is easier to spot as it zigzags over open ground. The eye spots on its wings also make the emperor easy to distinguish from other moths.

size, color, and behavior. The larger female flies weakly and only at night, hiding by day among foliage. The orange­hued male is active by day and flies powerfully.

Caterpillars are found from May to July feeding on heather, blackthorn, and other food plants. Black and orange when small, chang­ing to green with black markings when fully grown, the caterpillars are covered with hairy bumps.

~ LlFECYCLE The emperor moth is on the wing from late April until ear­ly June. The male seeks out a mate, using his long, feathery antennae to detect phero­mones-a scent given off by an unmated female.

Shortly after mating, the female emperor moth search­es for a plant on which to leave her eggs. The tiny, black eggs are laid at night in batches of about 20.

The larvae (caterpillars) hatch within a few days and at once begin eating huge quantities of their food plant.

DID YOU KNOW? • Brightly marked and day­flying, the emperor moth is more like a butterfly than a typical moth, highlighting the fact that there is no def­inite distinction between butterflies and moths at all. • The male has such a pow­erful sense of smell that it can sense a female over a mile away. • The larva of the emperor moth hatches out black and orange, but it changes to a bright green color as it grows and molts. • The emperor moth in­creases its weight nearly 3,000 times as it develops from an egg to a pupa.

Those caterpillars that survive develop in four stages called instars, shedding their skin as they grow through each instar. When fully developed, they spin a fibrous cocoon of brown silk. Inside the cocoon, the caterpillar molts (sheds its skin) and is transformed into a violet-brown pupa (its final stage of development before becoming an adult moth).

Within the pupa a transfor­mation takes place. All the caterpillar's internal organs dissolve until the pupa con­tains only fluid. Then, cell by

left: The male uses his antennae to detect scent pheromones released by a female.

Right: Adults mate on a stem in late spring.

~ FOOD &: FEEDING The emperor moth lays its eggs on food plants. In low­land areas, blackthorn, bram­ble, and meadowsweet are the most common food plants. In the hills the adult chooses heather, willow, and birch.

The larva has powerful, toothed jaws to cut and chew the leaves of its food plant. As the emperor moth larva

left: The male has orange hind wings and flies by day.

Right: The wing spots are con­spicuous in flight.

cell, the adult moth grows. The' process can take a whole winter, and occasionally two or more years, before the adult emerges.

As the pupa casing splits, the adult emerges and then hauls itself onto a stem to

grows, it feeds more each day, finally becoming as thick as a finger. It must store re­serves to complete the change into an adult and to supply the adult moth with enough energy to stay alive long enough to mate. Unlike many moths and butterflies, the emperor moth never feeds.

pump blood into its crum­pled wings. Its wings must dry and stiffen before it can fly. The adult moth lives for only a few weeks. The entire developmental process from egg to adult is called meta­morphosis.

"" CARD 20 I ~OMMON BLUE BUTT~~~~ ~INSECTS Eo SPIDERS\'~

CLASS ORDER FAMILY GENUS & SPECIES ~

Insecta Lepidoptera Lycaenidae Polyommatus icarus

The brilliant color of the blue butterfly makes it easy to spot. Still, identifying females may be difficult since only the males

display the bright blue wing color.

KEY FACTS

CHARACTERISTICS

Wings: 2 pairs, overlapping. Wingspan: Up to 1 in. Coloration & form: Males are metallic blue. Females are brown.

Mouthparts: Caterpillars, 1 pair biting jaws. Butterflies, sucking

mouthpart called a proboscis rolled up under head when not in use.

LlFECYCLE Eggs: Laid singly on leaves.

Egg to chrysalis: 6 months in first generation each year. 6 weeks in second generation.

Chrysalis to pupation: 2 weeks.

LIFESTYLE

Diet: Caterpillars, leaves of plants. Butterflies, wildflower nectar. Lifespan: 3 weeks as butterfly.

RELATED SPECIES

Hairstreak and copper butterflies.

Range of the common blue butterfly.

DISTRtBUTION Widespread throughout Great Britain. Blue butterfly species are found in North America, Europe, and North Africa .

CONSERVATION Intensive agriculture has demolished many former blue butterfly habitats, leading to the extinction of the large blue butterfly. The smaller adonis butterfly is similarly threatened

because of the loss of its food plants in many areas.

lIFECYCLE OF THE COMMON BLUE BUTTERFLY

Eggs are laid [ singly on the leaves of a pea plant. ~" "'.1o.'1'l'r'·

Caterpillars feed on plants; some hibernate through winter,

Chrysalises form out of sight of predators.

Butterflies hatch from chrysalises. Males are blue; females are brown or blue with brown markings. Both Silxes have wings that are spotted on the under­sides.

©MCMXCI IMP BV/IMP INC WILDLIFE FACT FILETM PRINTED IN U.S.A. 0160200111 PACKET 11

The common blue butterfly is a member

of a large family of butterflies. Both it

and its other blue relatives are small and

extremely fast in flight. However, two of the

blue species, and most female

blue butterflies, are brown.

~ SPECIAL ADAPTATION The caterpillars of some spe­cies of blue butterfly are fed on by ants. The ants feed on the sugary secretions, called honeydew, that the caterpil­lars .produce.

DID YOU KNOW? • The wings of blue butter­flies do not contain a blue pigment. The metallic blue coloration of the male is actually the reflection of light from the thousands of tiny scales that cover the butter­fly's wing surface.

• Male common blue but-

Since the caterpillars provide food for the ant colony, the ants defend them from pred­ators. They sometimes even move the caterpillars to more convenient feeding places.

terflies gather in groups to search for liquids found in fresh dung and urine and in puddles along river banks. This activity is known as mud­puddling, and its purpose is to increase the males' intake of minerals from which they make their sex hormones.

~HABITAT The small, fast-flying common blue butterfly is fairly wide­spread throughout Great Britain. It can be found along with the adonis, chalkhill, and silver-studded blue butterflies.

Another related species, the small blue butterfly, is also found throughout Great Britain and is Europe's smallest butter­fly. Still, its numbers are far fewer than those of the common blue butterfly.

Left: The female blue butterfly has distinct orange markings around the edges of its wings.

~BREEDING The common blue butterfly produces two generations of offspring each year. Adult butterflies hatch from the cocoon, or chrysalis, in the first week of June. They then mate, after which the female.s lay eggs singly on the upper side of food plant leaves.

~ FOOD & FEEDING

The common blue butterfly is found in great numbers in England because its food grows in most areas of the country. These include vetch, clover, trefoil, and other members of the pea family.

Most blue butterflies feed on these plants, but some species are more selective. The silver-studded blue but­terfly prefers gorse, broom, and heather. Adult blue but­terflies eat the sugary nectar of wildflowers such as mar­joram and thistle.

The eggs hatch after about nine days, and the caterpillars initially feed on the undersides of the leaves. As they grow larger, they shed their skin, revealing the new, soft skin below.

The caterpillars have five growth stages, called ins tars,

Right: Common blue butterflies mate with wings folded upward. The pattern of spots on the under­sides of the wings varies with each butterfly.

Left: An ant feeds on liquid secreted by a caterpillar of the chalkhill blue butterfly.

during which they shed their skin four times (this process is called ecdysis). By the end of July, they change into chrysa­lises on the soil beneath the food plant.

In early August, a second generation of butterflies hatches from the chrysalises.

Left: The male adonis is the brightest and most striking of all the blue butterflies. Still, its numbers are rapidly declin­ing because its food plants are being de­stroyed by farming.

They mate and lay eggs again, but the development of the caterpillars is halted as they hibernate over the win­ter. In the f'Oliowing spring, they continue their develop­ment, forming chrysalises in early May and hatching in early June.