THE ARCTIC TUNDRA AND ITS WILDLIFE

GROUP 10: WORLD HABITATS

The Arctic tundra-the land of the midnight sun-is a vast, frozen. wasteland at the top of the world. Surprisingly,

it supports an abundance of animal and plant life.

.... ...•.

KEY FACTS LAND ANIMALS

Polar bear, wolf, musk ox, Arctic

fox, hare, ground squirrel,

wolverine, weasel, and lemming.

SEA ANIMALS

Walrus, fur and harp seals, and

beluga and other whales.

BIRDS

Raven, ptarmigan, diver, snowy

owl, whistling swan, snow goose,

red or gray phalarope, Sabine's

gull, shore or horned lark, snow

bunting, oldsquaw, sku a and king

eider ducks, and Arctic tern.

PLANTS

Arctic willow, juniper, Lapland

rhododendron, purple saxifrage,

mountain avens, Arctic white

heather, broad-leaved willow herb,

woolly lousewort, moss campion,

Arctic lupine, cotton grass,

mountain sorrel, scurvy grass,

bearberry, and lichen.

• Area of the tundra.

AREA OF THE TUNDRA

From the northern edge of the circumpolar belt of taiga (coniferous forests) to the ice and snow surrounding the

North Pole.

WILDLIFE NOTES

Most animals are year-round residents of the tundra or its icy

waters; caribou and many birds migrate south in the winter.

ARCTIC TUNDRA FOOD CHAINS

Polar bears are at the top of the food chain; they feed on Arctic foxes, skuas, and lemmings.

Arctic foxes prey on lem- (I(

mings; they also -. take the eggs

r---- and young of Arctic sku as.

Arctic skuas are plunderers, stealing fish from other seabirds; they also prey on lemmings.

Lemmings feed on the sparse 'vegetation; they can reproduce several litters each year-of up to nine young each-enabling them to survive heavy losses from predators.

From the air, the Arctic tundra looks lifeless;

in fact, the region abounds with living things.

The tundra is also one of a few relatively

unspoiled wild areas left on earth.

~CLlMATE The tundra stretches from the northern edge of the taiga belt (coniferous forests) to the ice and snow surrounding the North Pole. It is one of the world's smallest climatic zones.

For most of the year, the mean monthly temperature is below freezing. The winters are long and severe, although some areas have only light snow cover. Summers are short, with temperatures just above freezing.

I DID YOU KNOW? • Mild weather can be more dangerous to tundra animals than cold . When snow thaws and refreezes, it locks up veg­etation and prevents animals from feeding .

• The ground squirrel is the tundra's only true hibernator.

At Point Barrow in north­ern Alaska the sun is not visible for two months in midwinter, but it shines non­stop for about two months in midsummer. Icy winds blow constantly.

This harsh climate limits tundra vegetation mainly to lichens. They grow on rocks and permafrost ground, breaking down the surface and creating soil.. This gives other plants and shrubs a meager place to grow.

• A musk ox can live on about one-sixth of the fodder (feed) needed to feed a cow.

• Each year the Arctic tern migrates from the Arctic Circle to the Antarctic and back again : a 21 ,750-mile round trip.

SPECIAL FEATURES OF THE TUNDRA Pingos are domes that develop when shallow tundra ponds or lakes dry up. Permafrost moves in under the bed and forces the soil up.

KEY

1. Pingo 2. Polygons 3. Permafrost 4. Esker

Above: The wolf's white fur provides warmth and camou­flage.

Above right: The Arctic hare's white coat is a mixed blessing: perfect camouflage in winter, conspicuous in summer.

Right: Lemmings tunnel under the snow to find food.

Polygons are geometric ground designs that result from repeated expansion and contraction of tundra soil as it freezes and thaws. A common feature is the frost mound covered by meadow grasses.

Permafrost occurs where subsoil remains frozen all year. If the insulating layer of vege­tation is damaged, permafrost ground is exposed and begins to thaw, seriously upsetting the ecology of the tundra's

Right: Snowy owls nest on the ground.

S) They feed ~ mainly on ~ lemmings. o (') LL

surface. Eskers are low ridges of

sand, silt, gravel, and other glacial debris left behind by extinct rivers. Eskers provide some protective shelter for foxes and wolves.

ANIMALS OF THE GALAPAGOS GROUP 10: WORLD HABITATS

Among the most isolated places on earth, the Galapagos Islands have unique wildlife. Many of the plants and animals that flourish here are found nowhere else in the world.

KEY FACTS

HOW THE WILDLIFE ARRIVED

When the first volcanic islands of the Galapagos erupted from the sea 5 million years ago, they were completely devoid of life. Today they sustain a rich variety of exotic wildlife. So how did the first animal species reach this isolated group of islands?

It is from South America that the ancestors of today's species first came. Land birds were most likely carried out to the islands by storm winds. Other wildlife came by way of vegetation that drifted down the rivers of western South America into the sea. It is be­lieved that insects, reptiles, and plant seeds reached the islands in this manner.

UPSETTING THE BALANCE

The isolation of the Galapa­gos Islands is what makes them unique, since it has lead to the evolution of species distinctly different from their more common relatives.

However, animals brought

More recently, sailors have introduced animals such as cats, rats, pigs, and goats, as well as new plants.

to the islands by man have disrupted the fragile ecosys­tem. Goats and rats compete for food with the native animal population. Some domestic animals carry diseases and prey on the

Like its relative the fur sea" the California sea lion has settled in the Galapagos, where it mates on rocky shores. Outside the breed­ing season, some migrate.

islands' wildlife. New plants introduced by man compete for space as well, often over­growing the rarer native species.

Increased tourism is a new threat to island wildlife.

Many parts of the islands have been designated national parks, and visitors must observe strict rules if they wish to see such exotic species as these blue-footed boobies.

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The Galapagos are a rugged group

of volcanic islands straddling the equator in the

Pacific Ocean. Belonging to Ecuador, they lie, isolated,

in vast open waters about 600 miles off the

west coast of South America.

~ ORIGINS & FEATURES

The sixteen Galapagos Is­lands have a total land area of about 3,000 square miles and span an area of some 23,000 square miles of ocean. All the islands were formed by volcanic activity and some are 5 million years old.

One of the most unique features of the Galapagos Islands is their location within the body of cold ocean water

carried by the Humboldt current, which travels up to the equatorial region from the Antarctic.

The climate varies greatly among the islands. The southerly islands are arid, and prickly pear cactus is the predominant vegetation. The more northerly islands have fertile slopes and plant life there is thick and green.

Left: Galapa­gos is home to the only flight­less cormorant in the world. Flightless birds have evolved in many isolated islands over the centuries. The absence of predators meant there was no need to make a quick escape.

Left: The awe­inspiring Galapagos are home to many unique species of wildlife.

Right: The lunar-like landscape of one of the islands.

Right: The strange, primeval sight of marine iguanas soaking up the sun on harsh coastal lava before entering the cold water.

~ FIRST SETTLERS

Ocean-going birds, such as the frigate bird, together with greater flamingos and short­eared owls, were the first species to reach the islands. They found a range of habitats almost free of both competi­tors and predators. New species eventually developed from the original animals that settled there, adapting over time to the various habitats.

~ DARWIN'S FINCHES

The thirteen species of finches found on the Galapagos Is­lands are all descended from a common ancestor. They are called Darwin's finches after the great naturalist, who saw in them evidence for his theory of evolution.

The birds' beaks differ among species according to diet. Heavy bills allow some to eat large seeds; thinner bills suit others for catching insects.

Right: The giant tortoise weighs several hundred pounds and makes a convenient landing pad for the buz­zard. These tortoises were once killed for food, with the result that they have been wiped out on several of the islands.

Above: The distinctive red throat pouch of the male frigate bird. This ocean­going species can soar for hours on its long wings.

Left: Both the medium and large ground finches have strong, sharp bills for crack­ing seeds.

~ GIANT TORTOISES The islands are named for their well-known inhabitant-the giant tortoise. Gal6pago is a Spanish word for tortoise. Today 11 subspecies of giant tortoise remain.

The tortoises on the more arid islands have arched shells, giving their head a wider range of motion. On the more fertile islands they have retained their more common flat arch.

DID YOU KNOW? • It is thought that the giant tortoise arrived on the Galapa­gos Islands from South Amer­ica by drifting on vegetation .

• The Galapagos Islands are the only place in the world where fur seals and penguins are found on the equator. They survive due to the cold Humboldt current.

• Forty percent of all vegeta­tion is endemic, found no­where else in the world .

THE AUSTRALIAN OUTBACK AND ITS WILDLIFE

A vast expanse of bush and arid desert, the Australian outback may be inhospitable to people, but it is home to a huge variety

of extraordinary plant and animal life.

KEY FACTS

PLANTS: Eucalyptus, acacia, desert oak, spinifex, dryandra bottlebrush, ghost gum.

MAMMALS: Mostly marsupi­als; include the western gray kangaroo, red-necked wallaby, black-tailed wallaby, southern potoroo, honey possum, wombat, koala, echidna, duckbill platypus, wallaroo, dingo, banded anteater, mulgara, dunnart.

Above: The honey possum has a long snout to help it gather nectar from flower heads.

FEATURES & CLIMATE

The continent of Australia covers an area of 3,000,000 square miles. Two thirds of the land mass is known as the outback. This huge expanse of brush is composed of a wide variety of Australian desert grasses, such as spini­fex, and plants belonging to the Acacia genus. These plants

REPTILES & AMPHIBIANS: Carpet python, death adder, tiger snake, king brown snake, knob-tailed gecko, pygmy spiny-tailed skink, goanna, moloch, frilled lizard, water-holder frog, golden tree frog, freshwater crocodile, estuarine croco­dile, tortoise.

Above: The thorny devil is a harmless but ferocious-looking Australian lizard.

Below: The frilled lizard expands its frill to scare off predators.

require little water to survive and are thus well adapted to the arid outback conditions.

The outback is dotted with occasional rivers and swamps which widen the variety of animal and plant species in the region. It stretches across most of the country, from the Great Dividing Range in

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BIRDS: Emu, purple-crowned lorikeet, rainbow lorikeet, kookaburra, galah, lesser sulphur-crested cockatoo, New Zealand honeyeater, black swan, tawny frog mouth, Iyrebird, bower bird, rufous bristlebird, chestnut-rumped heathwren, orange-bellied parrot.

Above: The Mangles kangaroo paw has developed a long, thin beak, ideal for collecting nectar.

the east to the coastal rim along the far west.

The average daytime tem­perature in the outback is 86°F, and there is no specific rainy season. The climate is characterized by long periods of drought that are occasion­ally brok~n by violent rain­storms and floods.

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Australia has been an island for the last

45 million years, and its wildlife has been able to

evolve independently of other life forms.

Consequently, many of the animals found

in the outback are unique and cannot be found

anywhere else in the world.

~ MAMMALS Of the 223 mammal species in Australia, over half are marsupials. Marsupials are animals that carry their young in a pouch, usually in the front of the body. With the excep­tion of the opossum in North and South America, they are found only in Australia. The best known marsupials include kangaroos, wallabies, and koalas.

Food is so scarce in the outback that many mammals have special adaptations that make the most of the natural

resources. The honey possum is one such marsupial. It is so dependent on nectar for survival that it has -developed a long, slender, beaklike snout that fits inside flowers. It also has a brush-tipped tongue like those of nectar-eating birds.

The mulgara is a carnivo­rous (meat-eating) marsupial which has adapted to the climate in its environment to the extent that it survives without having to drink water. It obtains necessary water from the bodies of its prey.

~ REPTILES &: AM PHIBIANS A variety of snakes inhabit the outback. Some, like the carpet python, are harmless to man, and others, such as the death adder, tiger snake, and king brown snake are deadly.

There are also many lizards in the outback. They include

Left: The gray kangaroo is one of the best known marsupials from the Australian outback.

Front inset: A knob-tailed gecko is one of many lizards found in central Australia.

Below right: Beautifully

~'tIIIM_ colored, the rainbow lorikeet will breed after the

.~~~~J rains.

Many herbivorous (plant­eating) marsupials can get all the water they need from the leafy vegetation they eat. In fact, the koala's name is the aborigine word for "no water."

The duckbill platypus and the echidna are monotremes; that is, they belong to the lowest order of mammals and lay eggs like reptiles. Yet, they have fur, a stable body tem­perature, and produce milk with which they suckle their young.

geckos, skinks, goannas, and the frilled lizard. The frilled lizard expands the frill around its head in order to scare off predators. The knob-tailed gecko has huge eyes and uses its tongue like a windshield wiper to clean them.

Omi. 63Smi. I I

~ BIRDS Australia's largest and most unusual bird is the emu. With its long legs, short toes, and light body, this flightless bird can reach a speed of 45 miles per hour when in pursuit of prey.

The colorful budgerigar, another native of the outback, has become one of the most popular pet and aviary birds in the world.

Many of the birds in the outback are honeyeaters. As an adaptation, they have devloped long, thin beaks to make feeding easier. To ac­commodate the birds and to make pollination easier, many flower species have adapted by taking on a tubular shape.

One of the most interesting lizards is the moloch, com­monly called a thorny devil. This curious creature is studded with horns and spikes to deter predators. It has adapted to the scarcity of water by surviving on as little

o Area of outback

of it as possible. At night it absorbs dew through its skin, where it passes to the mouth to be drunk.

Frogs have adapted surpris­ingly well to outback condi­tions. They mate only in wet conditions, so that the tad­poles have time to develop enough to survive the next dry season. One species, the water-holding frog, fills its body with water, burrows deep into the mud, and lives underground inside a mucous cocoon until the next rain.

The outback rivers and swamps are home to two different types of crocodile: the small, freshwater variety and the large and dangerous estuarine crocodile of the inland rivers and lagoons.

THE ANDES MOUNTAIN RANGE AND ITS WILDLIFE

The mighty Andes form the longest mountain range in the world, extending almost 4,500 miles along the western coast of South

America from northern Colombia to southern Chile.

KEY FACTS

LANDS OF ICE AND FIRE

The Andes mountains are full of contrasts: the north­ern climate is hot and hu­mid, while winds in the southern ice areas reach 100 miles per hour. The Andes have some of the most treacherous landscapes in the world.

Right: The Andes start in the Colombian cordilleras and end

Right: The rainforests of Ecuador.

Below: Tatio geysers in the desert, Chile.

Right: Frozen beech trees, Patagonia.

Below: The Paine Towers in Chile.

Ecuador, the land of vol­canos, includes Mount San­gay, with its almost constant gush of lava, ash, and steam. Mount Cotopaxi's highest crater is encrusted with glaciers. When Cotopaxi erupted in 1877, molten lava melted the ice and caused

Above: A lone candelabra cactus frames a view of the western Andes desert near Nazca, Peru.

Below: The northern Andes are on the same altitude as West

200 miles of flooding. The fjords and geyser

fields of southern Chile and the glaciers of the Patagonian ice cap give way to the freezing, wind­lashed wastes of Cape Horn and Tierra del Fuego (land of fire).

Africa, but the southern parts of Pacific Atlantic Ocean

the range extend almost to Ant- Ocean arctica.

Arid (low 0 rainfall)

Medium rainfall 0

High rainfall

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The Andes' forbidding peaks tower over

a wide range of habitats. Rain falls in some places

at a rate of 16 feet per year, giving rise to steaming

rainforests. Elsewhere in high, semidesert plains,

mammals rely on extra-large lungs to survive

the thin mountain air.

~ DESOLATE PLAINS High, arid steppes range from Chile, Argentina, and Bolivia through Peru up to Ecuador. On the southern plateau, called the puna, sand-laden, stinging winds bend the sparse vegetation into strange forms, and nights are bitterly cold.

Lizards, rodents, and birds equipped to retain body heat live among the thin vegetation under harsh conditions.

The Andean condor, the world's largest bird, feeds on carrion. With its huge wing span reaching up to 10 feet, it soars on mountain thermals and glides long distances

Front inset left: A relative of the falcon, the Audubon's caracara feeds on carrion.

Front insert right: The viscacha lives on the dry Andes plains.

Top left: Puya plants, Peru.

Left: The tinamou of Argentina can barely fly.

Right: Vicunas graze in front of EI Misti Volcano, Peru.

~ THE ANDEAN RAINFOREST The temperate forests and tropical rainforests near the equator have the most exotic plant and animal species in South America. The dimly lit steaming rainforest floor smells of decomposing veg­etation. Liana vines grow up tree trunks that also support parasitic fungi, orchids, and air plants. Wildlife live in the jungles' trees over 100 feet above the forest floor.

Cries of animals and bird­song fill the forest. Th~ howl­er monkey's call can be heard as far as three miles away. In southern Chilean forests, the huet-huet bird has a song that sounds like its name. Few bees live in the forest, so the red flowers attract mostly

searching for food. Pumas, antlered deer, and

relatives of the camel-vicuna, llama, alpaca, and guanaco­live on the high steppes. Now protected, the vicuna was

hummingbirds. More than three million

species inhabit the rainforest, including marsupials, frogs, jaguars, parrots, and Chile's rarest mammal, the opossum.

hunted almost to extinction for the soft, fine wool on its hide.

Other animals, like the chinchilla rodent, have also survived large-scale hunting.

Leeches can grow to two feet here. Chile also has a forest of araucarian pine-known as monkey puzzle trees. More than 70 insect species live in the trees.

Left: Howler monkeys swing through the forests at the northern end of the Andes.

Above right: Scarlet cock-of­the-rock in the eastern Andes.

Right: An army of leafcutter ants at work in the jungle.

~ A LIVING DESERT Many cacti live in the Ata­cama desert, including the giant candelabra cactus of Peru. Strangely, in summer, far from any sign of water, thousands of honey-scented Calandrina, malvilla, and yellow ananuca plants bloom briefly.

The desert sand extends to the Pacific shoreline. The tropidurus lizard and oasis hummingbird hunt crusta­ceans and worms from weeds exposed by the receding surf.

Mist created by winds blowing over the cold sea current shrouds the coastal desert. Sparse vegetation grows near heavy mist, but winds suck much of the moisture from the ground and carry it over the peaks to fall on the other side.

DID YOU KNOW? • South American tribes make cigarette holders from the Andean condor's bones; and they eat its eyeballs, believing it will improve their sight. • The solidified front of a lava flow from an Andean volcano can reach 1,600 feet.

• Off Cape Horn, giant kelp seaweed grows to 300 feet in water 150 feet deep. • South America has twice as many bat and rodent species as Africa and more freshwater fish species than any other continent. • The alerce tree in Chile lives for more than 2,000 years. • The Peru-Chile Trench, under the Pacific Ocean off the western South American coast, is, in some areas, as deep as the Andes are high.

THE KALAHARI DESERT AND ITS WILDLIFE

CARDS

GROUP 10: WORLD HABITATS

A seemingly uninhabitable inland basin, parts of which are over 100 million years old, Africa s Kalahari desert supports one of the

richest collections of wildlife in the world.

KEY FACTS

THE KALAHARI'S WILDLIFE

MAMMALS: Elephant, zebra, hippopotamus, wildebeest, lion, springbok, gemsbok, buffalo, baboon, cape fox, African hunting dog, meerkat, spring hare, pygmy mouse, fruit bat, gerbil. BIRDS: Avocet, barn owl,

Egyptian geese, reed cormorant, L-~~~~--=::T-----­fish eagle, egret, flamingo, heron, pygmy goose, kingfisher, ostrich, oxpecker, green pigeon, crowned cranes, stilt, white­headed vulture, sandpiper. REPTILES: Crocodile, Long's reed frog, sand lizard, python, egg-eating snake, striped snake. INSECTS: Ant, ground beetle, mayfly, scorpion, brine shrimp. FISH: Catfish, mouth brooder, African pike, tiger fish.

- Kalahari in Africa b:iJ Desert area Mountain ranges t

HOW SALT PANS ARE FORMED

Salt pans are dry lakes that occur where water evaporation exceeds the rainfall. They are found in various parts of the Kalahari and are the flattest of all land forms.

Salt pans are ever-present

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features of arid and semiarid environments. They are formed over a period of many years through a cycle of rain­fall and subsequent evapora­tion of the water. The miner­als and salts contained in the

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water become more concen­trated the longer the water remains stagnant. However, once the water evaporates, only the minerals and salts remain, forming a hard, cracked surface.

Left: The Kwong salt pan in Gemsbok National Park covers a vast area.

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The Kalahari extends for some 160,000

square miles and is part of South Africa's

tableland. Its vegetation becomes sun-bleached

during the dry season but recovers with astonishing

speed in the rains to provide food for wildlife.

~ FEATURES OF THE DESERT Although it is known as a desert, the Kalahari is more accurately described as semidesert, or thirst/and, since its average rainfall is higher than in true deserts. The Kalahari is a vast plateau, 1,650-5,000 feet above sea

1

level, with a relatively flat surface that has an occasional hill and some rocky outcrops.

In some areas, erosion­resistant termite nests have formed islands. Salt pans occur particularly in the drier southern Kalahari region.

C T Stuart/Natural SCience Photos

~ CLIMATE Unlike the Sahara, Africa's vast desert to the north of the equator, the Kalahari has a wet summer season which sustains a rich variety of wildlife. Only during the wet season is food abundant.

The rainy season lasts from October to March, the south­ern hemisphere's summer.

Throughout the Kalahari, rainfall is erratic. As much as 17 inches falls in the north ana east, and less than half

this amount falls in the southwestern region. The month of April signals the beginning of the dry season. Even the areas that receive the most rainfall are almost com­pletely dry by September.

Temperatures in the Kalahari can soar up to 1160 F in the southern region. As in all deserts, temperatures can drop dramatically at night, and it is not unusual for ground frosts to occur.

~-V-E-G-rr-A-T-IO-N----------------- I DIDmUKNO~ The Kalahari's vegetation varies the south, the trees become scrubby vegetation. In the I • One definition of a desert is from tall savannah woodland more widely spaced and hottest regions, only plants an area that receives less than to scrub areas and grassland. In smaller than the trees found with deep or tuberous roots 10 inches of annual rainfall. the northern region sycamore in the north. Grass grows in are able to survive. , , I • When the Boers crossed the fig, African ebony, and baobab occasional patches. Wildflowers grow through- I Kalahari from the Transvaal trees are numerous. Most of the Kalahari, out the desert in the rainy

As the land becomes drier to however, is covered with season.

~ MIGRATING WILDLIFE The Kalahari's rainy season is a time of marked change in the desert, and signals the great influx of migrating wildlife. Water cascading down from the highlands of Angola floods the Okavango River in the north which in turn overflows

Left: A beautifully marked gemsbok, one of the species of gazelle found in the Kalahari desert.

to form an expansive, marshy delta. The watercourses are rich in fish during the rainy season, and attract birds which feed on the fish. Although many of the lakes and lagoons dry up during the winter drought, those that

Left: A herd of springbok shares the desert with wildebeest.

remain are home to crocodiles and hippopotamuses.

The change in desert conditions brings huge seasonal migrations of buffalo, elephant, springbok, wilde­beest, and zebra in search of fresh grazing pasture.

province in the northeast in 1878, 250 people and 9,000 cattle died due to the extreme climatic conditions. • The Kalahari's mouth brooder fish holds its eggs in its mouth until they hatch. Even after hatching, the

I young still seek the safety of their parent's mouth to .

L escape predators.

Left: The rains produce a variety of vegetation­flowers, fruit, and plants-in the otherwise almost barren ground.

KP-M/Premaphotos Wllalife KP-M/Premaphotos Wildlife

KEY TO SPECIES 1 Elephants 2 Lion 3 Green

pigeons 4 Herd of

Wildebeest

8

5 Egg-eating herds of snake animals.

6 Mayfly 9 Sand lizard 7 White-headed 10 Egyptian

vultures 8 Migrating

WILDLIFE OF THE GREAT BARRIER REEF

Built by tiny marine animals, Australia IS Great Barrier Reef is so large that it is visible from the moon. Within it lives a variety of

life as vast as that found in a tropical rainforest.

LIFE AMONG THE CORAL

COOPERATIVE FISH

Many species of reef fish maintain symbiotic (mu­tually dependent) relation­ships. Groups of small reef fish seek out the larger wrasse and certain shrimps and then feed on their parasites and diseased tissue. The benefit to the small fish is a guaranteed supply of food.

Pairs of alpheid shrimps dig and maintain tunnels that are shared with pairs of gobies. The sharp-sighted gobies flick their tails against the shrimps' antennae to warn them of danger. All four animals then hide in the burrow together.

Right: A blue dams elfish is cleaned by shrimps.

FISH OF THE GREAT BARRIER REEF

Right: The Queensland grouper can grow to a half a ton in weight. Groupers have been known to stalk skin divers. This Queensland grouper can be seen skulking around the edge of a reef, waiting for a meal to swim by.

A wide variety of animals lives on the reef, from very small drifting jellyfish to huge sharks. Sea turtles breed here in greater numbers than anywhere else in the world . Dugongs, marine relatives of elephants-similar to the manatee-are found here, and birds such as the reef heron spear fish here.

The reef contains 400

species of coral, 200 species of cowrie shells, and probably as many as 2,000 species of fish (about a tenth of all known species).

Many animals burrow and bore into the solid reef itself, including sponges, worms, bivalve mollusks, and sea urchins. Snails and sea slugs actually eat the reef.

Other animals eat the living

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coral. Parrot fish bite off small chunks with their sharp, beaklike front teeth and grind the coral to extract polyps.

Starfish turn their stomachs inside out and secrete diges­tive juices onto the polyps. They then eat the partially digested meal. The crown-of­thorns starfish is capable of eating a square yard of coral in a single day.

0160200091 PACKET 9

The Great Barrier Reef is actually a system

of reefs that are parallel to the northeast coast of

Australia. It extends for 1,250 miles,

from Lady Elliott Island, off southern

Queensland, to the Gulf of Papua,

New Guinea.

~ ORIGINS & FEATURES The Great Barrier Reef began growing some 18 million years ago. The present growth phase started 8,000 years ago and is building new layers upon older ones.

The reef occupies an area of about 90,000 square miles; its distance from shore varies from 10 to 125 miles. The main barrier contains over 2,100 individual reefs, and about 540 islands closer inshore have fringing reefs.

The reefs lie close together in the north and the south; in the central section they are generally widely scattered. The northern section provides shelter for mangrove trees to

grow in the many mangrove swamps.

The Great Barrier Reef Lagoon, generally about 325 feet deep, lies over a silt­covered plain and is sheltered between the shore and the reefs. The seaward edge of the reef, or reef slope, is exposed to the full fury of waves and storms and drops sharply thousands of feet to the seabed.

The seaward side has the most active coral growth. It also suffers the greatest losses from the elements. Much dislodged material is eventu­ally cemented back into place to form rock.

~ HOW CORAL REEFS FORM Coral reefs are made up of thousands of tiny anemonelike creatures called polyps. They embed themselves in cups of limestone, which they secrete from their outer skin cells.

Every year the reef expands upward and outward as the polyps reproduce. Each polyp is connected to its neighbors by strands of living tissue, so the reef is "tied" together.

Pink seaweeds called calcare­ous algae are also important reef builders, adding limestone

rock to the structure. Other red algae at the edge produce a substance that cements areas of sediment together.

In time a huge structure is formed that contains only a thin veneer of living coral on the surface of many layers of empty limestone skeletons.

Each species of coral has its own growth pattern that results in a variety of reef shapes, from mounds to structures resembling fans, branches, and antlers.

Above: A coral fish startled by a diver swims for cover.

Left: The deep water gorgo­nian coral has intricate patterns.

Right: Blue damselfish patrol the reef in search of food.

Left: Live polyps of hard coral combine with seaweed to produce limestone, which slowly builds new and variously shaped layers of coral on top of old. This may then be covered with colorful soft corals-polyps without skeletons.

~ COLORS OF THE REEF Much of the coral, which is formed by the skeletons of dead polyps, is white, but live polyps are often brightly col­ored. Such relatives as sea fans and sponges also display hues of red, orange, pink, yellow, purple, and green.

Fish that add to the display are blue and yellow damsel­fish, pink, purple, and yellow wrasses, red and white sea slugs, green brittle-stars, and blue starfishes. These brilliant colors are confusing to predators.

THE AFRICAN SAVANNAH AND ITS WILDLIFE

The African savannah-with more than 40 kinds of browsing or grazing animals-is popular with naturalists. But it is also where

predators and prey constantly battle for survival.

ACTION FILE

MAMMALS

Grant's and Thomson's ga­zelles, wildebeest, impala, anubis and western ba­boons, vervet, chimpanzee, common jackal, African wild dog, striped polecat, ratel, African civet, common ge­net, white-tailed mongoose, spotted hyena, African wild cat, lion, leopard, cheetah, aardvark, African elephant, Grevy's zebra, white rhinoc­eros, warthog, giraffe, giant eland, and buffalo.

INSECTS

There are three groups of insects on the savannah: locusts and grasshoppers, ter­mites, and ants.

Grasshoppers and locusts are a valuable food source for lizards, snakes, and many mammals. Plagues, or sudden increases in the numbers of locusts, are a constant threat. Large swarms can ruin vast areas of vegetation in min­utes.

Termites playa vital role in the life of the savannah. They help to aerate the soil and in­crease water penetration. Some species build hills that may be over 20 feet high.

Other common insects are

VEGETATION

One-third of Africa's land surface (4 million square miles) is made up of savan­nah.

The vegetation of savan­nah lands is well adapted to

Above: Several gecko species live in the savannah. A Bibron 's gecko feeds on a moth.

wasps, bees, and the many ticks that live on the mam­mals of the African savannah.

a climate that alternates be­tween heavy rainfall and months of drought: acacia trees have needlelike leaves to min imize water loss, and baobab trees are able to

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BIRDS

Ostrich, vulture, red-billed horn bill, bustard, secretary bird, hoopoe, golden spar­row, African hawk and fish eagles, and peregrine. Reptiles and amphibians African python, black mamba, Egyptian cobra, puff adder, and skink and gecko species. Insects Dung beetle, African migra­tory locust, grasshopper, ter­mite, moth, fly, bee, wasp, scorpion, and tick species.

Above: Swarms, or plagues, of locusts destroy vast areas of vegetation in the savannah.

store water in their swollen trunks . Grasses, too, have adapted to make the most of what little water is avail­able through their exten­sive root systems.

0160200191 PACKET 19

The African savannah covers about

one-third of Africa's land surface. It ranges

west and east from Senegal and Guinea to the

Indian Ocean, covering the plains of the Sudan

and the high plateaus of the Great Lakes region.

It also spreads across the high and low

veldts, or grasslands, of South Africa.

~ MAMMALS Many of the world's largest predators-and their prey­can be found in the African savannah.

More than 40 kinds of browsing (eating parts of shrubs or trees) or grazing (eating grasses) animals live here, including giraffes, ele-

phants, and many species of antelope. These herbivores (vegetation eaters) each pre­fer specific foods, so there is no competition among them for the available plant life. For example, the gazelle eats low, lush grasses, while the hartebeest prefers the

Dsovonnoh

dry plant stalks that are reject­ed by other animals .

The dominant predator is the lion, followed by the other big cats. Sometimes herbi­vores will browse or graze within sight of a pride (group) of lions, but they are constantly on guard. The grazing animals

Left: Zebras are sociable animals and live in herds of 5 to 20, but they gather by the hundreds during the dry season.

Below left: The lion is the chief predator on the savannah.

Right: Giraffes graze and browse the savannah. Here, Mount Kilimanjaro can be seen in the distance.

~ REPTILES &: ~ AMPHIBIANS

Snakes and lizards are plentiful on the savannah. Geckos, skinks, African pythons, and monitors are the most com­mon lizards. Many snakes are extremely poisonous.

Right: The poisonous black mamba snake lives in southern Africa.

know that the lions could awaken hungry at any moment and attack.

Zebras often graze with the wildebeest, a fa,vorite prey of the carnivorous (meat­eating) lion . When the lion attacks the wildebeest, the zebras are able to run away.

~ BIRDS Birds thrive on the savannah, eating the plentiful insects, reptiles, and small rodents.

The most common birds are the ground-living species: ostrich, bustard, and sand grouse. Scavengers such as the vulture hover nearby. The easiest way to locate a car-

nivorous mammal's kill is to look for the vultures circling overhead, waiting for their chance to finish the meal.

The small, black-faced dioch lives in flocks number­ing in the thousands. It feeds on seed and may ruin local cereal crops.

Left: Vultures feed on the remains ofa wildebeest.

flightless ostrich is only one of the many bird species on the savannah.

THE BLACK FOREST AND ITS WILDLIFE

"'" CARD 8

The Black Forest is famous for its scenic walks, forests, and mountains. The forest contains several types of woodland that

are home to an abundance of wildlife.

TREES AND PLANTS OF THE BLACK FOREST

Thick woodlands of conifers (cone-bearing trees) blanket the Black Forest's mountain slopes. Mature trees form areas of deep shade that are carpeted with mosses and fungi. In summer, the air carries the fragrance of fir, larch, and pine. During winter, the trees turn white with snow, and the ground is crisscrossed with bird and animal tracks.

Alpine plants grow high in the mountain gorges of the Black Forest, protected from high altitude wind and weather conditions by their rocky walls . Many of these gorges have become havens for wildlife . The Wutach Gorge, for example, has more than 1,000 different plants, 100 species of bird, and more than 500 varieties of butterfly, some of which are rare . Yellow gentian, rho-

Top left: In winter, the slopes, trees, and valleys of the Black Forest are blanketed in snow.

dodendron, arnica, and sorrel flower on the upper slopes of the Feldberg; and heather, cranberries, and bilberries grow on lower levels.

On slopes at lower altitudes there are grassy upland mead­ows edged with broom and foxglove, small lakes sur­rounded by mixed woodland of conifer, oak, birch, and beech. The woodlands have

Below: The Black Forest in southwestern Germany covers over 2,000 square miles.

• The Black Forest

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areas of bracken and low­growing shrubs like juniper and holly. Ferns, dwarf pines, and mountain a'sh

grow on some hillsides. Boggy areas are thick with reeds, bulrushes, and water lilies. Clear trout streams,

edged with willows and silver birch, run to isolated farms set in broad, grassy valleys.

Above: In spring, valley land­scapes are transformed into lush pastures.

G~rmany

0160200191 PACKET 19

The Black Forest's name comes from

its many dark, tree-covered summits.

This mountainous area-covering more than 2,000

square miles-partially bordered by the

Rhine River, has a mixture of forests, meadows,

and valleys. Its rolling hills support

vineyards, farms, and dairies.

~ ORIGINS &: FEATURES The contours of this part of Europe developed 50 mil-lion years ago. The Alps, and mountains stretching from France through the Vosges and the Black Forest to the Erzgebirges (in Czechoslova­kia), were all folded upwards by geologic pressure.

About 42 million years la­ter, the central section of this mountain range broke free and dropped about 3,000 feet into the earth's crust to form the Rhine plain. Other changes occurred from volcanic erup­tions and the beginning of the

Front cover insets: The wild boar (left) and the long-eared owl (right) are native to the Black Forest.

Ice Age that smoothed the tops of the craggy mountains on either side of the plain to low, rounded summits. Black granite, often covered with a thick layer of red sandstone or limestone, forms the under­lying surface.

The west boundary of the Black Forest is steep with nar­row valleys, while the eastern side has wider valleys and roI­ling hills. The whole area is di­vided by the Kinzig valley, with northern peaks as high as 3,000 feet; the highest peak in the south, the Feld­berg, rises almost 5,000 feet.

The mountain slopes are covered with forests until 4,000 feet.

Top: The capercai/lie is a game bird found in the Black Forest.

Above: The fieldfare migrates from Scandinavia in winter.

left: Lower slopes provide lush pasture.

~ !l!WIi!!lI !ll!LD!!L~IF!!I!!E~O!!F!,II!!T!!I!IHII!I!E~ ~ BLACK FOREST

Red and roe deer (Copreo/us

copreo/us) are common. Protected areas have been set aside so the animals can be observed without disturbing their natural habitat. In winter, deer come out of the forest to feed on fodder, regularly dumped in cold weather at special sites.

Wild boar and badgers also live in the forest. Foxes are common in the lower woodlands and feed on small rodents like voles, shrews, and mice, and on rabbits, hares, and birds. Pine mar­tens, beech martins, and red squirrels climb up and down the trees hunting for food.

..... BLACK FOREST ~ BIRD LIFE

Many species of bird live both in the Black Forest and along the Rhine River, which borders the forest toward the south and west. Here, the river is wide and slow, and its banks are lined with poplars and reeds, making it an ideal site for bird­watching.

Birds of prey live high in the trees: goshawks and sparrow hawks prey on other birds and on rabbits, hares, squirrels, and small rodents. At night, long­eared owls search for insects, voles, and mice.

Great spotted woodpeckers and their noisy relatives, the black woodpeckers, live among spruce, fir, and pine trees, pick­ing holes in the tree bark as they search for wood ants and beetle larvae. Crossbills eat the seeds of pine cones. Black

grouse and capercaillies are among the game birds of the forest.-

Common in the lower woodlands are the bullfinch, crested and coal tits, and fire-

left: Red squirrels find plentiful food in the dense pine trees.

Above right: A fox search­es for small rodents, such as voles and shrews, in the lower wood­lands.

Below: Red deer live in the protected areas.

Above: Sparrowhawks prey on other birds in the treetops.

crests and goldcrests. In winter, fieldfares (thrushes) are found in forest clearings and along the tree line.

THE ALPS AND THEIR WILDLIFE

The mountains and meadowlands of the European Alps support a wide variety of plant and animal life. Many of the higher-altitude

Alpine plants can also be found at sea level in the Arctic.

KEY FACTS

WILDLIFE OF THE ALPS --------LAND ANIMALS: Ibex, mar­mot, chamois, mountain hare, red deer, snow vole, Alpine shrew. BIRDS: Golden eagle, gos­hawk, kestrel, ptarmigan, black grouse, rock partridge, eagle owl, black woodpecker, wall creeper, snowfinch, nutcracker, Alpine chough . REPTILES & AMPHIBIANS: Fire and Alpine salamanders, Alpine newt, yellow-bellied toad, common toad, com­mon frog, grass snake, adder. BUTTERFLIES: Swallowtail, clouded yellow, mountain

BIRDS OF THE ALPS

ringlet, black-veined white. PLANTS: Edelweiss, king of the Alps, mountain pine, jun­iper, moss campion, dark­stemmed sneezewort, glacier crowfoot, alpine clover, alpenrose, gentian, bell-

~-------- ------------------Some of the bird species in The Alpine chough nests in the Alps have adapted to small colonies far above the specific habitats . The snow- tree line in the narrow spaces finch, for example, breeds between the rocks. In winter among the boulders on the the colonies flock around steep grassy slopes above Alpine villages and feed on 7,500 feet, searching the refuse. rocky ridges for ripening The nutcracker bird collects seeds. seeds and nuts from pine

HOW GLACIERS ARE FORMED

flower, orange lily, orchid. WILDLIFE NOTES: All of the animals are year-round resi­dents. Several bird species are resident year-round, but high­altitude species move to lower altitudes during the winter.

Left: The markings of the swallow­tail butterfly provide pro­tection from its Alpine predators.

cones and stores them in holes dug in the ground. Each year a nutcracker collects more than 100,000 seeds and nuts and buries them in as many as 25,000 different holes. The store of food enables the nut­cracker and its young to survive the harsh winter.

-------------------------------~ 1. Layers of snow accumulate on mountains higher than 10,000 feet, and the extreme weight causes the bottom lay­er to melt and refreeze, even­tually becoming solid ice. 2. As more weight is added, the layer of solid ice sepa­rates from the top layer of snow, forming a glacier. 3. Most glaciers move down the valleys at an average of an inch a day, collecting rocks and soil, called moraines, as they move (4).

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The Alps are 700 miles long and 160 miles wide.

They stretch across seven countries: Austria,

Yugoslavia, Germany, Liechtenstein, Italy,

Switzerland, and France.

~ CLIMATE The Alpine climate varies widely, according to altitude, rock formation, and exposure. Summer days are hot and the evenings cool. Winters are cold, with frequent snowfalls

FEATURES OF THE ALPS

1. Mountains: The Alps are divided into three sections: western, central, and east­ern. Each section is made up of several separate

3. Rivers: Many of Europe's major rivers, including the Rhone and the Rhine, orig i­nate in the Alps. They are fed by water that has melted from

and long periods of below­freezing temperatures. It is generally cooler and wetter on the north side of the Alps and drier and warmer on the southern side.

mountain ranges. Mont Blanc is located in the western Alps just south of Chamonix, France. At 15,781 feet, it is the

the ice and snow. 4 . Meadowland: Meadow­lands are found at the lowest altitudes and are characterized by an abun-

W. Germany

highest peak in the Alps. 2. Glaciers: Glaciers play an important role in the develop­ment of the geological fea­tures of the Alps. They erode

dance of grass and w ildflowers . The plants in this area are a mixture of lowland and mountain species. Most types of orchid are found here .

mountain peaks and carve out valleys by shifting rock debris. They also create lakes and streams as they melt into the valleys.

~ VEGETATION The Alps have a wide variety of plant life that ranges from the lower meadow regions to the higher altitudes.

Coniferous trees such as pine and fir are found at altitudes up to 9,200 feet, and a variety of shrubs grow at altitudes up to 11,500 feet.

The glacier crowfoot and the

Front cover: Two Alpine inhabitants-the clouded yel/ow butterfly and the ibex.

~ CONSERVATION Huge areas of Alpine forest are bulldozed each year to make way for ski runs. De­stroying the trees affects the greater stability of the Alps themselves. Trees playa vital role in maintaining the

winter months by feeding on stored seeds and nuts

underground.

dark-stemmed sneezewort are found at the highest altitudes. Both plants are found above the 14,OOO-foot level.

Many Alpine plants are found at 9,200 feet. Many of them are shaped like cushions, such as the king of the Alps and the moss campion. Their shape is a special adaptation that protects them from grazing animals, moisture loss, and wind and frost damage.

landscape. Their roots bind the soil together and prevent erosion. As the trees are felled, avalanches and mudslides be­come increasingly common.

Alpine forests are also being destroyed by chemical emis­sions from the industrialized parts of Europe. The trees lose their leaves and become weak and are therefore unable to withstand disease or gale­force winds. It has been esti­mated that 78 percent of the Bavarian forests in the central Alps have been damaged per­manently.

The destruction of the trees also has a damaging effect on the animals and their habitats.

DID YOU KNOW? • The 14,700-foot Matter­horn has been climbed by more than 120,000 people.

• Petrified remains of plants and animals have been found in the rocks of the Alps. They have given scientists clues to the geological history of the area, which is at least 300 million years old .

MOUNT KILIMANJARO '" CARD 10 AND ITS WILDLIFE .", GROUP 10: WORLD HABITATS "\

Mount Kilimanjaro, rising from the plains of northern Tanzania, was formed by the violent eruption of ancient volcanoes and now

supports a wide variety of wildlife.

KEY FACTS

KILIMANJARO'S W ILDLIFE

ZONE 1: Galagos, genet, tree hyrax, common bulbul, white­browed robin chat, tropical boubou, speckled mousebird, bronze sunbird . ZON E 2: Blue monkey, black and white colobus, olive baboon, leopard, antelope, lion, civet, mongoose, Kili­manjaro bush pig, common

CLIMATE

The climate of Kilimanjaro is determined by its geographic location. It is 200 miles south of the equator and there are no mountain ranges between it and the Indian Ocean. Con­sequently, its lower slopes are subject to hot, humid tropical temperatures, but because of

CONSERVATION

Man is faced with several problems in maintaining the ecolog ical balance and nat­ural beauty of Mount Kili­manjaro. The activities of poachers, farmers, and tourists threaten the native plants and wildlife and can

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Above: The augur buzzard is one of the larger hawks (Zone 3).

Above right: The African civet (Zones 2&3).

Left: Olive baboons live in family groups (Zone 2).

its great height, the upper regions have a colder, drier climate. The lower regions have a greater abundance of vegetation and wildlife, whereas the higher altitudes support little plant life.

The temperature varies, depending on the zone, from

have a devastating effect on the area's beautiful scenic and geographic features.

In 1977, Kilimanjaro Na­tional Park was established to help preserve the area for the enjoyment of present and future generations. It encom-

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and bush duiker, suni, bush buck, silvery-cheeked hornbill, hartlaub's turaco. ZONE 3: Eland, common duiker, buffalo, elephant, klipspringer, mole rat, civet, leopard, alpine or hill chat, lammergeyer, crowned eag le, augur buzzard, and a variety of other bird species. ZONE 4: Raven, spider, ground-dwelling insects. ZONE 5: No resident w ildlife.

86° F to well below freezing, and the summit is covered with a permanent layer of ice. For every 650-foot rise in elevation, the temperature drops approximately 1 ° F.

March to June is the wettest part of the year; the dry sea­son runs June through July.

passes me 300-square-miles above the 8,900-foot level. It includes the moorland and highland zones, Shira plateau, and Kibo and Mawenzi peaks. The Forest Reserve, estab­lished in 1921, protects the forest area below the park.

01 602001 11 PACKET 11

Mount Kilimanjaro has five widely

diverse climatic zones, all within

a relatively small area. It was formed

750,00 years ago by the activity of

three small volcanoes, which today give

the mountain its distinctive shape.

~ FEATURES OF KILIMANJARO

Mount Kilimanjaro was creat­ed by the eruption of three separate volcanoes over 750,000 years ago. Today they form the three peaks.

Front inset: The striking black and white colobus monkey.

~ZONE 1

This area is a continuation of the open grassland that surrounds Mount Kilimanjaro and is fairly well cultivated and grazed. Man has turned what was once scrub, bush,

~ ZONE2 This is an area of beautiful tropical forest that encircles Mount Kilimanjaro and has the richest concentration of

Kibo is the mountain's summit at 1 9,340 feet.

The other two peaks are called Mawenzi (16,880 feet) and Shira (13,000 feet).

There are also five distinct climatic zones.

and lowland forest into grass­land and cultivated crop fields. In the cultivated area, large animals are rarely found, but plenty of small animals cohabit peacefully with man.

plant and animal life. An ideal environment for a variety of wildlife, 96 percent of Kiliman­jaro's water originates here.

Left: A blue monkey feeds in the forest canopy (Zone 2).

Above: Fruit trees provide food for the silvery-cheeked hornbill (Zone 2).

Lake UGANDA Victoria

RWANDA

BURUNDI Kilimanjaro

TANZANIA

KENYA

Indian Ocean

AFRICA

o mi. 125 mi. .250 mi.

~ ZONE 3 This area is a low alpine zone and is characterized by wet scrubland. It is a cool region and is easily recognized by the giant daisylike plants, senecios, and the lobelias that grow here. Because of the sparse vegetation and high altitude, few large animals are found here. There is, however, an abundance of smaller animals, especially birds.

Right top: A lammergeier surveys the landscape (Zone 3).

Bottom: A klipspringer in its rocky habitat (Zone 3).

~ ZONE 4

The climate of this high alpine zone is extremely severe. It receives strong sunlight and little rain. The ground is dry and barren, and the soil is so thin that, if it does rain, it is washed away. The variation in tempera­ture is extreme as well, ranging from 105° F during the day to 32° F at night.

Very little wildlife is able to survive in this harsh climate. Insects and spiders are the only resident wildlife, and they use the sparse vegetation as cover from the strong winds. Large birds of prey will feed in the area but do not remain for any length of time.

The highest area of Mount Kilimanjaro is the summit zone. Its climate is character­ized by arctic conditions, being freezing cold at night and sub­ject to the sun's burning rays during the day. The oxygen level is half that found at sea level, and any rain that falls turns immediately to snow. The extreme conditions make the area inhospitable to an­imals, although a few plant species manage to survive.

20,000 ft

SUMMIT ZONE 5

16,500 ft.

HIGH ALPINE ZONE 4

13,000 ft.

LOW ALPINE ZONE 3

10,000 ft.

TROPICAL FOREST ZONE 2

1,250 ft.

OPEN GRASSLAND

ZONE 1