,-

\....;:::

WIRE ROPEUSERS MANUAL

COMMITTEE OF WIRE ROPE PRODUCERSAmerican Iron and Steel Institute

$2.50

This publication is a joint effort of the .COMMITTEE OF WIRE ROPE PRODUCERS/American Iron and Steel Institute

and theWIRE ROPE TECHNICAL BOARD

The Wire Rope Technical Board (WRTB) is an association of engineersrepresenting companies that account for more than 90 percent of wire ropeproduced in the United States; it has the following objectives:• To promote development of engineering and scientific knowledge relating to

wire rope;• To assist in establishing technological standards for military, governmental and

industrial use;• To promote development, acceptance and implementation of safety standards;• To help extend the uses of wire rope by disseminating technical and engineering

information to equipment manufacturers; and ""• To conduct and/,or underwrite research for the benefit of both industry and

user.

Data, specifications, architectural/engineering information and drawings presentep inthis publication have been delineated in accordance with recognized professionalprinciples and practices, and are for general information only. Suggested proceduresand products should not, therefore, be used without first securing competent advice withrespect to their suitability for any given application.

The publication of the material contained herein is not intended' as a warranty on thepart of American Iron and Steel Institute-or that of any person named herein-thatthese data are suitable for any general or particular use, or of freedom from infringementof any patent or patents. Any use of these data or suggested practices can only bemade with the understanding that American Iron and Steel Institute makes no warrantyof any kind respecting such use and the user assumes all liability arising therefrom.

COMMITTEE OF WIRE ROPE PRODUCERSAmerican Iron and Steel Institute1000 16th Sfreet,N.W.Wasl1!ngt9n, D.C. 20036

Copyright © 1979 by American Iron'and Steel InstituteAll rights reservedPrinted in U.S.A.

Permission to reproduce or quote any portion of this book as editorialreference is hereby granted. When making such reproductions or quotations,the courtesy of crediting this publication and American Iron and SteelInstitute will be appreciated.

J

1.2.3.4.

5.

. 6.

APPENDIX AAPPENDIXBAPPENDIX CAPPENDIXDAPPENDIXEAPPENDIX F

CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION / 5BASIC COMPONENTS / 7WIRE ROPEIDENTIFICATION AND CONSTRUCTION / 9HA'NDLINGWIREROPE /17Receiving, Inspection and Storage /17

Wire Rope Installation / 18Unreeling & Uncoiling / 19Seizing Wire Rope / 22Cutting Wire Rope / 24End Attachments / 25Efficiency ofEnd Attachments /25Socketing/ 28Wire Rope Clips / 29How to Apply Clips / 29Wedge Sockets / 33Drums-Grooved / 34Drums-Plain (Smooth) / 35Drums-Multiple Layers / 36OPERAnON AND MAINTENANCE OF WIRE ROPE / 37Sheaves & Drums / 37Bending Rope Over Sheaves & Drums / 39Inspection of Sheaves and Drums / 42The "X-Chart"-Abrasion Resistance vs. Bending-Fatigue Resistance / 44Breaking in aNew Wire Rope /·45Wire Rope and Operations Inspection / 45Strength Loss of Rope Over Sheaves or Stationary Pins / 47Fleet Angle / 48Factors Affecting the Selection of Wire Rope / 49Guideline to Inspections and Reports / 52Field Lubrication / 68Wire Rope Efficiency Over Sheaves. /70·PHYSICAL PROPERTIES /73.Elastic Properties of Wire Rope / 73Design Factors / 76Breaking Strengths / 77 _O"rdering Storing and Unreeling Wire Rope / 97A Glossary of Wire Rope Terms /99Wire Rope Fittings / 109Socketing / 120

. Shipping Reel Capacity / 125Weights of Materials / 126

CONTENTS IN ALPHABETICAL ORDER /128

3

·r.

AcknowledgementsTabular data and accompanying reference drawings for wire rope clips wereprovided by The Crosby Group. All other illustrations used throughout were

.furnished by member companies of the Committee of Wire Rope Producers(AISI). Drawings were prepared especially for this publication and are basedwholly or in part on graphic material that originally appeared in literature issuedseparately by various member companies of the Committee.

Numericaland factual data, not otherwise credited, were obtained frompublished and unpublished sources supplied by the Committee (AIS!) and by theWire Rope Technical Board (WRTB).

4

". ' ... ~_.,

1 Introduction

ma-chine: an assemblage of parts . .. that transmit forces, motion, and energy oneto another in some predetermined manner and to some desired end . ..

-Webster's Third New International Dictionary

In and of itself, wire rope is a machine. The geometry--{)r configuration--{)f itscross-section and the method and material of its manufacture are preciselydesigned to perform "in some predetermined manner and to some desired end."Hence, as befits any useful machine, it is imperative that the rope's potential usebe fully recognized, that its functional characteristics be understood, and thatprocedures for proper maintenance be scrupulously adhered to. By giving activerecognition to these generally accepted concerns, the user can be reasonablycertain that maximum service life and safety will be realized for every ropeinstallation or application.

Full recognition of the inherent use-potential for wire rope derives from arealization of the great number and wide variety of ropes available for general andspecial operating needs. Every particular style in all sizes, constructions, grades,and cores is designed to meet some special set of functional requirements.Fabricated to close tolerances, wire rope is inspected at all significantmanufacturing intervals to assure the user of a uniformly high quality product.

Athoroughunderstandingof wire rope characteristics is, of course,a primaryessential. This involves intimate familiarity witlioperating conditions, loadfactors, rope grades, and constructions.

Immediately after manufacture, wire rope care becomes an overriding,necessity. At no point can aproper regard forcare and maintenance be neglected;it must be exercised in handling, shipping, storage, and in installation. Then,after the rope is put into operation, approved maintenance practices and rigorousinspection (qf both the rope and its associated equipment) must be carried outon a continuous basis. Only by strict adherence to these procedures can the ropeoperate with safety and effiCiency throughout its entire life span.

Prepared for the long-time user as well as those unfamiliar with the productor its technology, this publication represents a joint effort by the wire ropeindustry. Those who already have a working knowledge of wire ropes will findin these pages a comprehensive and convenient source of reference data on suchareas as properties and characteristics, handling, storage, operation andmaintenance-in short, a handy checklist.

As for the not-too-well informed or new user, this publication can serveas a broad-ranging introduction. For these readers, the information provided canhelp establish sound practices; practices of selection and application that are atonce safe, efficient and economic.

As a cooperative industry effort, this manual brings together a significantportion of the enormous collection of data now scattered about in the filesand publications of many individual companies. The text offers manyrecommendations, both explicit and implied. but these have been made solelyfor the purpose of providing some initial judgment point from which ultimatedecisions as to design and use may be made. The reader is urged to consult withthe wire rope manufacturer as to the specific application planned. Themanufacturer's experience can then help the user make the most appropriate

5

Ii.

choice.' In the filial analysis, responsibility for design and use decisions rest withthe user. .

The selection of equipment or components is frequently influenced by thespecial demands of an industry. An equipment manufacturer may, for reasons ofspace, econom.y, etc., feeic0111pelled to depart from suggested proceduresgiven in these pages. It is important to remember that such variations fromrecommended practices should be regarded as potential dangers. However, whensuch circumstances are unavoidable they demand compensating efforts on thepart of the user. These "extras" should include (but not necessarily be limited to)more frequent and more thorough inspections by skilled, specifically trainedpersonnel. Additionally, these circumstances may demand the keeping of speciallubrication and mainteriaricerecords, and the issuance of special warningsregarding removal and replacement criteria.

\.

2 Basic Components

(STRAND

!;.;,.

Figure 1. The three basic components of atypical wire rope.

Wire rope consists of three essential components. These, while fewin number',vary in both complexity and configuration so as to produce ropes for specificpurposes or char~cteristics.Basically, these three components of a standard wirerope design are: 1) wires that form the strand, 2) a core, and 3) the multi-wirestrands laid helically around the core (Fig. 1).

Wire, for rope, is made in several materials and types; these include steel,iron, stainless steel, monel, and bronze. By far, the most widely used materialis high-carbon steel. This is available in a variety of grades each of which hasproperties related to the basic curve for steel rope wire. (Wire rope manufacturersselect the wire type that is most appropriate for requirements of the finishedproduct.)

"iron"type wire is actuaEy :i j,jh'-carbon steel and has fairly limited useexcept for older elevator installations. However, when iron is used for other thanelevator application, it is most frequently galvanized.Steel wire strengths are appropriate to the particular grade of the wire rope inwhich they are used. These grades of wire rope are traction steel, mild plow steel,plow steel, improved plow steel, and extra improved plow steel. (While steel gradenames originated at the earliest stages of wire rope devt"lorment, they ~";1Ve beenretained and serve as indicators of the strength of a particular size and grade ofrope). The strength of plow steel forms the basis for calculating the strength of allsteel rope wires, and the tensile strength of any grade is not constant, but varieswith the diameter-being highest for the smallest wires.

The most common finish for steel wire is "bright" or uncoated. Steel wiresmay also be galvanized (zinc coated). "Drawn galvanized" wire has the samestrength as bright wire, but wire "galvanized at finished size" is usually 10%lower in strength. In some special applications, tinned wire is used. but it shouldbe noted that tin provides no sacrificial (cathodic) protection for the steelas does zinc.

Listed in order of frequency of use, stainless steel ropes are made of AISITypes 302/304, 316, and 305. Contrary to general belief, hard-drawn stainlessType 302/304 is magnetic. Type 316 is less magnetic and Type 305 has apermeability low enough to qualify as non-magnetic.

Monel Metal wire is usually Type 400 and conforms to FederalSpecification QQ-N-281.

Bronze wire is usually Type A Phosphor Bronze (CDA#510) althoughother bronzes are sometimes specified.

The core is the intrinsic foundation of wire rope; and is made of materialsthat will provide proper support for the strands under normal bending andloading conditions. Core materials include fibers (hard vegetable or synthetic) orsteel. The steel core consists either of stranded wires or of another independentwire rope. The three most commonly used core designations are: fiber core(FC), independent wire rope core (lWRC). and strand core (WSC) (Fig. 2).Catalog descriptions of the various available ropes include these abbreviationsto identify the type of core.

Strands are made up of two or more wires, laid in one of many specificgeometric arrangements. or in a combination of steel wires with some othermaterials such as natural or synthetic fibers. Although it is conceivable that a

7

strand can be made up of any number of wires, or that a rope can have any numberof strands, in the United States the majority of wire ropes are designed with sixstrands. Major U.S. strand classifications are 7-, 19-,37-,61-,91-, and 127-wire.

Despite their numerical characteriiations, it should be noted that theclassifications do not necessarily refer "to the actual wire count in each strand.In standard manufacturing practice, rope constructions do not necessarily havethe specific wire counts given by their respective classifications. The followingsection, WIRE ROPE IDENTIFICATION," provides a complete descriptionof the construction of each classification.

To summarize: a wire rope consists, in most cases, of three components:wires, strands, and a core (Fig. 2). To these may be added what may beconsidered a fourth component: the wire rope's lubricant-a factor vital to thesatisfactory performance of most operating ropes.

FIBER (FC) INDEPENDENTWIRE ROPECORE (IWRC)

WIRESTRAND(WSC)

Figure 2. The three basic wire rope cores. Inselecting the most appropriate core for agiven application, a qualified manufacturershould be called upon for guidance, Fibercores, for example, are not recommended forapplications involving elevated temperaturesor high peak loads. ,

8

3 Wire Rope Identification and Construction

Wire rope is identified not only by its component parts, but also by it~ construction,Le., by the way the wires have been laid to form strands, and by the way thestrands have been laid around the core.

In Figure 3, drawings "a" and "c" show strands as normally laid into therope to the right-in a fashion similar to the threading in a right-hand bolt.Conversely, the "left lay" rope strands (drawings "b" and "d") are laid in theopposite direction.

Again in Figure 3, the first two drawings ("a" and "b") show regular layropes. Following these are the types known as lang lay ropes. Note that the wiresin regular lay ropes appear to line up with the axis of the rope; in lang lay ropethe wires form an angle with the axis of the rope. This difference in appearance isa result of variations in manufacturing techniques: regular lay rope's aremade so that the direction of thewire lay in the strand is opposite to the directionof the strand lay in the rope; lang lay ropes ("c" and "d") are made with bothstrand lay and rope lay in the same direction. Finally, the type "e" calledalternate lay consists of alternating regular and lang lay strands.

a

b

,

d

,-Fi!!llre 3. A comparison of typical wire rope Jays: a) right rl'gular ray, b) Il'ft rl'glliar ray,

c) right lang lay, d) Il'ftlang lay, e) right altanCltl' lay.

9

A-·

REGULAR LAY

IIII

_-BI:\1

. Of all wire rope types in current use, right regular lay is found in the widestrange of applications. Many applications related to excavation, constructionor mining, require lang lay rope. Currently, left lay rope is used less frequently.In any case, where left lay and/or lang lay are required, the manufacturer/suppliermust be so informed before ordering. As for alternate lay ropes, theseare used for special applications.

Circumstances that favor the use of lang lay ropes derive from two uniqueadvantages over regular lay ropes. Lang lay ropes: 1) are more resistant tobending fatigue, and 2) have a greater wearing surface per wire across the crownof the strand. The total wearing surface area of the rope is, for practical purposes,the same for both regular and lang lay ropes-with the same geometricconstruction and depth of wear-the eventual wear on the equipment and theservice life of the rope favors laI1glay construction on applications wherefatigue or abrasion are controlling factors.

To illustrate this point, Figure 4 compares a regular lay with a lang lay rope,each of which has been worn to the same amount of reduction in theirrespective diameters.

Hence, it is not the total of the rope's worn surface area that governs thelife span of rope and equipment. It is, rather, the inherent characteristics ofproperly used lang lay ropes that gives them a significant advantage in resistanceto both abrasion and fatigue.

However, lang lay ropes have some disadvantages. They are moresusceptible to damage resulting from: handling abuses, bending' over extremelysmall sheaves, pinching in undersize sheave grooves, crushing when improperlywound on drums, and they are subject to excessive rotation. In fact, this lattertendency for the rope and the strands to unwind in the same direction, requires thatlang lay ropes should be secured at both ends to prevent unlaying or spinning out.

Preforming is a wire rope manufacturing process wherein the strands andtheir wires are shaped-during fabrication-to the spiral form that they willultimately assume in the finished rope or strand.

As previously noted,wire rope strands are made up of a number of wires.

Figure 4. A comparison of wear characteristics hetween l(//IR lay and r{'Rular lay rdpes. The line a-b indicates the rope axis.

10

The wire' arrangeme'nt in the strands will determine the rope's functionalcharacteristics, i.e., its capacity to Dleet the operatjng conditions to which it wilIbe subjected. There are many basic'design constructions around whichstandard wire ropes are built; some of these are shown in Figure 5.

Four typical strand cross-sections, designed around the Warrington, Sealeand Filler Wire basic constructions are shown in Figure 6.

Wire ropes are identified by a nomenclature that is referenced to: 1) thenumber of strands in the rope, 2) the number (nominal or exact) andarrangement of wires in each strand, and 3) a descriptive word or letter indicatingthe type of construction. i.e., geometric arrangement of wires (Fig. 7).

Under the earlier section BASIC COMPONENTS, mention was madeconcerning the manner in which wire rope constructions are grouped or classified.The most widely used classifications are listed and described in Table 1.

At this point, it may be useful to discuss wire rope nomenclature insomewhat greater detail. It is a subject that may easily generate somemisunderstanding. The reason for this stems from the practice of referring torope either by class or by its specific construction.

Ropes are classified both by the number of strands and the nurriber of wiresin each strand, e.g., 6x7, 6x 19, 6x3 7,8x J 9, J 9x7, etc. However, these are'nominalclassifications that mayor may not represent the actual construction: For example,the 6x19 class commonly includes constructions such as 6x21 filler wire, 6,,25 fillerwire,and 6x26 Warrington Seale. Despite the fact that none of these have, 19wires, they are designated as being in the 6x 19 classification.

Hence, a supplier receiving an order for 6x 19 rope may assume this to be aclass reference and is legally justified in furnishing any construction within thiscategory. But, if the job should require the special characteristics of 6x25 W, anda 6x19 Seale (Fig. 5) is supplied in its stead, a shorter service life can be expected.

To avoid such misunderstanding, the safest procedure is to order a specificconstruction if such geometry is essential for the intended purpose, or to order

, both by class and construction, e.g., 6x 19 (6x26 Warrington Seale).Identifying wire rope in class groups facilitates selection on the basis of

strength, weight/ft. and price since aU ropes within a class have the same nominalstrength, weight/ft and price. As for other functional ,characteristics, these canbe obtained by referencing the specific construction within the class.

Only three wire ropes in the 6x 19 classification actually have 19 wires:6x19 2 operation, 6x19 Seale, and6x19 Warrington. All the rest have differentcounts. There is a greater proportion of 37-wire constructions in the 6x37 classbut these are infrequently produced. The more commonly available 6x37'constructions include: 6x31 Seale. 6x31 Warrington Seale (WS). 6x36 WS,6x4l Seale FiUerWire (SFW), 6x41. WS, 6x43 FW, '6x46 WS, etc,-none ofwhich contains 37 wires.

While a strand's interior has some significance. its important characteristicsrelate to the number and, in consequence, the size of the outer wires. This isdiscussed in somewhat greater detail in the section titled FACTORS AFFECTINGTHE SELECTION OFWIRE ROPE (p. 49).

11

Wire rope nomenclature also defines: length, size (Le., diam.), type, directionof lay, grade of rope, type of core. and whether it is preformed (p/f) ornon-preformed (np/f). If the direction and type of lay are omitted from therope description, it is presumed to be. a right regular lay. In addition, if no mentionis made as to preforming, this will be presumed as a requirement .for preforming.On the other hand, an order for elevator rope requires an explicit statementsince p/f and np/f ropes are used extensively.

An example of a complete description would appear thus:

600 ft %" 6x25 FW Left lang layImproved plow IWRC

(Rope described above would be made PREFORMED.)

.....,....... ....\'..•.~......,.••••:.~';i.••::'.•.... " ,.'..•...'........• ..•·t,:·:·,,;>',:,•• , ft•••.•.~ ,..:,.......,....~..

6125 FW

,\.. "j

.-

Figure 5. Basic constructions around which standard wire ropes are built.

•••·:i\·•·!.·.···.!e.s·.•••• • ••••e:eo:" :•.....:;...:..: ..;:·x·:;:.~•.:-...,:-.....••••~ 0;' :.'i •••··..:·.·.e:!ll....r.\.·•••..~.•••

6.21 SEALE WITHWITH IWRC

.~!!...~..·,\\t.·•••·.!t::•.4...~. e.e:::-•~. ·:te···E··· !:.~:.••. ....:~... ...~..:....

• -::J.:;. •--te-6.31 WARRINGTONSEALE WITH IWRC

Figure 6. A fewcqmbinations of basic design constructions.

12

SEALE STRAND19 WIRE SEALE

1·9· 9

Figure 7. A single wire rope strand. Wirerope is identified by reference to its numberof strands, as well as the number and geo­metric arrangement of wires in the strand.

TABLE I' WIRE ROPE CLASSIFICATIONSBased on the Nominal Number of Wires in Each Strand

'.-'

Classification

6x7

. 6x19

6x37

6x61

6x91

6x127

8x19

19x7and18x7

Description

Containing 6 strands that are made up of 3 through 14wires, of which no more than 9 are outside wires.

Containing 6 strands that are made up of 15 through 26wires, of which no more than 12 are outside wires.

Containing 6 strands that are made up of 27 through 49wires, of which no more than 18 are outside wires.

Containing 6 strands that are made up of 50 through 74wires, of which no more than 24 are outsid~ wires,

. . ....

Containing 6 strands that are made up of 75 throughl 09wires, of which no more than 30 are outside wires.

Containing 6 strands that are made up of 110 or morewires, of which no more than 36 are outside wires.

Containing 8 strands that are made up of 15 through 26wires, of which no more than 12 are outside wires.

Containing 19 strands, each strand is made up of 7 wires.It is :!llanufactured by covering an inner rope of 7x7 leftlang lay construction with 12 strands in right regular lay.(The rotation-resistant property that characterizes thishighly specialized construction is a result of the countertorques developed by the two layers.) When the steel wirecore strand is replaced by a fiber core, the decriptionbecomes 18x7.

/\.~:'

When acenter wire is replaced by a strand, it is considered as a single wire,and the rope classification remains unchanged.

There are, of course, many' other types of wire rope, but they are usefulonly in a limited number of applications and, as such, are sold as specialties.Usually designated according to their actual construction, some of these specialconstructions are listed in Table 2 and shown in Figure 8.

13

5119 MARLINE CLAD 6142 TILLER ROPE

Figure 8. Three special purpose constructions that suggest wire rope's inherentdesign potential.

TABLE 2 SPECIAL CONSTRUCTIONS

3x7 Guard Rail3x19 Slusher6x12 Running Rope6x24 Hawsers6x30 Hawsers6x42 (6x6x7) TiIle.r Rope6x3x19 Spring Lay5x19 Marline Clad6x19 Marline Clad

Table 2 is a much abbreviated listing of ropes designed for highly speciaiizedapplications. Within the scope of this publication, it is not feasible to list themany uses, nor to describe the possible design variations.

Cross-sections of wire rope shown in Figures 9 and 10 are among the mostcommonly used, and they are arranged in their respective classification groups.Because they are in greater demand, they are more generally available.

There is, however, one specialized wire rope category that requires somediscussion here-elevator rope. In this application, selecting the right roperequires more than ordinary care.

Elevator rope can be obtained in four principal grades: 1) iron. 2) tractionsteel, 3) high-strength steel, and 4) extra-high-strength steel. In addition. bronzerope is sometirnesused for a limited number of functions within this category.It should be noted that demand for the iron grade is decreasing markedly andits use is gencralJy limited to older existing equipment.

...'.

14

"'-..

Figure 9. Cross-sections of some commonlyused wire rope constructions.

6,7 WITH FIBER CORE

6 x7 CLASSIFICATION

•••••..~~:..••••••••••••••••eA- '••• ' •••.:...... ,}'.:: ..:......••~oe .•. t•./.'.e!I!!"G;,&$.••ele~~,•••....~:.,•••f!..!i.:.........~ ...: .•••••

6,25B FLATIENED STRANDTRIANGULAR CENTER WIRE.

•••••., ...:.~~.......:~:~-:.~..-:..~:~..•.....~..,.: ,: .....•... .... ........;.:..;.•.....•......... ......•..:.~...•..•..:.~........~:~....•.·.i·'·

6x30 G FLATTENED STRANDBRANGLED CENTER ••

6 x19 CLASSIFICATION

.!•...:.:.• !.!•• ...•• ,-, .:e:•-•• :!:;~::::•••. .. :..: .\e.:e -,' e:e:•••.•••,.!••...•

.:!:••••••6xl9 SEALE WITH IWRC

.~~!•.....:...••.•!••.•.•••.•! ••••••••••••••••... ,', ...·i~.· :::~:~::: ·i~.·.e!l.,.:i:::',:::.'1:.-•... '.. ...••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••. .-:.:'....~..

6,25 FILLER WIREWITH IWRC

6,26 WARRINGTONSEALE WITH IWRC

•!~•..... et£.~···~·e;,~-.J1I:~V~ .•~::..... .:.:::.:.....•.• :;:.:.:.:!: •••~,.0:':::',' .....••~..... ••~··t•.•~••~."!.l.!.... ~~......,

•6,31 FI.LLER WIRE

WITH IWRC

•••.~~.••••2~••..~.·R·.!..:.•• ..:. •::i::e...................: :i:·:·:·:i: :

··E············~··:. .:...:::.\••••••~••~:ll•~... •l5.

• 6,3i WARRINGTON SEALEWITH'IWRC.•.~~:~......~.~:....~.~......•

:ir:.r.···.··~·~~.~..•..•......•'..•.••:••-*;:.:=!:-.:.:•••~:':!J. :::::::::••~:••......~•.......•.•~..~~•••••~•••.•~••!te....:• . •••.•! ••••.•.•.. .~:.:.'............~...6,41 SEALE FILLERWIRE WITH IWRC

••\!•..~~..•..

.~4!••'."•••.••'!.~••••.••••, ••.•:~:::.. .!. .~:!:-:-..:,.-:::::::::-1,•••. : :. ....•.••.....:....•"...,.' ..;.•.....•...•.•••.•.• • '! .••·••:.!.P •.•.••

• •••••••••••••......6,36 FILLER WIRE

WITH IWRC..~:.:~..:..~... ...•~~ :.-:..:~.

: •...!' : ...~~~;;/-:•••:i:•••~:.·..::.:'::. :i:·:-:·:i: .:~.:•• .•.•!'•••••:••••••••.•:.•.....•.•...••.•..•.•

•••••••••••••••••••.~•....~•.•.....•~... ...•...•:...~.:.6,46 SEALE FILLERWIRE WITH IWRC

6,49 FILLER WIRE SEALEWITH FISER CORE

"Also manufactured as 6x27H and 6x25B.""Also manufactured as 6x27V.

15

6:x37 CLASSIFICATION

The mostwidely used constructions forelevatoTT9pe are.6x25 FW, ...•.. .•..8xI9 Seale, and 8x25 FW. But,on occasion, anumber of other constructions are

, . ! ; ,I " .1~,

used. In any case, these ropes differ significantly from one another in their wearand fatigue characteristics, thus they should not be inter-changed indiscriminately.There are, in fact, some applications~such as governor rope-where the ropesmay not 'be interchanged either in grade or construction without re-qualification.

A special construction (6x42) is still used from time to time a~ a hand ropeto control the elevator, and small diameter ropes (of 7x19 construction) areused as control ropes for operating floor selection equipment.

From reel to reel, there are slight yet significant differences in the elasticproperties of wire rope. Because of such possible variations, it is stronglysuggested that all rope for a given elevator be obtained from a single reel.Recognizing the need for such precaution, many codes and purchasingspecifications make this a standard requirement.

As noted, it is beyond the scope of this publication to discuss, in depth, designand selection considerations for elevator rope. Information concerning sheavediameters, design factors (ratio of nominal strength to working load), groovecontours, etc. can be found in the ANSI Code Al 7.1.

To obtain current data and sound technical guidance on elevator rope orany other special requirements, a reputable wire rope manufacture~ shouldbe consulted.

~** ~*.~$ ....:l! !fI$ t;::».et::'lSf ~1~t=-!eW b ....':e l:iji"eO..:::."... -O:!:-

1817 ROTATION RESISTANT 19>7 ROTATION RESISTANTWilli FIBER CORE WITH WIRE STRANO CORE

I~J7 a 1917 CLASSIFICATIONS

.•.\,.••.•••1::::.-:-:.:er... .;:.it.eM ••• _\••

••~,. -:.-:-.:- eif:-.... . :::.:.:.::: .:~.·i~· .-:-.:.-:- .......-~ ... e!..~ "A'!yti, W

•8 I Z5 FILLER WIRE

WITH IWRC

8119 CLASSIFICATION

•!...:.~..~••p•••••••4!••~t!:. - .-.f.-•

• :- iJ!.:i:.-. -\.....•.\..:.......:. .:.~.-..•........•...•' .. -·-:i:-·- .,-...,. ....•.;!:••,.,~\!:••....;.:...

•••8119 SEALE WITH

IWRC

Figure 10. Cross-sections of wire ropes designed for specific functions. Note that the tworotation-resistant constructions are identical except for the core--one of which is wire strandand the other fiber. The wire strand core increases the number of strands.from 18 to 19.

16

4 Handling Wire Rope

RECEIVING, INSPECTION AND STORAGE·The right time to start appropriate.care and handling procedures for wire rope,is immediately on delivery. When th,e rope arrives it should be carefully checkedfor size, construction and core, making certain that the delivered product matchesthe description on the tags, requisition forms, packing slips, purchase order,and invoice.

Following these preliminaries, the question of storage should be considered.If the wire rope is to be held for a considerable time before being used, it mustbe protected from the elements. A dry, well-ventilated building or shed is aproper storage place. Avoid closed, unheated, tightly sealed buildings because

. condensation will form on the rope when warm, moist outside air envelops thecolder rope. Although wire rope is protected by a lubricant, this is nottotallyeffective since condensation can still occur within the small interstices betweenstrands and wires, thereby creating corrosion problems.

If, on the other hand, the delivery site precludes the use of an inside storagespace and the rope must be kept outdoors, it should be suitably covered witha waterproof material. Weeds and tall grass should be cut in the assigned,storagearea, and the reel itself should be on a platform, elevated so as to>keep it fromdirect contact with the ground. Providing an adequate covering f()r the reel willalso prevent the original lubricant from drying out with a resuit;:;,rjt loss ofprotection.

Wire rope should never be stored in areas subject to elevated temperatures.Dust, grit or chemically laden atmosphere are also to be avoided. Although thelubricant applied at the factory offers some degree of protection, every normalprecaution should be taken with each coil or reel of wire rope.

Whenever wire rope remains in position on an idle machine, cr'ane, hoist,etc., it should be coated with an appropriate protective lubricant. In thesecircumstances, as with ropes stored outside, moisture, in the form of condensation,rain or snow, may form on the wire rope. Some of the moisture may easilybecome trapped inside the rope and cause corrosion problems. .

If the wire rope is to be kept inactive for an extended period while woundon the drum of the idle equipment, it may be necessary to apply a coating of

. lubricant to each layer as the rope is wound on the drum; Cleaning, inspection andre-Iubrication should precede start-up of the equipment.

17

WIRE ROPE INSTALLATIONCHECKING THE DIAMETERIt is most important to check the diameter of the delivered rope before installation.:This is to make certain that the rope diameter meets the specified requirementsfor the given machine or equipment. With an undersize diameter rope, stresseswill be higher than designed for and the probability of breaking the rope willbe increased; an oversize diameter rope will wear out prematurely. This happensbecause of abuse to the rope caused by pinching in the grooves of the sheaveand drum.

In checking, however, the "true" rope diameter must be measured. And thisis defined as the diameter of the circumscribing circle, i.e., its largest cross-sectionaldimension. To insure accuracy this measurement should be made with a wirerope caliper using the correct method (b) shown in Fig. 11. For measuringropes with an odd number of outer strands, special techniques must be employed.

Design specifications for wire rope are such that the diameter is slightly largerthan the nominal size, accqrdingto the allowable tolerances shown in Table 3.

TABLE 3OVERSIZE LIMITS OF WIRE ROPE DIAMETERS*

Nominal Rope Diameter Allowable LimitsI

i.."

Thru ;;a" -0 +8%

Over Ih II thru ~n" -0 +7%

Over ~6" thru 1,4 II -0 +6%

Over 1,4 /I and larger -0 +5%

*These limits have been adopted by the Wire Rope TechnicalBoard (WRTB). and are being considered for inclusion in theforthcoming revised edition of "Federal Standard RR.W·410."In the case of certain special purpose ropes, such as aircraftcables and elevator ropes, each has specific requirements.

"TRUE" DIAMETER

-~/. ~ ~1~.'.1i \, .fI'::W" --......lye.· .~~~-a!: ·"81\ ...~• •:l'·",\ :.:;:-.:~m /'~11·~\l;"---

AB. CORRECT C. INCORRECT

Figure 1I. How to measure (or caliper) a wire rope correctly. Since the "true" diameter (a)lies within the circumscribed circle, always measure the larger dimension (b).

18

UNREELING AND UNCOILINGWire rope is shipped in cut lengths, either in coils or un reels. Great care shouldbe taken when the rope is removed from the shipping package since it canbe permanently damaged by improper unreeling or uncoiling. Looping the ropeover the head of the reel or pulling the rope off a coil while it is lying on theground, will create loops in the line. Pulling on a loop will, at the very least,produce imbalance in the rope and may result in open or closed kinks (Fig. 12).Once a rope is kinked, the damage is permanent. To correct this condition, thekink must be cut out, and the shortened pieces used for some other purpose.

Figure 12. Improper handling will help create open (a) or closed (b) kinks. The open kinkwill open the rope lay; the closed kink will close it. The starlin!! loop Cc): do not allow the ropeto form a small loop. If. however. a loop forms and is removed at the point shown, a kink willbe avoided. The kink Cd): here the looped rope has been put under tension, the kink hasformed, the rope is permanently damaged and is of little value.

19

PREFERRED

REEL

~ALLOWABLE- IF NOT CLOSE COUPLEO

Figure 15. Winding wire rope from reelto drum.

Unwinding wire rope from its reel also requires careful and proper procedure.There a.re three methods to perform this step correctly:1) The reel is mounted on a shaft supported by two jacks or a roller payoff

(Fig. 13). Since the reel is free to rotate, the rope is pulled from the reel by"a workman, holding the rope end and walking away from the reel as it unwinds.A braking device should be employed so that the rope is kept taut and thereel is restrained from over-running the rope. This is necessary particularlywith powered de~reeling equipment.

2) Another method involves mounting the reel on an unreeling stand (Fig. 14).It is then unwound in the same manner as described above (I). In this case,

however, greater care must be exercised to keep the rope under tensionsufficient to prevent the accumulation of slack-a condition that will causethe rope to drop below the lower reel head.

3) In another accepted method, the end of the rope is held while the reel itselfis rolled along the ground. With this procedure the rope will payoff properly;however, the end being held will travel in the direction the reel is being rolled.As the difference between the diameter of the reel head and the diameter ofthe wound rope increases, the speed of travel will increase.

Fi~ute i3. The wire rope teeI is mounted ona Shaft supported by jacks. This permits the reelto rotate freely. and the rope can be unwound either manually or by a powered mechanism.

20

Figure 14. A vertical unreeling stand.

When re~reeling wire rope from a horizontally supported reel to a drum, it ispreferable for the rope to travel from the top of the reel to the top of thedrum; or, from the bottom of the reel to the bottom of the drum (Fig. 15).Re-reeling in this manner will avoid putting a reverse bend into the ropeas it is being installed. If a rope is installed so that a reverse bend is induced,it may cause the rope to become livelier and, consequently, harder to handle.

When unwinding wire rope from a coil, there are two suggested methods forcarrying out this procedure in a proper manner:1) One method involves placing the coil on avertical unreeling stand.

The stand consists of a base with a fixed vertical shaft. On this shaft thereis a "swift," consisting of a plate with inclined pins positioned so that the coilmay be placed over them. The \vhole swift and coil then rotate as the ropeis pulled off. This method is particularly effective when the rope is to bewound on a drum.

2 ) The most common as well as the easiest uncoiling method is merely to holdone end of the rope while rolling the coil along the ground like a hoop (Fig. 16).

Figures 17 and 18 show unreeling and uncoiling methods that are mostlikely to provide kinks. Such improper procedures should be strenuously avoidedin order to prevent the occurrence of loops. These loops, when pulled taut, willinevitably result in kinks. No matter how a kink develops, it will damage strandsand wires, and the kinked section must be cut out. Proper and carefiirliandIingwill keep the wire rope free from kinks.

Figure 16. Perhaps the most common andeasiest uncoiling method is to hold one end ofthe rope while the coil is rolled along theground.

Figure 17. Illustrating a wrong method ofunreeling wire rope.

21

Figure 18. Illustrating a wrong method ofuncoiling wire rope.

Figure 19. METHOD A: Lay one end of theseizing wire in the groove between two strands;wrap the other end lightly in a close helix overn position of the groove using a seizing iron(a rOl,lnd bar 1/2 " to %" diam. x 18" long) asshown above. Both ends of tbe seizing wireshould be twisted together tightly, and tbefinished appearance as shown below. Seizingwidths should not be less than the ropediameter. METHOD B: The procedureillustrated at right is the second of the two(A and B) accepted methods for placingseizing on wire rope.

SEIZING WIRE ROPE·While there are numerous ways to cut wir~ rope, in every case. certain precautions'must be observed. For one thing, proper se'izings are always applied on bothsides of the place where the cut is to be made. In a wire rope, carelessly orinadequately seized, ends may become distorted and flattened. and the strandsmay loosen. Subsequently, when the rope is put to work. there may be an unevendistribution of loads to the strands; a condition that will significantly shortenthe life of the rope.

There are two widely accepted methods of applying seizing (Fig. 19). Theseizing itself should be a soft, or annealed wire or strand. The seizing wire diameterand the length of the seize will depend on the diameter of the wire rope. Butthe length of the seizing should never be less than the diameter of the rope beingseized. For preformed rbpes, one seizing on each side of the cut is normallysufficient. But for those that are not preformed. a minimum of two seizings isrecommended (Fig. 20). Seizings should be spaced 6 rope diameters apart.

Table 4 lists seizing lengths and seizing wire diameters suggested for usewith some commonly used wire ropes.

"

(

TABLE 4 SEIZINGSuggested Diameters and Lengths::

. ... ..:;".

Rope Diameters Seizing Wire Diameters* Seizing Lengths

inches mm inches mm inches mm

Vs~lj16 3.5-8.0 .032 0.813 ~ 6.0

%-~6 9.5-14.5 .048 1.21 1,6 13.0

0/8 _10/10 16.0-24.0 .063 1.60 % 19.0

1-1 ~S.6 26,0-33.0 .080 2.03 11.4 32.0

1%-111;10 '35.0-43.0 .104 2.64 1% 44.0

1%-21,6 45.0-64.0 .124 3.15 21,6 64.0

.;; ~.

2~0-31,6 65.0-89.0 .124 3.15 3 th 89.0

*The diameter of seizing wire for elevator ropes is generally smaller than indicated in thistable. The wire rope manufacturer should be consulted for recommended,sizes.

23

CUTTING WffiE ROPE "Wire rope is_~ut after being properly seiz~d (Fig. 20). Cutting is a reasonablysimple operation provided appropriate tools are used. There are several types ofcutters and shears commercially available. These are specifically designed tocut wire rope.

Portable hydraulic and mechanical rope cutters are available. In remoteareas, however, it may at times be necessary to use less desirable cutting methods.For example, using an axe or hatchet must be recognized as dangerous.

NONPREFORMED

~1111111111111~BEFORE CUTTING

.J

~IlAFTER CUTTING

~,IIIIlIIIIIII~

PREFORMED I

~11111111111111~1111111l111111~BEFORE CUTTING I

~11111111111111E1 ~1111111111111~AFTER CUTTING

Figure 20. Seizings, either on non-preformed or preformed wire rope, are appliedbefore cutting.

24

END ATTACHMENTSFor a number ofapplications-si.J~has tight openings in drums. or othercomplicated reeving systems-there,may be a need for making special endpreparations. Wh'en these are required, there are about four basic designs (andcombinations) to choose from (Fig. 21 ) .

Becket loops are used when another rope is needed to pull the new rope intoplace. The rope end must be fastened to the mechanism so that force and motion

. are transferred efficiently. End fittings thus become items of great importancefor transferring these forces. Each basic type of end fitting has its own individualcharacteristics. Thus, one type will usually fit the needs of a given installationbetter than the others (Fig. 22).

THE EFFICIENCY OF END ATTACHMENTSIt should be noted that not all end attachments will develop the full strength ofthe wire rope used. To lessen the possibility of error, the wire rope industryhas determined terminal efficiencies for various types of end attachments.Table 5-listing these efficiencies-permits calculation of the holding: powerof the more popular end fittings for any size, grade and constFuction ofi:wire rope.

A

PAD EYE

B

LINKBECKET

c

TAPERED8 WELDED

END

o

TAPEREDEND WITH

LOOP

-""f<

Z:::.:;

Figure 21. Beckets. or end preparations. are used on wire rope ends when another rope isneeded to puJl the operating rope into place. Four commonly used beckets are illustrated.

25

:§:d>~~~",,-,;,,~~'-,.~~~,=-~WIRE ROPE SOCKET· SPELTER OR RESIN ATTACHMENT'

WIRE ROPE SOCKET -SWAGED

~-~~--=-~~MECHANICAL SPLICE- LOOP OR THIMBLE ATTACHMENT

WEDGE SOCKET,

CLIPS - NUMBER OF CLIPS VARIES WITH ROPE SIZE

©llllllllllllllmlmlllllllmnm~~LOOP OR THIMBLE SPLICE- HAND TUCKED

Figure 22. End fittings. or attachments. are available in many designs. some of which weredeveloped for particular applications. The six shown are among the most commonly used.

26

"~,,, .' ~-., ....... "'-", .-~"--'~~---,~-~-~..

TABLE 5 TERMINAL EFFICIENCIES (APPROXIMATE)

Efficiencies are based on nominal :strengths

Method of Attachment. Efficiency

Rope with IWRC* Rope with FC**

Wire Rope Socket-Spelteror Resin Attachment

'. Swaged Socket

Mechanical Spliced Sleeve1" dia. and smaller11A3" dia. thru 1% "2" dia. and larger

100%

95%

95%92 Ih%90%

100%

(Not established)

92V2%90%87'iZ %

90%89%88%87%86%84%82%80%

80%79%78%77%.76%'74%72%70%

Loop or Thimble Splice-Hand Spliced (Tucked)(Carbon Steel Rope)'~"

0/16"%"~6"

'iZ"%"%"%"thru2'iZ"

Loop or Thimble Splice-Hand Spliced (Tucked)(Stainless Steel Rope)~JI

l}16"

%"%6"Ih"0/8 "%"%"

Wedge Sockets***(Depending on Design) 75% to 90%

Clips***(Number of clips varies with size of rope) 80%

. *IWRC = Independent Wire Rope Core **FC = Fiber Core***Typical values when applied properly. Refer to fittings

manufacturers for exact values and method.

27

90%89%88%87%86%84%82%80%

75% to 90%

80%

U-BOLT '''IST'GRIP

SOCKETINGImpropetly attached wire rop'e te;:rminals lead to serious-possibly unsafe­conditicms. To perform 'properly"alI wire rope elements must be held securelyby the terminal. If this is not accomplished. the strands will "loaf on the job"and there is every likelihood that a strand will become "high". A high strandcondition is illustrated in Figure42. In the case shown. selective abrasivewear of the loose strand will necessitate early removal of the rope.

Poured Sockets-SpeIter or ResinWhen preparing a wire rope for socketing. it is of extreme importance to followrecommended procedures. (See Appendix D: SOCKETING PROCEDURES.)Procedures other than those stipulated here. may develop the required strengthbut this cannot be pre-determined without destructive tests. It is far safer-and ultimately less costly-to follow well-established practices.

There are many ways to go wrong in socketing procedures. Some of themore common pitfalls that should be guarded against include:I ) Turning back the strands-inward or outward-before the "broom" is

inserted into the socket;2) Turning back the strands and seizing them to the body of the rope;3) Turning back the strands and tucking them into the body of the rope;4) Tying a knot in the rope;5) Driving nails, spikes, bolts, and similar objects into the socket after the rope

is in, so as to "jam" it tight; this is particularly dangerous-and ruinous.To avoid these and many other dangeroLls practices, play it safe by followingcorrect' procedures.

WIRE ROPE CLIPSWire rope clips are widely used for attaching wire rope to haulages, mine cars,hoists, and for joining two ropes.

Clips are available in two basic designs; the V-bolt and fist grip (Fig. 23).The efficiency of both types is the same.

When using V-boll clips. extreme care must be exercised to make certainthat they are attached correctly. i.e., the V-bolt must be applied so that the "U"section is in contact with the dead end of the rope (Fig. 24). Also. thetightening and retightening of the nuts must be accomplished as required.

Fil:ure 23. Wire rope clips are obtainablein two basic designs: V-bolt and fist grip.Their efficiency is the same.

HOW TO APPLY CLIPSU-BOLT CLIPS (Table 6, page 30)Recommended Method of Applying U-Bolt Clips to Get MaximumHolding P6""ier of the Clip1) Turn back the specified amount of rope from the thimble. Apply the first clip

one base width from the dead end of the wire rope (U-bolt over dead end-liveend rests in clip saddle). Tighten nuts evenly to recommended torque.

2) Apply the next clip as near' the loop as possible. Turn on nuts firm but donot tighten.

3) ,Space additional clips if required equally between the first two. Turn on nuts­take up rope slack'---tighteh alI nuts evenly on alI clips to recommended torque.

4) NOTICEl Apply the initial load and retighten nuts to the recommended torque.Rope will stretch and shrink in diameter when loads are applied. Inspectperiodically and retighten. .

A termination made in accordance with the above instructions, and usingthe number of clips shown has an approximate 80% efficiency rating. This ratingis based upon the catalog breaking strength of wire rope. 1f a pulley is used inplace of a thimble for turning back the rope, add one additional clip.

The.number of clips shown is based upon using right regular or lang laywire rope, 6 x 19 class or 6.x 37 class, fibre core or IWRC, IPS or XIPS. If Seale

. construction or similar large outer wire type construction in the 6 x 19 classis to be used for sizes 1 inch and larger, add one additional clip.

The number of clips shown also applies to right regular lay wire rope,8x 19 class, fibre core, IPS, sizes 1112 inch and smaller; and right regular lay wirerope, 18 x 7 class, fibre core, IPS or XIPS, sizes 13,4 and smaller.

For other classes of wire rope not mentioned above, it may be necessary toadd additiqnal clips to the number shown.

If a greater number of clips are used than shown in the table, the amount ofrope turnback should be increased proportionately. ABOVE BASED ONUSE OF CLIPS ON NEW ROPE.

IMPORTANT: Failure to make a termination in accordance withaforementioned instructions, or failure to periodically check and retighten"lOtherecommended torque, will cause a reduction in efficiency rating.

RIGHT WAY FOR MAXIMUM ROPE STRENGTH

WRONG WAY: CLIPS STAGGERED

WRONG WAY: CLIPS REVERSED

Figure 2';, The correCI way 10 attach U-bolts is shown at the top: the "U" section is in contactwith the rope's dead end.

29

\,

TABLE 6*

Min. no. Amount of TorqueClip of rope to in WeightSize A B C D E F G H :tlips turn back Ib/ft Ib/100

~ .22 .72 .44 .47 .41 .38 .81 .94 2 3~ 4.5 5~6 .25 .97 .56 .59 .50 .44 .94 1.16 '2 3% 7.5 9~ .31 1.03 ,50 .75 .66 .56 1.19 1.44 2 4% 15 18 \,

~.,

%6 .38 1.38 .75 .88 ..72 .69 1.31 1.69 2 5~ 30 30

% .44· 1.50 .75 1.00 .91 .75 1.63 1.94 2 6~ 45 42%6 .50 1.88 1.00 1.19 1.03 .88 ' 1.81 2.28 2 7 65 70~ .50 1.88 1.00 1.19 1.13 .88 1.91 2.28 3 1l~ 65 75%6 .56 2.25 1.25 1.31 1.22 .94 2.06 2.50 3 12 95 100

% .56 2.38 1.25 . 1.31 1.34 .94 .2.06 '·2.50 3 12 95 100% .63 2.75 1.44 1.50 1.41 1.06 2.25 2.84 4 18 130 150'Va .75 3.13 1.63 1.75 1.59· 1.25 2.44 . 3.16 4 19 225 240

1 .75 3.50 1.81 1.88 1.78 1.25 2.63. 3.47 5 26 225 250

1~ .75 3.88 2.00 2.00 1.91 1.25 2.81 3.59 6 34 225 3101~ .88 4.25 2.13 2.31 2.19 1.44 3.13 4.13 6 37 360 4601% .88 4.63 1.31 2.38 2.31 1.44 3.13 4.19 7 44 360 5201~ .88 4.94 2.38 2.59 '2..53 1.44 3.41 4.44 7 48 360 590

10/8 1.00 5.31 2.63 2.75 2.66 1.63 3.63 4.75 7 51 430 7301% 1.13 5.75 2.75 3.06 2.94 1.81 3.81 5.28 7 53 590 9802 1.25 6.44 3.00 3.38 3.28 2.00 4.44 5.88 8 71 750 13402 1,4 1.25 7.13 3.19 3.88 . 3.94 2.00 4.56 6.38 8 73 750 1570

2 Ih 1.25 7.69 3.44 4.13 4.44 2.00 4.69 6.63 9 84 750 17902% 1.25 8:31 '3.56 4.38 4:88 2,00 5.00 6.88 10 100 750 22003 1.50 9.19 3.88 4.75 5.34 2.38 5.3i 7.63 10 106 1200 3200

"From The Crosby Group

30

FIST GRIP CLIPS (Table 7, on following page)

RECOMMENDED METHOD OF APPLYING FIST GRIP CLIPS1) Turn back the specified amount of rope from the thimble. Apply the first clip

one base width from the dead end of the wire rope. Tighten nuts evenly torecommended torque.

2) Apply the next clip as near the loop as possible. Turn on nuts firmly but donot tighten.

3) Space additional clips if required equally between the first two. Turn on nuts­take up rope slack-tighten all nuts evenly on all Clips to recommended torque.

4) NOTICEl Apply the initial load and retighten nuts to the recommended torque.Rope will stretch and shrink in diameter when loads are applied. Inspectperiodically and retighten.

A termination made in accordance with the above instructions, and usingthe number of clips shown has an approximate 80% efficiency rating. This ratingis based upon the catalog breaking strength of wire rope. If a pulley is used inplace of a thimble for turning back the rope, add one additional clip.

The number of clips shown is based upon using right regular Or lahg laywire rope, 6 x 19 class or 6 x 37 class, fibre core or IWRC, IPS or EIPS. If Sealeconstruction or similar large outer wire type construction in the 6 x 19 classis to be used for sizes 1 inch and larger, add one additional clip.

The number of clips shown also applies to right regular lay wire rope,8 x 19 class, fibre core, IPS, sizes IIh inch and smaIIer; and right re'gular lay wirerope, 18 x 7 class, fibre core, IPS or EIPS, sizes 11/2 and smaIIer.

For other classes of wire rClpe not mentioned above, it may be necessary ,to add additional clips to the number shown.

If a greater number of clips are used than shown in the table, the amountof rope turnback should be increased proportionately. ABOVEBASED ONUSE OF FIST GRIP CLIPS ON NEW WIRE ROPE.

1MPORTA NT: Failure to make a termination in accordance withaforementioned instructions, or failure to periodically check and retighten to therecommended torque, will cause a reduction in efficiency rating.

31

t- A .~ T.. L

1rET

,- ~M~-L

, ,.

TABLE 7*

Min. no. Amount of TorqueClip L of rope to in WeightSize A B C D E F G H Approx. M N clips turn back Ib/ft Ib/l00

~0-14 .25 1.25 .34 .94 .38 .50 1.28 .22 1.63 .69 1.47 2 4 30 21 \

I ~l

0/10 .31 1.34 ,44 1.06 .38 .63 1.47 .19 1.94 .69 1.56 2 5 30 26 '"% .38 1.59 .50 1.06 ,44 .75 1.81 .25 2.38 .75 1.88 2 5~ 45 37~6 .50 1.88 .56 1.25 .50 1.00 2.19 .28 2.75 .88 2.19 2 6112 65 60

~ .50 1.88 .56 1.25 .. .50 1.00 2.19 .28 2.75 .88 2.19 3 11 65 60%0 .63 2.28 .69 1.50 .63 1.25 2.69 .28 3.50 1.06 2.63 3 12% 130 110% .63 2.28 .69 1.50 .63 1.25 2.69 .28 3.50 1.06 2.63 3 13~ 130 110% .75 2.69 .88 1.81 .75 1.50 2.94 .31 3.75 1.25 3.06 3 16 225 140

'Va .88 2.97 .97 2.13 .75 1.75 3.31 .38 4.13 1.25 3.14 4 26 225 2201 1.00 3.06 1.19 2.25 .75 2.00 3.72 ,41 4.63 1.25 3.53 5 37 225 270Bis 1.13 3.44 1.28 2.38 .88 ·2.25 4.19 ,44 5.25 1.44 3.91 5 41 360 300114 1.25 3.56 1.34 2.50 .88 2.50 4.25 .50 5.25 1.44 4.03 6 55 360 410

1% 1.50 4.13 1.56 3.00 1.00 3.00 5.56 .56 7.00 1.63 4.66' 6 62 500 6801Y.z 1.50 4.13 1.56 3.00 1.00 3.00 5.56 .56 7.00 1.63 4.66 6 66 500 680

*From The Crosby Group

32

WEDGE SOCKETSOne of the more popular end attachments for wire rope is the wedge socket.For field, or on the job attachment, It is easily instaIJed and quickly dismantled.The procedure is simple: '1) Inspect the wedge and socket; all rough edges or burrs, that might damage the

rope, should be removed.2) If the end of the rope is welded, the welded end should be cut off. This will

allow the distortions of the rope strands, caused by the sharp bend around thewedge, to adjust themselves at the end of the line. If the weld is not cut off, thedistortions will be forced up the working line. This may result in thedevelopment of high strands and wavy rope.

3) Place the socket in an upright position and. bring the rope around in a large,easy to handle, loop. Care must be taken to make certain that the live-Ioaded­side of the rope is in line with the ears (Fig. 25).

4) The dead end of the rope should extend from the socket for a distanceapproximately nine times the rope diameter. The wedge is now placed in thesocket, and a wire rope clip is placed around the dead end by clamping ashort, extra piece of rope to the tail. (Do not clamp to the live part.) The V-boltshould bear against the tail; the saddle of the clip should bear against the shortextra piece. i'

5) Secure the ears of the socket to a sturdy support and carefully take a strain onthe live side of the rope. Pull the wedge and rope into position..with tensionsufficiently tight to hold them in place.

6).After final pin connections are made, increase the loads gradually until thewedge is properly seated. Avoid sudden shock loads.

The foregoing is the recommended procedure. If variations are made tosuit special conditions, they should be carefully evaluated beforehand.

BWRONG

ARIGHT

~ LIVE END---....

Figure 25. The wedge socket is a verypopular end attachment; it is easily installedand quickly dismantled. But it must beapplied correctly (A).

33

DRUMS-GROOVEDDrums are the means by which power is transmitted to the rope and thence to theobject to be moved. For the wire rope. to pick up this power efficiently and totransmit it properly to the working end, installation must be carefully controlled.

If the drurn is grooved, the winding conditions should be closely supervisedto assure adherence to the following recommended procedures:1) the end of the rope must be secured to the drum by such means as will

give the end attachment at least as much strength as is specified by theequipment manufacturer.

2) Adequate tension must be maintained on the rope while it is being woundso that the winding proceeds under continuous tension.

3) The rope must follow the groove.4) There should be at least three dead turns remaining on the drum when the rope

is unwound during normal operation. Two dead turns are a mandatoryrequirement in many codes and standards.

If the wire rope is carelessly wound and, as a result, jumps the grooves,it will be crushed and cut where it crosses from one groove to the other. Another,almost unavoidable problem is created at the drum flange; as the rope climbsto a second layer there is further crushing and the wires receive excessive abrasion.Riser and filler strips may help remedy this condition.

34

\.

DRUMS-PLAIN (SMOOTH)Installation of a wire rope on a pl~in (smooth) face drum requires a greatdeal of care. The starting position s1.?ould be at the drum end so that each tumof the rope will wind tightly against the preceding turn (Fig. 26). Here too,close supervision should be maintained all during installation. This will help make

. certain that:1) the rope is properly attached to the drum,2) appropriate tension on the rope is maintained as it is wound on the drum,3) each turn is guided as close to the preceding turn as possible, so that there

are no gaps between turns,4) and that there are at least two dead turns on the drum when the rope is fully

unwound during normal operating cycles.Loose and uneven winding on a plain- (smooth-) faced drum, can and

usually does create excessive wear, crushing and distortion of the rope. The resultsof such abuse are lower operating performance, and a reduction in the rope'seffective strength. Also, for an operation that is sensitive in terms of movingand spotting a load, the operator will encounter controldifficulties a~ the rope willpile up, puU into the pile and faU"from the pile to the drum surface;: The .ensuing shock can break or otherwise damage the rope.

L- -R

UNDERWIND LEFT TO RIGHTUSE LEFT LAY ROPE

L- -R

~~- ----++±{1-

OVERWIND LEFT TO RIGHTUSE RIGHT LAY ROPE

LEFT LAYUNDERWOUND

I

RIGHT LAYOVERWOUND

L- -R

-H-----

OVERWIND RIGHT TO LEFTUSE LEFT LAY ROPE

L-- -R

++-----

UNDERWIND RIGHT TO LEFTUSE RIGHT LAY ROPE

LEFT LAYOVERWOUND

I

R1GHT LAYUNDERWOUND

Fj~re 26. By holding the right or left hand with index finger extended. palm up or palmdown, the proper procedure for installing lefT- and righT-lay rope on a smooth drum can beeasily determined.

35

L- -R

CROSS OVER

Figure 27. After the first layer is woundon a drum. the point at which the rope windsback for each turn is called the cross-over.

The proper direction of winding the first layer on a smooth drum can bedetermined by standing behind the drum and looking along the path the ropetravels, and then following one oLthe procedures illustrated in Figure 26.The diagrams show: the correct relationship that should be maintained betweenthe direction of lay of the rope (right or left), the direction of rotation of thedrum (overwind or underwind), winding from left to right or right to left.

DRUMS-MULTIPLE LAYERSMany installations are designed with requirements for winding more than one layerof wire rope on a drum. Winding multiple layers presents some further problems.

The first layer should wind in a smooth, tight helix which, if the drum isgrooved, is already established. The grooves allow the operator to work off theface of the drum, and permit the minimum number of dead turns.

A smooth drum presents an additional problem, initially, as the wire ropemust be wound in such a manner that the first layer will be smooth and uniform andwill provide a firm foundation for the layers of rope that will be wound over it.The first layer of rope on the smooth drum should be wound with tension sufficientto assure a close helix--each turn being wound as close as possible to thepreceding turn-and most, if not all, of the entire layer being used as dead turns.The first layer then acts as a helical groove which will guide the successivelayers. Unlike wire ropes operating on groove drums, the first layer should notbe unwound from a smooth-faced drum with multiple layers.

After the rope has wound completely across the face of the drum (eithersmooth or grooved), it is forced up to a second layer at the flange. The' rope thenwinds back across the drum in the opposite direction, lying in the depressionbetween the turns of the rope on the first layer. Advancing across the drum onthe second layer, the rope, following the "grooves"'formed by the rope on the firstlayer, actually winds back one turn in each revolution of the drum. The ropemust then cross two rope "grooves" in order to advance acrOss the drum foreach turn. The point at which this occurs is known as the cross-over.Cross-over is unavoidable on the second, and all succeeding layers. Figure 27illustrates the winding of a rope on the second layer from left to right, andfrom right to left-the direction is shown by the arrows.

At these cross-over points, the rope is subjected to severe abrasion andcrushing as it is pushed over the two rope "grooves" and rides across the crown ofthe first rope layer. The scrubbing of the rope, as this is happening, caneasily be heard.

There is, however, a special drum grooving available that will greatlyminimize the damage that can occur atcross-over points.

Severe abrasion can also be reduced by applying the rule for the correct rdpelay (right- or left-lay) to the second layer rather than to the first layer. It is forthiS reason that the first layer of a smdoth drum should be wound tight andused as dead turns.

36

'"

5 Operation and Maintenance of Wire Rope

37

TABLESMAXIMUM ALLOWABLE RADIAL BEARING PRESSURES OF ROPES'ONVARIOUS SHEAVE MATERIALS (pOUNDS PER SQUARE INCH--PSI):'

>',OJ,

Regular Lay Rope, psi Lang Lay Rope, psiFlattened

StrandLang Lay,

Material 6x7 6 x 19 6x37 8 x 19 6x7 6 x 19 6 x 37 psi Remarks

Wood 150 250 300 350 165 275 330 400On end grain ofbeech, hickory, gum.

Cast tron 300 480 585 680 350 550 660 800Based on minimumBrinell hardness of 125.

30-40 Carbon. BasedCarbon Steel Casting 550 900 1,075 1,260 600 1,000 1,180 1,450 on minimum Brinell

hardness of 160.

Not advised unlessChilled·Cast Iron 650 1,100 1,325 1,550 715 1,210 1,450 1,780 surface is uniform \ .....

in hardness.

Grooves must be groundManganese Steel 1,470 2,400 3,000 3,500 1,650 2,750 3,300 4,000 and sheaves balanced

for high-speed service.

38

Values for the allowable unit radial pressures given in Table 8 are intendedsolely as a user's guide. And use of these figures does not guarantee preventionof any trouble. Further, the values should not be taken as restrictive with regard toother or new materials. There are, for example, certain elastomers in currentuse that are apparently providing excellent service, but since there is insufficientdata to support specific recommendations, such products are not mentioned.

BENDING WIRE ROPE OVER SHEAVES AND DRUMSSheaves, drums and rollers must be oia correct design if optimum service isto be obtained from both the equipment and the wire rope. Because there are manydifferent types of equipment and many different operating conditions, it is

.. difficult to identify the one specific size of sheave or drum most economicalfor every application.

The rule to follow is this: the most economical design is the one that mostclosely accommodates the limiting factors imposed by the operating conditionsand the manufacturer's recommendations.

All wire ropes operating over sheaves and drums are subjected to cyclicbending stresses, hence the rope wires will eventually fatigue. The magnitude ofthese stresses depends-all other factors being constant-uponthe.ratioofthe diameter oithesheaveor drum to the diameter of the rope. Frequently,fatigue from cyclic, high-magnitude bending stress is the principalEeason forshortened rope service.

To illustrate, in order to bend around a sheave, the rope's strands and wiresmust move relative to one another. This movement compensates for thedifference in diameter between the underside and the top side ofthe rope, thedistance being greater along the top side than it is on the underside next tothe groove. Proper rope action (and service) is adversely affected if shifting thewires cannot compensate for this situation. Also, there can be additionalmotion retardation because of excessive pressure caused by a sheave whose groovediameter is too small, or by a lack of lubrication. Changing the bending directionfrom one sheave to another should be scrupulously avoided as this reversebending still further accelerates wire fatigue.

The relationship between sheave diameter and rope diameter is a criticalfactor that is used to establish the rope's fatigue resistance or relative service life.It is expressed in the tread D/d ratio mentioned earlier in which D is the treaddiameter of the sheave and d is the diameter of the rope. Table 9 lists "suggested"and "minimum" values for this ratio for various rope constructions. Tables 10and 11 show the effect of rope constructions and D/d ratios on service life.

39

TABLE 9 ,RECOMMENDED SHEAVE AND DRUM RATIOS

Suggested MinimumConstruction D/d* ratio D/d* ratio

6x 7 72 4219 x 7 or 18 x 7 51 34

6 x 19 Seale 51 346x25B 45 306x27H 45 306x30G 45 306 x 21 filler wire 45 306 x 25 filler wire· 39 266 x 31 Warrington Seale 39 266 x 36 Warrington Seale 35 238 x 19 Seale 41 278 x 25 filler wire 32 216 x 41 Warrington Seale 32 216 x 42 Tiller 21 14 I

\",

*D =tread diameter of sheave d =nominal diameter of rope

To find any recommended or minimum sheave tread diameterfrom the above table, the ratio for the construction rope tobe used is multiplied by its nominal diameter (d). For example:The minimum sheave tread diameter for a Y2" 6 x 21 FW ropewould be Vz inch (nominal diameter) x 30 (minimum ratio)Or 15 inches.

Note: These values are for reasonable service. Other, different.values are permitted by various standards such as ANSI.API, PCSA, etc. Smaller values mean shorter life.

40

.. )

TABLE 10RELATIVE BENDING LIFE F~CTORS

RopeConstruction

6x718 x 7

6 x 19 S6 x 30 Style G6 x 25 Style B6 x 21 FW6x25FW

Factor

.57

.67

.80

.80

.80

.921.00

RopeConstruction

6 x 31 WS6 x 36 WS8 x 25 FW6 x 41 SFW6 x 43 FWS6 x 49 SWS6 x 42 Tiller

Factor

1.091.311.391.391.541.542.00

If a change in construction is being considered as a means of obtaining longer service on a ropeinfluenced principally by bending stresses. the table of factors may be useful. For example: achange from a 6 x 25 FW with a factor of 1.00 to a 6 x 36 WS with a factor of 1.31 would meanthe service life could be expected to increase 1.31 times or 31 %.

It must be pointed out however that these factors apply only for bending stresses. Other factorswhich may contribute to rope deterioration have not been considered .

. SERVICE LIFE CURVE FOR VARIOUS Old RATIOS

!

I I I! !

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I I !I I !/.! I !

! I ! ! I I II !

i I i I i /~1I

I II

I :/! j

, i ! /!I /ii !

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I i , / i !I

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i '/ I

! / ;

,/1 ! i

i V I !

i V I !..v- I I i

~ i

Figure 28. This service life curve only takesinto account bending and tensile stresses. Itsapplicability can be illustrated by thefollowing example: A rope working witha Did ratio of 26 has a relative service lifeof 17. If the same rope works over a sheavethat increases its Did ratio to 35, the relativ~

service life increases to 32. In short, thisrope used on a larger sheave, increases itsservice life from 17 to 32--or 88%.

100

90

eo

70wu.:::iwu 60>a:wII)

w50Q..oa:w> 40!i...JW

a: 30

20

10

41

10 20 30Old RATIO

40 50 60

Figure 29. Cross-sections illustrating 3sheave-groove conditions revealed by themetric arrangement of wires in the strand.tight; and C is too loose.

B

B

A

A

c

c

(\

INSPECTION OF SHEAVES AND DRUMSUnder normalconditions, machines receive periodic inspections, and their over-allcondition is recorded. Such inspections usu~lly include the drum, sheaves, andany other parts that may come into contact with the wire rope and sUbject it towear. As an additional precaution, rope-related working parts, particularly in theareas described below, should be re-inspected prior to the installation of anew wire rope.

The very first item to be checked when examining sheaves, rollers and drums,is the condition of the grooves (Figs. 29,30, and 31). To check the size, contourand amount of wear, a groove gage is used. As shown in Figure 29, the gageshould contact the groove for about 150 0 of arc.

. Two types of groove gages are in general use and it is important to notewhich of these is being used. The two differ by their respective percentageover nominal.

For new or re-machined grooves, the groove gage is nominal plus the fulloversize percentage. The gage carried by most wire rope representatives today isused for worn grooves and is made nominal plus ~ the oversize percentage.

This latter gage is intended to act as a sort of "no-go" gage. Any sheave witha. groove smaller than this must be re-grooved or, in all likelihood, the existingrope will be damaged.

When the sheave is re-grooved it should be machined to the dimensions for \,"new and machined" grooves given in Table 11. This table lists the requirements fornew or re-machined grooves, giving the groove gage diameter in terms of thenominal wire rope diameter plus a percentage thereof. Similarly; the size of the"no-go" gage is given, against which worn grooves are judged. Experiencehas clearly demonstrated that the service life of the wire rope will be materiallyincreased by strict adherence to these standards.

o

Figure 30. Th.ese sheave-groove cross­sections represent 3 wire rope seatingconditions: A. a new rope in a new groove;B. a new rope in a worn groo"e; and C. aworn rope in a worn groove. (See also Figs;29 and 31.)

GROOVEGAGE

Figure 31. 11Iustrating the various dimensions of a s~~ave. and the lise of a.~roovegage.

42

TABLE 11MINIMUM SHEAVE- AND DRUM-GROOVE DlMENSIONS*

~""~"

Nominal Groove Radius

Rope Diameter New Worn

1 2 3 4 5 6inches mm inches mm inches mm

;I.; 6.5 .137 3.48 .129 3.280/16 8.0 .167 4.24 .160 4.06% 9.5 .201 5.11 .190 4.83i!J.6 11 .234 5.94 .220 5.59'h 13 .271 6.88 .256 6.50

~16 14.5 .303 7.70 .288 7.32% 16 .334 8.48 .320 8.1334 19 .401 10.19 .380 9.65% 22 .468 11.89 .440 11.18

1 26 .543 13.79 .513 13.03

PAl 29 .605 15.37 .577 14.661;1.; 32 .669 16.99 .639 16.231% 35 .736 18.69 .699 17.751'h 38 .803 20.40 .759 19.281% 42 .876 22.25 .833 21.16

134 45 .939 23.85 " .897 22.78IV!! 48 1.003 25.48 .959 24.362 51 1.070 27.18 1.019 25.882;.s 54 1.137 28.88 1.079 27.412;1.; 58 1.210 30.73 1.153 29.29

2% 61 1.273 32.33 1.217 30.912lh 64 2.338 33.99 1.279 32.492% 67 1.404 35.66 1.339 34.01234 71 1.481 37.62 1.409 35.792% 74 1.544 39.22 1.473 37.41

3 77 1.607 40.82 1.538 39.073;.s 80 1.664 42.27 1.598 40.5931,4 83 1.731 43.97 1.658 42.113% 87 1.807 45.90 1.730 43.94

*Values given are applicable to grooves in 31h 90 1.869 47.47 1.794 45.57sheaves and drums: they are not general1ysuitable for pitch design since this may 334 96 1.997 50.72 1.918 48.72involve other factors.

4 103 2.139 54.33 2.050 52.07Further. the dimensions do not apply to 4;1.; 109 2.264 57.51 2.178 55.32traction-type elevators: in this circumstance. 41h " 115 2.396 60.86 2.298 58.37drum- and sheave-groove tolerances should 434 122 2.534 64.36 2.434 61.82conform to the elevator manufacturer'sspecifications.

67.64 2.557 64.955 128 2.663Modern drum design embraces extensive 5 1,4 135 2.804 71.22 . 2.691 68.35considerations heyond the scope of this

5lh 141 2.929 74.40 2.817 71.55puhlication. It should also be noted that

'<.:.::::- drum grooves are now produced with a 534 148 3.074 78.08 2.947 74.85number of oversize dimensions and pitches 6 154 3.198 81.24 3.075 78.16applicable to certain service re"quirements.

43

THE "X·CHART"-ABRASION RESISTANCEVS. BENDING·FATIGUE RESISTANCEWhile there is a possibility, there is little likelihood that an application can befound for which there is a precisely suitable wire rope--one that can satisfyevery indicated requirement.

As with all engineering design probll::ms, feasible solutions demandcompromise to some degree. At times, it becomes necessary to settle for less thanoptimum resistance to abrasion in order to obtain maximum flexibility; thelatter being a more important requirement for the given job. A typical example ofthis kind of trade-off would be in selecting a highly flexible rope on an overheadcrane. Conversely, in a haulage installation, a rope with greater resistance toabrasion would be chosen despite the fact that such ropes are markedlyless flexible.

Two compelling factors that govern most decisions as to the selection of awire rope are: abrasion resistance, and resistance to bending fatigue. Strikinga proper balance with respect to these two important characteristics demandsjudgment of a very high order. A graphic presentation of just such comparison ofqualities between the most widely used rope constructions and others is givenby means of the X-chart (Fig. 32).

Referring to this chart when selecting a rope, the mid-point (at the X)comes closest to an even balance between abrasion resistance and resistance tobending fatigue. Reading up or down along either leg of the X, the inverserelationship becomes more apparent as one quality increases and the otherdecreases.

Fijture 32. The wire rope inuusth' refers tothis as the X-chl/rl. It servesto illustr:ite theinverse relationship hetween ahrasionresistance :md resistance to henuing fatigue ina representative numher of the most widelylIszJ ....·ire ropes.

o 6z<10::1-- 9(f)

0::10Wa.

~120::

3:12oW'00

i/i,12I--::::>

014~

o. 0:: 16

WOJ:2

0::::>

Z 18

44

<~ e,"~_U',>- "tv_~~ «.,,'V'

0~U'/U'

~'"~1-0 . ,0e,~ /: t<;-'V'

o 'V'<Qs-~11

0:,,0 -~1'.<v G'

~(j ~,>-,,'V' /Q

e,.(:J v~«-0 ~Q

,,~ ~~'V'''' <7r

v<V ~U',>-

611.7

611.195

611.2\ FW

FLATTENEDSTRAND

6x25 FW

6x31 WS

6x36 WS

611.41 SFVJ

6x49SWS

:~

The term flexibility is frequently thought of as being synonymous withresistance to bending fatigue. This is not true. Flexibility refers to the capability offlexing or bending. While a high degree of fatigue resistance may sometimesaccompany the flexibility characteristic, it does not necessarily follow that this is so.A fiber core rope, for example, is more flexible than an IWRC rope. Yet, whenthe IWRC rope is bent around undersize sheaves at relatively high loads, it willusually perform better than the more flexible fiber core rope. The reason forthis lies in the. ability of IWRC rope to retain its roundness and freedom of internalmovement. Under the same conditions, a fiber core rope will flatten andinhibit free internal adjustment, thereby leading to early failure.

As noted earlier, a design choice is almost invariably the result of compromise.Ultimately, what issought is an efficient, economical solution, hence whateverthe compromise, it must help achieve this goal.

BREAKING IN A NEW WIRE ROPEA new wire rope requires careful installation and close adherence to followingall the appropriate procedures previously noted. After the rope has' been..'installedand the ends secured in the correct manner, the mechanism should be startedcarefully and then permitted to run through a cycle of operation at very slowspeed. During this trial operation, a very close watch should be kept on allworking parts-sheaves, drums, rollers-to make certain that the rope "Junsfreely, and without any possible obstructions as it makes its way through thesystem. If no problems appear in running the rope, the next step should includeseveral run-throughs of the normal operational cycle under light load and atreduced speed. This procedure allows the component parts of the new rope to makea gradual adjustment to the actual operating conditions.

WIRE ROPE AND OPERATIONS INSPECTIONTo assure a high level of safety while keeping the annual cost of wire rope at areasonably low level, it is essential to maintain a well-planned program ofperiodic inspection. Frequently, there are statutory and/ or regulatory agencieswhose requirements must be adhered to, but whether or not these exist in a givenlocale, the wire rope user can be guided by the suggested procedures that follow.

A brasion, bending and crushing represent the ABC's of wire rope abuse,.and iUs the primary goal of good inspection practice to discover such conditionsearly enough so that corrections can be made or ropes replaced safely andwith minimum effort. When any degradation indicates a loss of original ropestrength, a decision must be made quickly as to allowing the rope to remain inservice. But such a decision can only be made by an experienced inspector.And his determination will be based_on: ---.I.) Details of the equipment's operaTion: Will the rope break?2) Frequency of inspection: Will it be safe until the next scheduled inspection?3) Maintenance history: How rapid is the degradation?4) Consequences of failure: Will it present hazards to humans?5) Historical records of similar equipment

To make certain that sufficient information is obtained. following areguidelines. that should be adhered to:

45

:: '

If the fleet angle (Fig. 34) is large, it may be necessary to accept a smallerarc of contact at the throat; 1300 for exa.mple instead of 150 0. This is doneto avoid scrubbing the rope on the flange of the sheave.

As previously noted, the groove size is evaluated on the basis of how thegage leaf fits the groove. Daylight under the gage is not tolerable when using theworn groove gage. If a full over-size gage is used, some daylight may be acceptable,but this really must be judged by relating the measurement to the actual sizeof the rope.

For new rope, extra caution should be observed as to its fit in the groove.Characteristically, ropes become smaller in diameter immediately after beingplaced in service. As a result, they would operate satisfactorily in a "worn"groove~ cine that was gaged OK by the "worn" groove gage. Nonetheless, in somecases, a rope may not "pull down," and if this happens, abnormal wear may occur.

It is important to remember that a tight groove not only pinches anddamages the rope but that the pinching prevents the necessary adjustment ofthe wires and strands. On the other hand, a groove that is too large will notprovide sufficient support; in this case, the rope will flatten and thereby restrictthe free sliding action cif the wires and strands.

The size of the groove is not the only critical item to be examined closely.The condition of the groove is also an important factor of concern. Is it smooth orimprinted? If the groove is imprinted then it must be re-machined or, if it isimprinted too deeply, it means that sheave, roller or drum must be replaced.If replacement is indicated, a larger sheave or drum should be installed ifpossible, or a harder material should be specified for the replacement.

Groove examination should also concern itself with how the groove is wearing.If it is worn off-center, thereby forcing the rope to undercut or to rub againstthe flange, it then becomes necessary to correct the alignment of the reevingsystem, and to specify a harder material.

When checking the grooves, the bearings of the sheaves and rollers shouldalso be examined. They should turn easily. If not, each bearing must be properlylubricated. "Wobble" in the sheave-from broken or worn bearings-is notacceptable. Bad bearings will set up vibrations in the wire rope that can causerapid deterioration unless the condition is remedied. Bad bearings also increasethe force on the rope that is needed to move a given load, since frictionforces will be greatly increased.

Sheaves with broken flanges may allow the rope to jump from the sheaveand become fouled in the machinery. When this happens, the rope is cut;curled, and the crowns of the wires in the strands are burred. There is ampleevidence to support then.lle that shea.ves with broken flanges must bereplaced immediately.

A sheave or'drumwitha flat spot can induce a "Whip" into the line. This\vhip. or wave. travels until it is stopped by the end terminal, at which point the ropemay bend severely. This condition helps to accelerate the fatigue breakageof wires. Sometimes the reeving is such that the whip or wave is arrested by asheave. or the drum itself. In these circumstances. the whipping will causewire breaks along the crowns of the strands. Obviously, sheaves or drums thatexCite vibrations of this sort, must b~ repaired or replaced.

46

".\

In addition to the items listed above. inspection should also focus on any andall conditions that could cause wear and eventual damage to the wire rope.

For example, plain-face (smooth) drums can develop grooves or ropeimpressions that will prevent the rope from winding properly. Imprinting is

. greatest at the pickup point when the machine is accelerating. If this happens,the surface should be repaired by machining or replaced. The winding should bechecked to make sure that the rope is winding "thread wound" (Fig. 27).

Excessive wear in grooved drums should be checked for variations eitherin the depth or pitch of the grooves. This condition is particularly criticalwhen double drums are used because a differential force will be set up that canbreak the drum and shear the shaft.

No matter what type of drum is in use, excessive drum wear will usually resultin rapid rope deterioration, This condition will accelerate rapidly when windingin multiple layers.

STRENGTH LOSS OF WIRE ROPE OVERSTATIONARY SHEAVES OR PINSRope breaking strength is determined in a standard test wherein fittings areattached to the ends of the rope and the rope is pulled in a straight line.

If, however, the rope passes over acurved surface (such asa sheave or pin)its strength "is decreased." The amount of such reduction will depend on theseverity of the bend as expressed by the Did ratio. For example, a rope bentaround a pin of its own diameter will have only 50% of the strength attributed toit in the standard test. This is called "50% efficiency" (Fig. 33) . Even atDid ratios of 40, there may be a loss of up to 5 % . At smaller bid ratios, theloss in strength increases quite rapidly.

The angle of bend need not be I 80 0• 900

, or even 45 0; relatively

small bends can cause considerable loss.All discussion of strength pre-supposes a gradually applied load not

in excess of 1" /minute.

3834302616 22Old RATIO

141062

I I I. II ! I i I

I

I i I I I

~I i I I i iI I I

,

i\J I II ! ! i I i II I I I

I 1\..1 I I I·. ! i. I!

I i I I 1,

I I

I ! N.. I i I,

1

:

i I i I II i j I I I

I I [ !~: , , : i I

I I II; ! I I

! I I I II

1 ~ I ;, ,

! !I i I !

i i i ii I

,I

I j i i II

Ii I ! 1 iI i I I

90

100

60

EFFICIENCY OF WIRE ROPE WHEN BENT OVER SHEAVES OR PINS OF VARIOUS SIZES

50

!!13 70zwU~

~ 60

Figure 33. Derived from standard test data.this curve relates rope strength efficiency tovarious Did ratios. The curve is based onstatic loads only and applies to 6 x 19 and6 x 17 class ropes.

47

FIXEDSHEAVE

II1'\

/1\I \, \I \I \I \,--r ~ FLOATING

I "",---SHEAVE-1 r--

I \I \I \I \I \I \I \I \, \I \I \I \I \I \I 1/20MIN IlZoMiN \

11i(2°MAX IIIZOMAX \1\.,.... f1 "" 0; ~...,

I LEFT RIGHT \I FLEET FLEET \I ANGLE ANGLE \

Figure 34. This illustration of wire roperunning from a fixed sheave. over a floatingsheave. and then oil to n smooth drum.graphically defines the f1('I'II/II~~h" '

FLEET ANGLEThe achievement of even windirigorta smooth faced drum is closely relatedto the ma.gnitude ofthe D/ d ratio, the speed of rotation, load on the rope, and thefleet angle. Of all these factors,the one that exerts perhaps the greatestinfluence on winding characteristics. is the fleet angle.

The schematic drawing (Fig. 34) shows an installation where the wirerope runs from a fixed sheave. over a floating sheave. and then on to the surfaceof a smooth drum. The fleet angle (Fig. 34) may be defined as the includedangle between two lines; one line drawn through the middle of the fixed sheaveand the drum-and perpendicular to the axis of the drum and a second line drawnfrom the flange of the drum to the base of the groove in the sheave.(The drum flange represents the farthest position to which the rope can travelacross the drum.) There are left and right fleet angles. measured to the leftor right of the center line of the sheave, respectively.

It is necessary to restrict the fleet angle on installations where wire ropepasses over the lead or fixed sheave and onto a drum. For optimum efficiencyand service characteristics. the angle here should not exceed 11/2 ° for a smoothdrum, nor 2° for a grooved drum. Fleet angles larger than these suggestedlimits can cause such problems as bad winding on smooth drums, and the roperubbing against the flanges of the sheave grooves. Larger angles also createsituations where there is excessive crushing and abrasion of the rope on the drum. "-., / 1Conversely, small fleet angles-less than lh o-should also be avoided sincetoo small an angle will cause the rope to pile up.

FACTORS AFFECTING THE SELECTION OF WIRE ROPEThe key to choosing the rope best suited for the job, lies in an accurate estimationof the important requirements. Correct appraisal of the following will simplifythe selection process:

1) Strength-resistance to breaking2) Resistance to bending fatigue3) Resistance 10 vibrational fatigue4) Resistance to abrasion5) Resistance to crushing6) Reserve strengthIt is well-nigh impossible for any single rope to have top values in all of the

above qualities. The rule, in fact, seems to be that a high rating in one almost_always means lower ratings in others. The first task is to make a careful analysis of

the job requirements, establishing priorities among these requirements, andthen selecting the rope on a trade-off basis. This will provide the best possiblebalance by sacrificing the least essential advantages in order to obtainmaximum benefits in the most important requirements.

Following, are brief explanations ofthe six factors previously listed:1) Strength-resistance to breaking .,

As has been noted at the very outset. a wire rope is a machine-a fairly, complexdeviCe that transmits and modifies force and motion. Thus, the very firstconsideration in choosing a "machine," is to determine the potential workload. Stated in tenus of wire rope, this means establishing the actual16adthat is to be moved. To this known dead weight, there must be added thoseloads that are caused by abrupt starts (acceleration), sudden stops,shock loads, high speeds, friction of sheave .bearings. Another item in thisequation is the loss of efficiency that occurs when the rope is bent oversheaves. All of these loads must be summed up in order to determine the truetotal load that will ultimately be handled.

For an average operation, this figure is generaliy multiplied by a "designfactor" of 5. For increased mobility or design space economy, a designfactor of less than 5 is used at times. but if the load is especially valuable,or if there is danger to human life, a larger design factor (up to 8 or 9) is usedin some instances. A still larger factor is sometimes found to be desirable.The factored load is now used to choose the size, grade, and core of the wirerope to be considered. (An extended discussion of Design Factors can befound on page 76.)

2) Resistance to bending fatigueTo describe this, a close analogy can be made with a paper clip. If it isrepeatedly bent back and forth at one point. it will eventually break. The reasonfor this is a phenomenon called "metal fatigue." To some degree, the samething happens when a wire rope is bent around sheaves. drums, and rollers,The sharper-or more acute-the bend. the quicker the fatigue factordoes its work. Accelerating the rate of travel also speeds up fatigue; close­coupled re\'erse bending will speed it up at an even greater rate.

But fatigue can be greatly reduced if sheaves and drums have, at the

49

very least, the recommended minimum diameter (Table 9). As for the rope,there is one governing overall rule: the greater the number of wires in eachstrand, the greater the resistance of the rope to bending fatigue.

The subject of metal fatigue is covered by a large and extensive body ofliterature. It is not the intent of this publication to discuss, even in broadterms, the theoretical concepts of the phenomenon. It will simply be notedhere that the concept of fatigue as a cause of metal "crystallization" isincorrect since all metals are at all times crystalline in structure. The crystallineappearancein many fractures is not indicative of "crystallization."

3) Resistance to vibrational fatigueVibration, from whatever source, sends shock waves through the rope. Thesewaves are a form of energy that must be absorbed at some point. This pointmay appear at various places-'-the end attachment, the tangent where the ropecontacts the sheave, or at any other place where the waves are arrested andthe energy absorbed.

In the normal operation of a machine or hoist, wire ropes develop aWave action that can be observed either as a low frequency or as a sharp, highfrequency cycle. A good example of this is found in shaft hoists. When thecage is just starting up, the rope has a very slow swing within the shaft. But,by the time the cage reaches the top of the shaft, the initially low frequencyhas become a high frequency vibration. The result is eventual breakage of thewires at the attachment of the cage.

Another type of vibrational fatigue is found in operations where there iscyclic loading. Such loadings would be found, for example, in the boomsuspension systems of draglines. Here, the energy is absorbed at the endfittings of the pendants or at the tangent point where the rope contacts thesheave. In this case, the "vibration" is torsional as well as transverse.

4) Resistance to abrasionAbrasion is one of the most common destructive conditions to which wire ropeis exposed. It will occur whenever a rope either rubs against or is draggedthrough any soil or other material. It happens whenever a rope passes arounda sheave or drum. And, it takes place within the rope itself whenever it isloaded or bent. Abrasive action weakens the rope simply by removing metalfrom both inside and outside wires.

When excessive wear is encountered in an operation, the problemusually stems from faulty sheave alignment, incorrect groove diameters, aninappropriate fleet angle, or improper drum winding. There may, however, beother causes. If, on investigation, none of these common conditions arefound to be causative factors. the solution may lie in changing to a moresuitable rope construction. In making such a change, it is helpful toremember that larger oliter wires alld lang-lay ropes are more abrasion resistantthan regular-lay ropes. (See p.lO for limitations of lang-lay ropes,)

5) Resistance to crushingRope can be crushed I ) by its own pressure against a sheave. 2) fromimproperly sized grooves. and 3) from overwinding on a drum.

The pressure of rope against a sheave is determined by the sheavediameter and the load. The pressure of rope to a drum is influenced in great

50

measure by"the support of the groove; smooth drums have a more adverse"effect than those that are groov~d.

Overwinding is also a cause of wear even when the winding is done in anordeiIy (thread-winding) manner. Irregular or scramble winding is aneven greater cause of damage.

Obviously, in each of these cases, reducing the load will ease the condition.If, however, this is not feasible, offending sheaves should be replaced withsheaves that have larger tread diameters. Unsuitable drums and/or windingconditions should be corrected. Otherwise, the rope will have to be replacedby one with a construction better designed to resist the abuse.

If the original rope has a fiber core, the replacement should have a steelcore because a steel core rope will provide greater physical support. Andhere it is well to remember that regular-lay ropes are better able to resistcrushing than lang-lay ropes.

6) Reserve strengthThe reserve strength of a wire rope is defined as the combined strength of all thewires it contains, except those in the outside layer of the strands. . -.

The foHowing listing (Table 12) gives the percent of reserve strength for6- or 8-strand wire rope relative to the number of outside wires ineach strand:

TABLE12

Numberof

OutsideWires

3'456789·

1012141618

51

Percentof

ReserveStrength

o5

13182227,323643495458

r.,

'GUIDELINE TO INSPECTIONSAND REPORTS FOR EQUIPMENT,WIRE ROPE AND WIRE ROPE SLINGS1) Maintain all inspection records and reports for the length of time deemed

appropriate.2) Prior to each daily use, the following procedure should be followed.

a. Check all equipment functions.b. Lower load blocks and check hooks for deformation or cracks.c. During lowering procedure and the following raising cycle, observe the rope

and the reeving. Particular notice should be paid to kinking, twisting or. other deformities. Drumwinding conditions should also be noted.

d. Check wire rope and slings for visual signs of anything that can cause themto be unsafe to use, i.e., broken wires, excessive wear, kinking or twisting,and marked corrosion. Particular attention should be given to any newdamage during operation.

3) Monthly inspections are recommended with a signed report by an authorizedcompetent inspector. The Monthly Reports should include inspection ofthe following:a. All functional operating mechanisms for excessive wear of components,

brake system parts and lubrication.b. Limit switches.c. Crane hooks for excess 'throat opening or twisting along with a visual

for cracks.d. Wire rope and reeving for conditions causing possible removal.e: Wire rope slings for excessive wear, broken wires, kinking, twisting and

mechanical abuse.f. All end connections suchas hooks, shackles, turnbuckles, plate clamps,

sockets,'etc. for excessive wear, and distortion.4) An Annual Inspection with signed report must be made for the following:

a. Crane hook for cracks.b. Hoist drum for wear or cracks.c. Structural members for cracks, corrosion and distortion.d, For loose structural connections such as bolts, rivets, and weldments.

.WIRE ROPE INSPECTIONThe following is a fairly comprehensive listing of critical inspection factors.It is not, however, presented as a substitute for an experienced inspector. It is rathera user's guide to the accepted standards by which ropes must be judged.1) Abrasion

Rope abrades when it moves through an abrading medium or over drums andsheaves. Most standards require that rope is to be removed if the outerwire wear exceeds 1/3 of the original outer wire diameter. This is not easyto determine and discovery relies upon the experience gained by theinspector in measuring wire diameters of discarded ropes.

\.

-'",J. ,

52

. .. ~,'

2) Rope stretchAll ropes will stretch when loads are initially applied. For an extendeddiscussion of stretch, see pp. 73 and following.

As rope deteriorates from wear, fatigue, etc. (excluding accidentaldamage), continued application ofa load of constant magnitude will producevarying amounts of rope stretch. A "stretch" curve plotted for stretch vs.time (Fig. 35) displays three discrete phases:Phase I. Initial stretch, during the early (beginning) period of rope service,caused by the rope adjustments to operating conditions (constructional stretch) .Phase 2. Following break-in, there is a long period-the greatest part ofthe rope's service life-during which a slight increase in stretch takes placeover an extended time. This results from normal wear, fatigue, etc.On the plotted curve-stretch vs. time-this portion would almost be ahorizontal straight line inclined slightly upward from its initial level.Phase 3. Thereafter, the stretch begins to increase at a quicker rate. This meansthat the rope is reaching the point of rapid deterioration; a re~;ult ofprolonged subjection to abrasive wear, fatigue, etc. This secoridupturn ofthe curve is a warning indicating that the rope should soon be removed.

::l:U....Wa::towQ.

oa::....oVl....z::>

I I wI I a::

I I 3-::l: I I ~, ,

f-~I

"'-a: I I Z.... I I :;:

'-.VlI g-..J I I

i..~ NORMAL LljE STRETCH·I I

g:-f-e I 'ju I I

I::>

IIa: I

f-t;;z

1I I 11-,0 I

U I

I I I I I 1 ~-I ....

I ::>

I;5-

JI II I

/ I II

I I

/ II

II I

V I I

I II

UNITS OF ROPE LIFE

Figure 35. This curve is plotted to show the relationship of wire rope stretch to the variousstages of a rope's life.

53

"j

3) Reduction in rope diameter ,Any marked reduction in rope diamete~ indicates degradation. Such reductionmay be attributed to:

excessive external abrasioninternal or external corrosionloosening or tightening of rope layinner wire breakagerope stretchironing or milking of strands

In the past, whether or not a rope was allowed to remain in servicedepended to a great extent on the rope's diameter at the time of inspection.Currently this practice has undergone significant modification.

Previously, a decrease in the rope's diameter was compared with publishedstandards of minimum diameters. The amount of change in diameter is,of course, useful in assessing a rope's condition. But, comparing this figurewith a fixed set of values is, for the most part, useless. These long-acceptedminima are not, in themselves, of any serious significance since they donot take into account such factors as: 1) variations in compressibility betweenIWRC and Fiber Core; 2) differences in the amount of reduction indiameter from abrasive wear, or from core compression, or a combinationof both; and 3) the actual original diameter of the rope rather than itsnominal value.

As a matter of fact, all ropes will show a significant reduction in diameterwhen a load is applied. Therefore, a rope manufactured close to its nominalsize may, when it is subjected to loading, undergo a greater reductionin diameter than that stipulated in the minimum diameter table. Yet, u~derthese circumstances, the rope would be declared unsafe although it may,in actuality, be safe.

As an example of the possible error at the other extreme, we can take thecase of a rope manufactured near the upper limits of allowable size. If thediameter has reached a reduction to nominal or slightly below that, the tableswould show this rope to be safe: But it should, perhaps, be removed.

Today, evaluations of the rope diameter are first predicated on acomparison bf the original diameter-when new and subjected to a knownload-with the current reading under like circumstances. Periodically,throughout the life of the rope, the actual diameter should be recorded whenthe rope is under equivalent loading and in the same operating section.This procedure, if followed carefully, reveals a common rope characteristic:after an initial reduction, the diameter soon stabilizes. Later, there will be

.a continuous, albeit small, decrease in diameter throughout its life.Core deterioration, when it occurs, is revealed by a more rapid

reduction in diameter and when observed it is time for removal.Deciding whether or not a rope is safe is not always a simple matter.

A number of different but interrelated conditions must be evaluated. It would be

54

dangerously unwise for an inspector to declare a rope safe for continuedservice simply because its diameter had not reached the minimum arbitrarilyestablished in a table if, at the same time, other observations lead to anopposite conclusion.

Because criteria for removal are varied, and because diameter, in itself,is a vague criterion, the table of minimum diameters has been deliberatelyomitted from this manual.

4) CorrosionCorrosion, while difficult to evaluate, is a more serious cause of degradationthan abrasion. Usually, it signifies a lack of lubrication. Corrosion willoften occur internally before there is any visible external evidence on the ropesurface. Pitting of wires is a cause for immediate rope removal. Not onlydoes it attack the metal wires. but it also prevents the rope's component partsfrom moving smoothly as it is flexed. Usually, a slight discoloration becauseof rusting merely indicates a need for lubrication.

Severe rusting, on the other hand, leads to premature fatigue failures inthe wires necessitating the rop~'s immediate removal from service. When arope shows more than one wire failure adjacent to a terminal fitting,,it shouldbe removed immediately. To retard corrosive deterioration, the ropeshould be kept well lubricated. In situations where extreme corrosive actioncan occur, it may be necessary to use galvanized wire rope.

5) KinksKinks are permanent distortions caused by loops drawn too tightly.:Ropeswith kinks must be removed from service.

6) "Bird Caging"Bird caging results from torsional imbalance that comes about because ofmistreatments such as sudden stops, the rope being pulled through tightsheaves, or wound on too small a drum. This is cause for rope replacementunless the affected portion can be removed.

7) Localized ConditionsParticular attention must be paid to wear at the equalizing sheaves.During normal operations this wear is not visible. Excessive vibration, or whipcan cause abrasion and/ or fatigue. Drum cross-over and flange pointareas must be carefully evaluated. All end fittings. including splices, shouldbe examined for worn or broken wires, loose or damaged strands,cracked fittings, worn or distorted thimbles and tucks of strands.

8) Heat DamageAfter a fire, or the presence of elevated temperatures, there may be metaldiscoloration. or an apparent loss of internal lubrication; fiber core ropes areparticularly vulnerable. Under these circumstances the rope shouldbe replaced.

9) Protruding CoreIf. for any cause. the rope core protrudes from an opening between thestrands the rope is unfit for service.

55

10) Damaged End AttachmentsCracked, bent, or broken end fittings must be eliminated. The cause shouldbe sought out and corrected. In the case of bent hooks, the throat openings-measured at the narrowest'point-should not exceed 15 % over normalnor should twisting be greater than 10°.

11) PeeningContinuous pounding is one of the causes of peening. The rope strikesagainst an object such as some'structural part of the machine, or it beatsagainst a roller, or it hits itself. Often, this can be avoided by placing protectorsbetween the rope and the object it is striking. Another common causeof peening is continuous passage-under high tension-over a sheave ordrum. Where peening action cannot be controlled, it is necessary tohave more frequent inspections and to be ready for earlier rope replacement.

Figure 36 shows the external appearance of two ropes, one of whichhas been abraded and the other peened. Also shown are the cross-section ofboth wires in these conditions.

abrasion peening

Figure 36. These plan views and cros~ sections show the effects of abrasion and peening onwire rope. Note that a crack has formed as a result of heavy peening.

56

12) ScrubbingScrubbing refers to the displacement of wires and strands as a result of rubbingaround or against an object. This, in turn, causes wear and displacement ofwires and strands along one side of the rope. Corrective measures shouldbe taken as soon as this condition is observed.

13) Fatigue FailureWires that break with square ends and show little surface wear, have usuallyfailed as a result of fatigue. Such failures can occur on the crown of thestrands, or in the valleys between the strands where adjacent strand contactexists. In almost all cases, these failures are related to bending stressesor vibration.

If diameter of the sheaves, rollers or drum cannot be increased, a moreflexible rope should be used. But, if the rope in use is already of maximumflexibility, the only remaining course that wiil help prolong its service life is tomove the rope through the system by cutting off the dead end. By movingthe rope through the system, the fatigued sections are moved to less fatiguingareas of the reeving. This technique is most frequently used in rotary drilling.

14) Broken WiresThe number of broken wires on the outside of a wire rope are 1) an indexof its general condition:, and 2) whetheror not it must be consideredfor replacement. Frequent inspection will help determine the elapsed timebetween breaks. Ropes should be replaced as soon as the wire breakage

. reaches the numbers given in Table 13. Such action must be taken without;,;,regard to the type of fracture.

On occasion, a single wire will break shortly after installation.However, if no other wires break at that time, there is no need for concern.On the other hand, should more wires break, the cause should becarefully investigated.

. _On any installation, valley breaks-i.e., where the wire ruptures betweenstrands-should be given serious attention. When two or more suchconditions are found, the rope should be replaced immediately.

It is well to remember that once broken wires appear-,-in a normalrope operating under normal conditions-a good many more will show upwithin a relatively short period. Attempting to squeeze the last measureof service from a rope beyond the allowable number of broken wires(Table 13), will create an intolerably hazardous situation. _

A diagnostic guide to some of the most prevalent rope abuses is given inTable 14, On the following pages these abuses are illustrated and described.

57

TABLE 13 WHEN TO REPLACE WIRE ROPE-BASED ON NUMBER QF BROKEN WIRES

Number Broken Wires Number Broken Wires. In Running Ropes In Standing Ropes

ANSI In One In One In One At EndNo. Equipment Rope Lay Strand Rope Lay Connection

B30.2 Overhead & Gantry Cranes 12 4Not

Specified

B30.4 Portal, Tower & Pillar Cranes 6 3 3 2

B30.5 Crawler, Locomotive & Truck Cranes 6 3 3 2

B30.6 Derricks 6 3 3 2

B30.7 Base Mounted Drum Hoists 6 3 3 2

B30.8 Floating Cranes and Derricks 6 3 3 2

AlO.4 Personnel Hoists 6* . 3 2* 2

AlO.S 'Material Hoists 6*Not Not

Specified Specified

'"Also remove for 1 valley break.

Fi~te 37. A wire that has broken under a tensile load in excess of itsstrength. is recognizedby the "cup and cone" configuration at the fracture point (A). The necking down of the wire atpoint of failure shows that failure occurred while the wire retained its ductility. A fatiguebreak is usually characterized by squared-off ends perpendicular to the wire either straightacross or Z-shaped (B & C).

58

TABLE 14 DIAGNOSTIC GUIDE TO COMMON WIRE ROPE ABUSES

,.\...::/

Abuse

Fatigue

Tension

Abrasion

Cut or Gougedor Rough Wire

Torsion orTwisting

Mashing

Corrosion

Abrasionplus Fatigue

Abrasionplus Tension

Symptoms

Wire break is transverse--either straight acrossor Z shape. Broken ends will appear grainy.

Wire break reveals predominantly cup andcone fracture with some 45 0 shear breaks.

Wire break mainly displays outer wiresworn smooth to knife edge thinness. Wirebroken by abrasion in combination withanother factor will show a combination break.

Wire ends are pinched down, mashed and/orcut in a rough diagonal shear-like manner.

Wire ends show evidence oftwist and/or cork-screw effect.

Wires are flattened and spread at broken ends.

Wire surfaces are pitted with break showingevidence either of fatigue tension or abrasion.

Reduced cross-section is broken offsquare thereby producing a chisel shape.

Reduced cross-section is necked downas in a cup and cone configuration. Tensilebreak produces a chisel shape.

59

Possible Causes

Check for rope bent around too small. a radius;vibration or whipping; wobbly sheaves; rollers toosmall; reverse bends; bent shafts; tight grooves;corrosion; small drums & sheaves; incorrect ropeconstruction; improper installation; poor endattachments. All running rope if left in servicelong enough will eventually fail by fatigue.

Check for overloads; sticky, grabby clutches;jerky cortditions; loose bearing on drum; faststarts, fast stops, broken sheave flange; wrongrope size & grade; poor end attachments.Check for too great a strain on rope after factorsof deterioration have weakened it.

Checkfor change in rope or sheave size; changein load; overburden change; frozen or stucksheaves; soft rollers, sheaves or drums; excessive·fleet angle; misalignment of sheaves; kinks; .. «.

improperly attached fittings; grit & sand; objectsimbedded in rope; improper grooving..

Check on all the above conditions for mechimicalabuse, or either abnormal or accidental forcesduring installation.

Check on all the above conditions for mechanicalabuse, or either abnormal or accidental forcesduring installation.

Check on all the above conditions for mechanicalabuse, or either abnormal or accidental forcesduring installation.

Indicates improper lubrication or storage.

A long term condition normalto the operating process,

A long term condition normalto the operating process.

,.,.,....... ,,-

I

Figure 38. An example of interstrand and core-to-strand nicking. A strand (upper member) \.has been removed from the rope (lower member) to show the equivalent lines of nicking wherestrands are in contact with one another, as well as with the core.

Fi~~re 39. A cork-screll'('d rope: the condition Came about asa result of the rope being pulled . -,"around an ohject having a small diameter.

60

,"~-

/

Figure 40. When a reel has been damaged in transit, it is a safe assumption that irreparabledamage has b.een.dane to the rOj?e.

Figure 41. Wire rope abuses during shipment create serious problems. One of the morecommon causes is improper fastening of rope end to reel. e.g., nailing Ihro/lgh the rope end.These photos show two acc('prab!(' methods: A) one end of a wire "noose" holds the rope.and the other end is secured to the reel: and B) the rope end is held in place by a l-bolt orV-bolt that is fixed to the reel.

61

Figure 42. An example of "high strand". The excessive wear of a single strand is caused by impropersocketing.

Figure 43. This rope was damaged by being rolled over some sharp object.

Figure 44. These damages were the result of bad drum winding.

62

...

Figure 45. This effect of drum crushing is evidence of bad winding conditions.

Figure 46. A deeply corrugated sheave.

Figure 47. This rope condition is called a dog leg.

63

Figure 48. An occurrence that is called a popped core.

Figure 49. This is a typical bird cage condition.

~---~

, Figure 50., Here the strand wires were snagged.

64

,,

Figure S1. A very bad condition (spiralling) brought about when the rope jumped fromthe sheave.

65

'.

Figure 52. This is the appearance of a typical tension break; a result of overloading.

A

B

Figure 53. A) Serious wear resulting from excessive bending. and B) localized wear broughtabout by poor cut-off practice.

Figure 54. This is an illustration of a seriolls condition where the rope slides over oragainst itself.

Fi~re 55. An illustration of \'Olley type fatigue breaks. Flexing the rope exposes brokenwires hidden in valleys between strands.

66

-\\ )

0'

r'"~~.

ROPE INSPECTION SUMMARYAny wire rope that has broken wires, deformed strands, variations in diameter, orany change from its normal appearance, must be considered for replacement.It is always better to replace a rope when there is any doubt concerning itscondition or its ability to perform the required task. The cost of wire ropereplacement is quite insignificant when considered in terms of human injuries,the cost of down time, or the cost of replacing broken structures.

Wire rope inspection includes examination of basic items such as:1) Rope diameter reduction2) Rope lay3) External wear4) Internal wear5) Peening6) Scrubbing7) Corrosion8) Broken wiresSome sections of rope can break up without any prior warning. Already

discussed in some detail as to cause and effect, sections where this occurs areordinarily found at the end fittings, and at the point where the rope enters orleaves the sheave groove of boom hoists, suspension systems, or other semi­operational systems. Because of the "working" that takes place: at these sections,no appreciable wear or crown breaks will appear. Under such an operation,the core fails thereby allowing the strands to notch adjacent strands.;However,when this happens, valley breaks will appear. As soon as the first vaHey breakis detected, the rope should be removed immediately.

If preventive maintenance, previously described, is diligentlyperformed, the rope life will be prolonged and the operation will be safer.Cutting off a given length of rope at the end attachment before the coredeteriOI:ates and valley breaks appear, effectively eliminates these sectionsas a source of danger.

EQUIPMENT INSPECTIONAny undetected fault on a sheave, roller, or drum-be it of relatively major orminor significance-can cause a rope to wear out many times faster than the wearresulting from normal operations. As a positive means of minimizing abusesand other-than-normal wear, the procedures here set forth should be adhered to.Every observation and measurement should be carefully recorded and kept insome suitable and accessible file.1) Give close examination to the method by which the rope is attached both to the

drum and to the load. Make certain that the proper means of attachmentis applied correctly, and that any safety devices in use are in satisfactoryworking order.

67

2) Carefully check the groove and working surface of every sheave, roller, anddrum, to determine whether each (groove and surface) is as near to the~orrect diameter and contour as circumstances will permit, and whether allsurfaces that are in contact with the rope are smooth and free of corrugationsor other abrasive defects.

3) Check sheaves and rollers to determine whether each turns freely, and whetherthey are properly aligned with the travel ofthe rope. All bearings must bein good operating condition and furnish adequate support to the sheaves androllers. Sheaves that are permitted to wobble will create additional forcesthat accelerate the deterioration rate of the rope.

4) If starter, filler, and riser strips on drums are used, check their condition andlocation. shouid these be worn, improperly located or badly designed, theywill cause poor winding, dog legs, and other line damage.

5) Wherever possible, follow the path that the rope will follow through a completeoperating cycle. Be on the lookout for spots on the equipment that havebeen worn bright or cut into by the rope as it moves through the system.Ordinarily, excessive abrasive wear on the rope can be eliminated at thesepoints by means of some type of protector or roller.

FIELD LUBRICATIONDuring fabrication, ropes receive lubrication; the kind and amount dependingon the rope's size, type, and anticipated use. This in-process treatment will providethe finished rope with ample protection for a reasonable time if it is storedunder proper conditions. But, when the rope is put into service, the initiallubrication may be less than needed for the full useful life of the rope. Because ofthis possibility, periodic applications of a suitable rope lubricant are necessary.

Following, are the important characteristics of a good wire rope lubricant:1) It should be free from acids and alkalis,2) It should have sufficient adhesive strength to remain on the ropes,3) It should be of a viscosity capable of penetrating the interstices between

wires and strands,4) It should not be soluble in the medium surrounding it under the actual

operating conditions,5) It should have a high film strength, and6) It should resist oxidation.

68

Before applying lubrication, accumulations of dirt or other abrasive materialshould be removed from the rope., Cleaning is accomplished with a stiff wire

.brush and solvent, and compressed,air or live steam. Immediately after it iscleaned, the rope should be lubricated. When it is normal for the rope to operatein dirt, rock or other abrasive material, the lubricant should be selected withgreat care to make certain that it will penetrate and, at the same time, will not pickup any of the material through which the rope must be dragged.

As a general rule, the most efficient and most economical means to do fieldlubrication/protection is by using some method or system that continuouslyapplies the lubricant while the rope is in operation. Many techniques are used;these include the continuous bath, dripping, pouring, swabbing, painting, orwhere circumstances dictate, automatic systems can be used to apply lubricantseither by a drip or pressure spray method (Fig. 56).

PAINTING

I

SWABBING

POURING

SPRAY NOZZLEDRIPPING

CONTINUOUS BATH

..,Fi~re 56. Lubricant application methods in general use today include continuous bath,dripping, pouring, swabbing, painting, and spraying. The arrows indicate the direction in whichthe rope is moving.

69

WIRE ROPE EFFICIENCY OVER SHEAVES(TACKLE BLOCK SYSTEM) "Some portion of a wire rope's strength---:'when operating over sheaves-isexpended in turning the sheaves and in flexing. This lost strength is not availableto lift the load, and in a multi-part tackle block system (Fig. 57) this lossfactor can be significant.

The load "seen" by the lead line (fast Ilne) under static (no-movement)conditions can be readily calculated if the load is divided by the number of partsof line as expressed in the following fbrmula:

F 1· 1 d· Total load (incl. slings, contain.ers, etc.)

ast me oa = .No. of parts of line

For example, in a four-part system (Fig. 57d) to lift 6000 Ib, the lead lineload will equal: .

6000 or 1500 Ib4

.-'." .., .,~

A. ONE· PART LINE B. TWO·PART LINE C. THREE· PART LINE D. FOUR· PART UNE E. FNE-PART LINE

Figure 57;' Commonly, used single- and multiple-sheave blocks (tackles). Static loading on therope is: A) equal to, B)Y.2of. C)V., of. D) l,4 of. and E) lis of the supported load.

70

N=45=4

Figure 58. Schematic representation of afour-part reeving system. N =the number ofparts of line supporting the load (W), andS =the number of rotating sheaves.

Moreover, if this system has ball or roller bearings in the sheaves~ the leadline load will increase to 1651 lb when the load starts to move. On the otherhand, if the sheaves have plain bearings such as bronze bushings, the lead line loadwill increase to 1851 lb.

In an 8-part system with plain bearings, the lead line load jumps from750 lb to 10861b-an increase of 45%! Derricks often use 8 or more parts in theboom support system. The schematic diagram (Fig. 58) shows 4-part reeving.This system has the same number of sheaves as there are parts of line.

The following procedure presumes this condition throughout. Provisionfor extra lead sheaves are given at the end of this discussion.

To calculate the lead-line load, the combined load of the container, contents_and lifting attachments is multiplied by the lead line factor as follows:

Lead line load = lead-line factor x load

TABLE 15 LEAD-LINE FACTORS*

Parts With Plain With Rollerof Line BearingSheaves Bearing Sheaves

1 .917 .9622 .568 .5303 .395 .3604 .309 .275

5 .257 .2256 .223 .1917 .199 .1678 .181 .148

9 .167 .13510 .156 .12311 .147 .11412 .140 .106

13 .133 .10014 .128 .09515 _.124 .090

*In using this table. the user should note that it is based onthe as:umption that the number of parts of line (N) is equal tothe number of sheaves (5). When S exceeds N, refer to the text.

71

EXTRASHEAVE

N'45'5

Figure 59. Schematic representation of a4-part reeving system with an extra (idler)sheave.

. 'Fig: 59showsasimilar4-part system with an additional lead-in sheave;In such cases, for each additiorial sheave the tabulated value is multiplied by 1.09for plain bearings, or L04 for ariti-frictio)1 bearings. r .

Example: What is the lead-line factor for a plain bearing tackle block systemof 5 parts of line and two extra lead-in sheaves? The tabulated value is .257.Since there are two additional sheaves, the computation is:

.257 x 1.09 x 1.09 = .305What is the lead-line load on this system 'Yhen the load is 5000 Ibs?

5000 x .305 - 1525 lbIt should be emphasized that the."dead-end" also may "see" this

augmented load.Systems in which both rope ends are attached to a drum such as may be founa

in overhead cranes are not within the planned scope of this manual. It issuggested, therefore, that information on such systems be obtained directlyfrom a wire rope manufacturer.

72

6 Physical Properties

ELASTIC PROPERTIES OF WIRE ROPEWire rope, an elastic member, derives its normal stretch characteristics from twosources:

1) the inherent elasticity of its metal components, and2) the compaction process ofits wires, strands and core.There is, moreover, a third source of elongation-under-Ioad: the rope's

tendency to rotate and its associated lengthenings of the lay. This rather complexprocess has potentially dangerous consequences and must be avoided. A discussion~f elongation brought about by rotation is not included here since it is notwithin the scope of this publication.

Constructional stretch occurs when the rope's elements are compressed,or pulled together, as the load is applied. The result is a slight decrease indiameter and increase in length. This may be likened to the familiar effect knownas the "Chinese Finger Trap." As would be expected, ropes that have morecompressible cores (e.g., fiber cores) than IWRC or strand core ropes (e.g., 7 x 19aircraft cable) will exhibit greater constructional stretch.

Usually, constructional stretch in IWRC or strand core ropes becomespermanent after several loadings leaving the rope with very little resiliency orrecovery. However, fiber core ropes if lightly loaded (elevator ropes) mayretain some degree of resiliency throughout most of their service life.

The rope's construction, particularly its type of core and the. number ofstrands, will have a significant effect on constructional stretch. For example,an 8-strand rope has a core diameter averaging 22 % greater than that of a6-strand rope. The 8-strand rope's constructional stretch is about 50% greater.As to the effect of core type, a 6-strand rope with IWRC has about half (50%)of the constructional stretch of a 6-strand fiber core rope.

The load range will also influence the overall stretch. When constructionalstretch just about reaches a maximum at 20% loading, the elastic portion willremain almost straight-line up to around 65 % .

Total stretch, therefore, as a percent of length is greater from 0 to 20%than from 20 to 65 % because constructional stretch contributes very littleabove 20% ..

To gain some idea of the amount of constructional stretch that may beexpected, the following brief tabulation shows some of the percentages:

Rope Construction

6 strand fiber core6 strand IWRC8 strand fiber core

*Depends on loading.

73

Approx. Range of Stretch*

lh%-%%%%_11'2%%%-1%

Despite the fact that stretchcannofbe calculated precisely, the followingformula will provide a close approximati~n sufficient for most situations.

Ch· . I . h (ft) . 'Change i~-load (lb) x Length (ft)ange 10 engt = Area (inches:!) x Modulus of Elasticity

It should be noted that this formula does not take rotation into account.Example: What approximate elongation per foot may be expected in a~ "-6 x 41 Warrington Seale Construction IPS IWRC if the load changesfrom 20% to 30% of its nominal strength?Change in load =Nominal strength x (.3 -.2) = 23,000 x (.3 -.2)

= 23,000 x.l = 2300lbModulus of Elasticity (from Table 15) = 14,000,000Area (from Table 16) -.4902 x (lIz)2 = .1225Change in length = 2300 xI _ 0013 ft

.1225 x 14,000,000 - .Note: A 100 ft piece would stretch 100 times this figure or .13 ft (1.61 inches).Tables 16 and 17 provide approximate modulus of elasticity and metallicarea for a number of rope classifications and diameters.

TABLE 16 APPROXIMATE MODULUS OF ELASTICITY(pounds per square inch)

Rope Classification

6 x 7 with fiber core6 x 19 with fiber core6 x 37 with fiber core8 x 19 with fiber core6 x 19 with IWRC6 x 37 with IWRC

74

Zero to 20% Loading

11,700,000,10,800,000·9,900,0008,100,000

13,500,00012,600,000

20% to 65 % Loading

13,000,00012,000,00011,000,0009,000,000

15,000,00014,000,000

TABLE 17APPROXIMATE METALLIC AREAS OF VARIOUS CONSTRUCTIONSBased on 1.03 diameter. If marked by an asterisk (*), area is based on exactnominal diameter.

FiberConstruction Centerless Core IWRC

1x2 .39271 x 3* .50751 x 7* .59301 x 19* .5827 ""~

3 x 7* .3708

5x7 .3903 .45666x6 ' .3198 .38616x7 .3843 .45066x12 .23196x1912/7 .3756 .4419

6 x 19 S .4035 .46986x19W .4156 .48196x21 FW .4115 .47786x21 S .4107 .47706x2415/9 .3292

6x25 FW .4167 .48306x26WS .4092 .47556x27 S6x29FW .4197 .48606x3112/9 .3852 .4515

6x31 S6 x 31 WS .4144 .48076x33 FW .4232 .48956x 36 WS .4185 .48486x3718/19W .3925 .4588

6x37FW .4268 .49316x41 SFW .4246 .49096x41 WS .4239 .49026 x 42 Tiller .23136x43 FWS .3920 .4583

6x46SFW .4253 .49166x 46 WS .4257 .49206x61 FWS .4075 .47387x7 .47067x1912/7 .4662

7x 19W .50518x7 .3427 .47408x 1912/7 .3325 .46388x 19 S .3588 .4715

NOTE: Values given are based on 3% 8x 19W .3659 .4972oversize because this is a commondesign "target." But, this figure 8x25FW .3675 .4988often varies and is not to be 18 X 7 .4215considered a standard. Wire sizes 19 X 7 .4526in specific constructions alw vary,

6 X 3 X 19 .1220.' thus the given values are approxi-.' 7x7x7 .3425.; ~ mate. They are, however, within..~~the range of accuracy of the entire 7 X 7 X 19 .3614method that is, in itself, approximate.

75

Where it is necessary to have precise data on elastic.characteristics, aload vs.elongation test must be performed on a representative sample of the ropeunder consideration.

For certain applications, ropes may be pre-stretched in order to removesome of the constructional stretch. Frequently, this treatment is used on structuralmembers such as bridge rope and strand. In some cases, pre-stretching isapplied to operating ropes where elongation may present problems, e.g., elevatorand skip hoist ropes.

While a pre-stretching technique has value, some of the benefit is lost inreeling and handling.

DESIGN FACTORSEarlier, in this publication, the design factor was defined as the ratio of thenominal breaking strength of a wire rope to the total load it is expected to carry.Hence, the design factor that is selected plays an important part in determiningthe rope's service life. Excessive loading, whether continuous or sporadic,will greatly impair its serviceability. Usual1y, the choice of a certain wire rope sizeand grade will be based on static loading and, under static conditions, it issufficient for its task. However, where a machine is working and dynamic loads

. are added to the static load, it is quite possible to exceed the material's elastic limit.As was noted in the earlier discussion, a "common" design factor is 5.

Figure 60, the Wire Rope Relative Service Life Curve, shows how the service life isreduced as operating loads are increased. A change in the design factor from5 to 3 decreases its life expectancy index from 100 to 60-a drop of 40%!

9e75 6OESIGNFACTOR

42

II

I ~

I i I ~i ~

i ; ./y

~---~---~-------~./; ... ,. /1

~ !/" i

1/ I./I !

/' I, ! I

/ :/ ! I

V , , I I I I

170

160

150

140

130

'"!!: 120..J

tjllO

~ 100

'"en 90

'"~80...~ 70

'""'60

50

40

30

20

10

oI

Figure 60. This graph is called the Rrltllil'c' S",l'ic(' Lifc' CUrI'c'. Ii relates the service life tooperating loads, A design factor of 5 is chosen mqs\ frequently,

7(>

BREAKING STRENGmSThe breaking strength is the ultimate load registered on a wire rope sampleduring a tension test. '~;.:

The nominalstrengths given (Tables 18 through 36), have beencalculated by a standardized, industry-accepted procedure, and manufacturersdesign wire rope to these strengths. When making design calculations, it should benoted that the given figures are the static strengths. All discussion of strengthis predicated on the assumption of there being a gradually applied load less than1" /minute. Designers should base their calculations on these strengths.

A minimum acceptance strength, 21/z % lower than the published nominalbreaking strengths, was established as the industry tolerance. It serves to offsettesting variables that occur during the actual physical test of a wire rope sample.This tolerance is used in the basic wire rope governmental specifications.

Wire rope testirig, whether it is performed for the purpose of determininggrade or for adherence to specifications, requires the sample to be tested tomeet certain standards: For example: the sample's length must not be less than

. 3 ft (0.91 m) between sockets for ropes with diameters of from ys,jnch(3.2 mm) through 3 inches (77 mm); on ropes with larger (over 3 inches)diameters, the clear length mustbe at least 20 times the rope diameter. The testis considered valid only if failure oCcurs 2 inches (51 mm) Or morefromeither of the·sockets, or from the holding mechanism.

77

,j."

,i

""-..:.;;;/

TABLE19 NOMINAL STREN:GTHS OF WIRE ROPE6 x 7 Classification/Bright (Uncri~!ed), IWRC

Nominal Diameter Approximate Mass Nominal Strength*

Improved Plow Steel

inches mm· Ib/ft kg/m tons metric tonnes

;4 6.5 0.10 0.15 2.84 2.58lh6 8 0.16 0.24 4.41 4.0% 9.5 0.23 0.34 6.30 5.72~6 11.5 0.32 0.48 8.52 7.73

Ih 13 0.42 0.63 11.1 10.1~G 14.S· 0.53 0.79 14.0 12.7% 16 0.65 0.97 17.1 15.5% 19 0.92 1.37 24.4 22.1

Y8 22 . 1.27 1.89 33.0 29.91 26 1.65 2.46 42.7 38.7B/s 29 2.09 3.11 53.5 48.51;4 32 2.57 3.82 65.6 59.5

1% 35 3.12 4.64 78.6 71.31;,z 38 3.72 5.54 92.7 84.1

*To convert to Kilonewtons (kN).multiply tons (nominal. breaking strength) by 8.896; lIb =4.448 newtons (N).

79

"r

TABLE20 NOMINAL STRENGTH~ OF WffiE ROPE6 x 19 Classification/Bright (Uncoated)~ J.<'iber Core

Nominal Diameter Approximate Mass Nominal Strength*

.,",

Jmproved Plow Steel

inches mm lb/ft kg/m tons metric tonnes

;4 6.5 0.11 0.16 2.74 2.49~6 8: 0.16 0.24 4.26 3.86% 9.5 0.24 0.35 6.10 5.53~G 11.5 0.32 0.48 8.27 7.50

ih 13 0.42 0.63 10.7 9.71%'a 14.5 0.53 0.79 13.5 12.2% 16 0.66 0.98 16.7 15.1% 19 0.95 1.41 23.8 21.6

U! 22 1.29 1.92 32.2 29.21 26 1.68 2.5 41.8 37.9

-,L- Ph 29 2.13 3.17 52.6 47.7H~ 32 2.63 3.91 64.6 58.6

1% .35 3.18 4.73 77.7 70.5Ph 38 3.78 5.63 92.0 83.5

.<'} 1% ·42 4.44 6.61 107 97.11% 45 5.15 7.66 124 112

1% 048 5.91 8.8 141 1282 51 6.72 10.0 160 1452% 54 7.59 11.3 179 16221,4 57 8.51 12.7 200 181

2% 61 9.48 14.1 222 2012112 64 10.5 15.6 244 2212% 67 11.6 17.3 268 2432% 70 12.7 18.9 292 265

"'To convert to Kilonewtons (kN), multiply tons (nominalbreaking strength) by 8.896; 1 lb .= 4.448 newtons (N).

80

)

\

--~-- -~-- - ---~~--~ -- ----------------

-, TABLE 21 NOMINAL STRENGTHS OF WIRE ROPE6 x 19 Classification/Bright (Unc~~ted), IWRC

Nominal ApproximateDiameter Mass Nominal Strength*

Improved Extra Imp.Plow Steel Plow Steel

metric metricinches mm lb/ft kg/m tons tonnes tons tonnes

;4 6.5 0.12 0.17 2.94 2.67 3.40 3.08%6 8 ' 0.18 - 0.27 4.58 4.16 5.27 4.78% ~.5 0.26 0.39 6.56 5.95 7.55 6.85~6 11.5 0.35 0.52 8.89 8.07 10.2 9.25

;6 13 0.46 0.68 11.5 10.4 13.3 12.1~6 14.5 0.59 0.88 14.5 13.2 16.8 15.2.,% 16 0.72 1.07 17.7 16.2 20.6 18.7% 19 1.04 1.55 25.6 23.2 29.4 26.7

% 22 1.42 2.11 34.6 31.4 39.8 36.1'1 -26 1.85 2.75 44.9 40.7 51.7 46.9Ph 29 2.34 3.48 56.5 51.3 65.0 59.01;4 32 2.89 4.30 69.4 63.0 79.9 72.5

1% 35 3.5 -5.21 83.5 75.7 96.0 87.11;6- -38 4.16 6.19 98.9 89.7 114 1031% 42 4.88 7.26 115 104 132 1201% 45 5.67 8.44 ]33 ]21 153 ]39

1% 48 6.5 9.67 152 138 174 1582 - 51, 7.39 11.0 172 156 198 1802Vt! 54 - 8.35 12.4 192 174 22] 2002% 57 9.36 13.9 215 195 247 224

2% 61 10.4 15.5 239 217 274 2492;6 64 11.6 17.3 262 238 302 2742% 67, 12.8 19.0 288 261 331 3002% 70 14.0 20.8 314 285 361 327

*To convert to Kilonewtons (kNL multiply tons (nominal,~, breaking strength) by 8.896: 1 lb =4.448 newtons (N).

!<'.;~>'

~l

TABLE 22 NOMINAL STRENGTHS.OF WIRE ROPE6 x 37 Classification/Bright (Uncoated), Fiber Core

Nominal Strength*

Nominal Diameter Approximate Mass Improved Plow Steel

inches mm lb/ft kg/m tons metric tonnes

1,4 6.5 0.11 0.16 2.74 2.49%.6 8 0.16 0.24 4.26 3.86% 9.5 0.24 0.35 6.10 5.53~6 11.5 0.32 0.48 8.27 7.50

1h 13 0.42 0.63 10.7 9.711)16 14.5 0.53 0.79 13.5 12.2% 16 0.66 0.98 16.7 15.1% 19 0.95 1.41 23.8 21.6

~ 22 1.29 1.92 32.2 29.2\.

);."~ ',; 1- 26 1.68 2.50 41.8 37.9Ph 29 2.13 3.17 52.6 47.711,4 32 2.63 3.91 64.6 58.6

1% 35 3.18 4.73 77.7 70.511h 38 3.78 5.63 92.0 83.51% 42 4.44 6.61 107 97.11% 45 5.15 7.66 124 112

1~ 48 5.91 8.8 141 1282 51 6.72 10.0 160 1452% .. 54 7.59 11.3 179 16221,4 57 8.51 12.7 200 181

2% 61 9.48 14.1 222 20121h 64 10.5 15.6 244 2212% 67 11.6 17.3 268 2432¥.i 70 12.1 18.9 292 265

2~ 74 13.9 20.7 317 2873 77 15.1 22.5 344 3123% 80 16.4 24.4 371 33631,4 83 17.7 26.3 399 362

"'To convert to Kilonewtons (kN). mUltiply tons (nominalbreaking strength) by 8.896; 1 Ib =4.448 newtons (N).

~:!

TABLE 23 NOMINAL STRENGTHS OF WIRE ROPE6 x 37 Classification/Bright (Unc'Oated), IWRC

Nominal Strength*

Improved Extra Imp.Nominal Approximate Plow Steel Plow SteelDiameter Mass

metric metricinches mm lb/ft kg/m tons tonnes tons t6nnes

1;4 6.5 0.12 0.17 2.94 2.67 3.4 3.08'316 8 0.18 0.27 4.58 4.16 5.27 4.78% 9.5 0.26 0.39 6.56 5.95 7.55 6.85~6 11.5 0.35 0.52 8.89 8.07 10.2 9.25

Ih 13'"

0.46 0.68 11.5 10.4 13.3 12.1%6 14.5 0.59 0.,88 14.5 13.2 16.8 15.2% 16 0..72 1.07 17.9 16.2 20.6 18.7% 19 1.04 1.55 25.6 23.2 29.4 26.7

~ 22 1.42 2.11 34.6 31.4 39.5 ..- 35.91 26 1.85 2.75 44.9 40.7 51.7 . 46.911;8 29 2.34 3.48 56.5 51.3 65.0 59.011;4 32 2.89 4.30 69.4 63.0 79.9 72.5

1% 35 3.50 5.21 83.5 75.7 96.0 87.1Ph 38 4.16 6.19 98.9 89.7 114 1'031% 42 4.88 7.26 115 104 132 1201% 45 5.67 8.44 133 121 153 139

1~ 48 6.5 9.67 152 138 174 1582 51 7.39 11.0 172 156 198 ]802% 54 8.35 12.4 192 ]74 221 20021;4 57 9.36 13.9 215 195 247 224

2% ' 61 10.4 15.5 239 217 274 2492%, 64 ] 1.6 17.3 262 238 302 2742% 67 12.8 19.0 288 26] 331 3002% 70 14.0 20.8 314 285 361 327

2% 74 15.3 22.8 341 309 392 3563 77 16.6 24.7 370 336 425 3863% ' 80 18.0 26.8 399 362 458 41531;4 83 19.5 29.0 429 389 492 446

3% 86 21.0 31.3 459 416 529 48031h 90 22.7 33.8 491 445 564 5123%' 96 24.3 36.2 523 458 602 5283% 103 26.0 38.7 557 505 641 581

*To convert to Kilonewtons (kN). mUltiply tons (nominal,.- . breaking strength) by 8.896: 1 Ib =4.448 newtons (N) .

~.~\z.:.7i

S3

TABLE 24 NOMINAL STRENGTHS OF WIRE ROPE6 x 61 Classification/Bright (Uncoated)", Fiber Core

•. t·"

Nominal Strength*

Nominal Diameter Approximate Mass Improved Plow Steel

inches mm 1b/ft kg/m tons metric tonnes

1 26 1.68 2.5 39.8 36.1;Ills 29 2.13 3.17 50.1 45.41% 32 2.63 3.91 61.5 55.8

. 1% 35 3.18 4.73 74.1 67.2

1~ 38 3.78 5.63 87.9 79.71% 42 4.44 6.61 103 93.41% 45 5.15 7.66 119 1081% 48 5;91 8.80 136 123

2 51 6.77 10.1 . 154 1402lis 54 7.59 11.3 173 1572% 57 8.51 12.7 193 1752% 61 9.48 14.1 214 194

21h 64 10.5 15.6 236 214t', 2% 67 11.6 17.3 260 236

2% 70 12.7 18.9 284 2582% 74 13.9 20.7 309 280

3 77 15.1 22.5 335 3043% 83 17.7 26.3 390 354'3% 86 19.1 28.4 419 3803~ 90 20.6 30.7 449 407

.- ( '3% 96 23.6 35.1 511 4644 103 26;9 40.0 577 5234% 109 '. 30.3 45.1 646 586

·41/.2 115 34.0 50.6 719 652

4% 122 .37.9 56.4 794 720·5 128 42.0 62.5 872 791

':'~4 "'To convert to Kilonewtons (kN). multiply tons (nominalbreaking strength) by 8.896; I Ib =4.448 newtons (N).

TABLE 26 NOMINAL STRENGTHS" OF WIRE ROPE··6 x 91 Classification/Bright (Uncmited), "Fiber Core

Nominal Strength*

Nominal Diameter Approximate Mass Improved Plow Steel

inches mm lb/ft kg/m tons metric tonnes

2 51 6.77 to. 1 146 132:~

·.2;.g 54 7.59 11.3 164 1492~ 57 8.51 12.7 183 1662% 61 9.48 14.1 203 184

2th 64 to.5· 15.6 225 2042% 67 11.6 17.3 247 2242% 70 12.7 18.9 270 2453 77 15.1 22.5 318 288

("-

31,4 83 17.7 26.3 371 337./. n

3th 90 20.6 . 30.7 426 386

*To convert to Kilonewtons (kN), multiply tons (nominalbreaking strength) by 8.~96; lIb =4,448 newtons (N).

,..

')1;

\J

87

.- ;l . ~

.J~,

, ~i/ ."

TABLE 2S NOMINAL STRENGTHS OF WIRE ROPE6x30, 6x 30G, 6 x25B,& 6 x27H

-.,""" i~ Flattened Strand/Fiber Core

Nominal Strength*

Nominal Diameter Approximate Mass Improved Plow Steel

inches mm lb/f( kg/m tons metric tonnes

~ 13 0.45 0.67 11.8 10.8%6 14.5 0.57 0.85 14.9 13.5

.% 16 0.70 1.04 18.3 16.6% 19 1.01 1.50 26.2 23.8

'Va 22 1.39 2.07 35.4 32.11 26 1.80 2.68 46.0 41.71'h 29 2.28 3.39 57.9 52.51'4 32 2.81 4.18 71.0 64.4

I

\" .. 1% 35 3.40 5.06 85.5 77.6

1~ 38 4.05 6.03 101 91.61% 42 4.75 7.07 118 107

, i% 45 551 ' 8.20 136 123

h', 1'% 48 6.33 ' 9.42 155 1412 51 7.20 10.70 176 160

;

*To convert to Kilonewtons (kN), multiply tons (nominalbreaking strength) by 8.896; 1 Ib ='4.448 newtons (N).

.~,

TABLE 30 NOMINAL STRENGTHS OF WIRE ROPE,I,;..

-8 x 19 Clas~ification/Bright(Uricoafedj;Fiber Core-.1.)i,'·

Nominal Strength

Nominal Diameter Approximate Mass Improved Plow Steel"

inches mm lb/ft kg/m tons metric tonnes

'4 6.5 0.10 0.15 2.35 2.13~6 8 0.15 0.22 3.65 3.31

}Is 9.5 0.22 0.33 5.24 4.75~6 11.5 0.30 0.45 7.09 6.43

1h 13 0.39 0.58 9.23 8.37l}lo 14.5 0.50 0.74 11.6 10.5% 16 0.61 0.91 14.3 13.0% 19 0.88 1.31 20.5 18.6

(';:;i\ \..

~ 22 1.20 1.79 27.7 25.11 26 1.57 2.34 36.0 32.7BIs 29 1.99 2.96 45.3 41.11'4 32 2.45 3.65 55.7 50.5

His 35 2.97 4.42 67.1 60.7I1h 38 3.53 5.25 79.4 72.0

*To convert to Kilonewtons (kN), multiply tons (nominalbreaking strength) by 8.896; 1 Ib =4.448 newtons (N).

90

· TABLE 31 NOMINAL STRENGTHS OF WIRE ROPE8·x19 Classification/Bright (Un~'oated), IWRC

91

92

93

TABLE 34 NOMINAL STRENGTHS, OF WIRE ROPE6x 7 Classification/Galvanized, Fiber C6re*

Nominal Strength**

Nominal Diameter Approximate Mass Improved Plow Steel

inches mm lb/ft kg/m tons metric tonnes

1,4 6.5 0.09 0.14 2.38 2.16l}16 8 0.15 0.22 3.69 3.35% 9.5 0.21 0.31 5.27 4.78'M6 11.5 0.29 0.43 7.14 6.48.........

In 13 0.38 0.57 9.27 8.4191n 14.5 0.48 0.71 11.7 10.6% 16 0.59 0.88 14.3 13.0% 19 0.84 1.25 20.4 18.5

'Va 22 1.15 1.71 27.6 25.0 ~

1 26 1.50 2.23 35.7 32.4Pis 29 1.90 2.83 44.8 40.6114 32 2.34 3.48 54.9 49.8

1% 35 2.84 4.23 65.8 59.7Ph 38 3.38 5.03 77.6 70.4

·For ropes with an IWRC, add 7th % to their respectivenominal strengths and 10% to their approximate mass(weights). Fiber cores consist either of polypropylene ornatural fiber.

"To convert to Kilonewtons (kN), multiply tons (nominalbreaking strength) by 8.896; lIb. =4.448 newtons (N).

94

.....,.' ~

TABLE 35 NOMINAL STREN~THSOF WIRE ROPE6 X12 Construction/Galvanized,'Fiber Core~:

Nominal Strength**

Nominal Diameter Approximate Mass Improved Plow Steel

inches rom lb/ft kg/m tons metric tonnes

%6 8 0.10 0.14 2.34 2.12% 9.5 0.15 0.22 3.36 3.05%6' 11.5 0.20 0.30 4.55 4.13~ 13 0.26 0.39 5.91 4.71

%.6 14.5 0.33 0.49 7.45 6.76% 16 0.41 0.61 9.16 8.31% 19 0.59 0.88 13.1 11.91~6 21 0.69 1.03 15.3 13.9

va 22 0.80 1.19 17.7 16.11 26 1.05 1.56 23.0 20.9

*Fibercores consist either of polypropylene or natural fiber.**To convert to Kilonewtons (kN), multiply tons (nominal

breaking strength) by 8.896; 1 lb =4.448 newtons (N).

95

TABLE 36 NOMINAL STRENGTHS OF WIRE ROPE6 x 24 Construction/Gaivanb;ed, Fiber Core':'

Nominal Strength**

Nominal Diameter Approximate Mass Improved Plow Steel

inches mm Ib/ft kg/m tons metric tonnes

% 9.5 0.19 0.29 4.77 4.331;12 . 13 0.35 0.52 8.40 7.620/16 14.5 0.44 0.65 10.6 9.62% 16 0.54 0.80 13.0 1l.8

% 19 0.78 1.16 18.6 16.9'Va 22 1.06 1.58 25.2 22.9

1 26 1.38 2.05 32.8 29.8Big 29 1.75 2.60 41.2 37.4

114 . 32 2.16 3.21 50.7 46.0 ","

1% 35 2.61 3.88 61.0 55.311;12 38 3.ll 4.63 72.3 65.61% 42 3.64 5.42 84.5 76.7

it;,...';;.

1% 45' 4.23 6.30 97.5 88.5:'".i<"t

1Y!l 48 4.85 7.22 III 101-h;'

2 51 5.52 8.21 126 ll4

*Fiber cores consist either of polypropylene or natural fiber.**To convert to Kilonewtons (kN), multiply tons (nominal

breaking strength) by 8.896; 1 lb =4.448 newtons (N).

': "

'{:::;'

Appendix A

ORDERING, STORING AND UNREELING WIRE ROPEA. Ordering

When ordering wire rope, it mustbe described as completely as possible.The generally accepted nomenclature conventions, defined elsewhere in thispublication, should be carefully noted. These, along with other applicableinformation will not only enable the rope manufacturer to satisfy thepurchaser's requests, but will also provide data for technical advice orsuggestions. Following, is a check list of these data:1. The application for which the wire rope is intended.2. Description of the rope itself:

a. Length-standard or tape measuredb. Diameter-measured as shown on page 14 .

.. c. Construction--e.g., "6 x 19 Seale"d. Lay-Right or Left; Regular or Lang Laye. Grade-:-improved plow steel, extra improved plow steel,

traction steel, otherf. Finish-bright, galvanized, or tinnedg. Core-independent wire rope (IWRC) , wire strand, or fiberh. Preformed or non-preformedi. Lub!"ication-standard or special

3. Describe end attachments (ifrequired)4. Special spooling or reel requirements

B. Storing .No matter how the delivered rope is packaged, it should always be kept awayfrom moisture. This means storing under a weatherproof cover overhead,and no direct contact with the ground or floor. Ocean spray, acid fumes,or similarly corrosive atmospheres should be avoided. When reels willremain stored for long periods, the supplier should be asked to ship the ropeswith a p.x:otective wrapping. Where this has not been done, the outer layersof rope should be coated with an approved lubricant.

. When a rope is to be removed from service and stored, it should bethoroughly cleaned. lubricated, and carefully coiled on a reel. In this case, thesame storage conditions that are required for new rope, should be maintained.

Ambient temperature for rope in storage should be low. Elevatedtemperatures tend to liquefy or thin out rope lubricants. Thus, wire ropestorage areas should not only be normally cool spaces, but possiblesources of high heat should be kept at some distance.

97

C. UnreelingWire rope must always be handled wit~~ care. This is particularly importantwhen tee Is or coils are 'receh/ed' moved'about, unreeled or uncoiled.Reels or coils should never be dropped. When this happens, the rope mays'hift and cause the reel to collapse and thus the rope itself may be damaged.Removing rope from a collapsed reel may often result in rope damage.Coiled rope, if dropped on the edge of the coil, can sustain a permanent bend.

Coils and reels should only be rolled on relatively smooth, hard surfaces.Rolling through loose dirt, standing water, or across sharp, hard objects, orover uneven surfaces can cause deformations or harm the lubricant protection.

Careful handling beforeinstaIlation and proper maintenance proceduresafterward will ensure the longest possible service life for wire rope.

Improper handling can prove quite costly for the user, yet, for themost part, abuse is easily avoidable.

Appendix B

A GLOSSARY OFWIRE ROPE TERMS

ABRASION Frictional surface wear onthe wires of a wire rope.

ACCELERATION STRESS The~,

additional stress that is imposed on awire rope as a result of an increase in theload velocity. (See DECELERATION·STRESS).

AGGREGATE AREA See AREA,METALLIC.

AGGREGATE BREAKINGSTRENGTH The breaking strengthderived by totalling the individualbreaking strengths of the elements of thestrand or rope. This strength does notgive recognition to the reduction instrength resulting from the angularity ofthe elements in the rope nor other factorswhich may affect efficiency.

AIRCRAFT CABLES Strands, cordsand wire ropes made of special-strengthwire, designed primarily for use in variousaircraft industry applications.

ALBERTS LAY See LAY, TYPES.

ALTERNATE LAY See LAY, TYPES.

AREA, METALLIC Sum of the cross­sectional areas of all the wires either ina wire rope or in a strand.

BAIL a) V-shaped member of a bucket,or b) V-shaped portion of a socket orother fitting used on wire rope.

BAILING LINE In well drilling, it isthe wire rope that operates the bailer thatremoves water and drill cuttings.

BARNEY CAR A relatively small carpermanently attached to a haulage ropethat pushes cars along a haulage system.

BASKET OF SOCKET The conicalportion of a socket into which a broomed­rope-end is inserted and then securedeither with zinc or resin.

BECKET An end attachment tofacilitate wire rope installation.

99

BECKET LOOP A loop of small rope orstrand fastened to the end of a largewire rope. Its function is to facilitate wirerope installation.

BACK-STAY Wire rope or strand guyused to support a boom or mast; or thatsection of a main cable, as on a suspensionbridge, cableway, etc., leading fromthe tower to the anchorage.

BENDING STRESS Stress that isimposed on the wires of a wire rope by abending or curving action.

BICABLE A term usually applied to awire rope aerial tramway that has a fixedcable or strand to support the load, aswell as a traction or haul rope that movesthe load about the system.

BIRDCAGE A colloquialismdescriptive of the appearance of a wirerope forced into compression. The outerstrands form a "cage" and, at times,displace the core.

BLOCK A term applied to a wire ropepulley enclosed in side plates and fittedwith some attachment such as a hook orshackle.

BOOM HOIST LINE Wire rope thatoperates the boom hoist of derricks,cranes, draglines, shovels, etc.

BOOM PENDANTS A non-operatingrope or strand with terminations tosupport the boom.

BREAKING STRENGTHBreaking Strength is the ultimate loadat which a tensile failure occurs in thesample of wire rope being tested. (Note:The term breaking strength is synonymouswith actual strength.)Minimum Acceptance Strength is thatstrength which is 2\12 % lower than thecatalog or nominal strength. Thistolerance is used to offset testing variableswhich exist when the test is made todetermine the breaking strength of aspecific sample of wire rope. Its useoriginated with the basic governmentwire rope specification.

BREAKING STRENGTH (cont,)Nominal Strength is the published(catalog) strength calculated by astandard procedure and accepted by thewire rope industry. The wire ropemanufacturer designs wire rope to thisstrength, and the user should considerthis to be the minimum strength whenmaking design calculations.

BRIDGE CABLE The all-metallic wireropes or strands used as the catenary andsuspenders on a suspension bridge.

BRIDGE SOCKET A wire rope fittingof forged or cast steel that is designed withbaskets-having adjustable bolts-forsecuring rope ends. There are two styles:1) the closed type has a V-bolt with orwithout a bearing block in the V of thebolt, and 2) the open type has twoeye-bolts and a pin.

BRIDLE SLING A multipart wirerope sling.

BRIGHT ROPE Wire rope fabricatedfrom wires that are not metallic coated.

BRONZE ROPE Wire rope fabricatedfrom bronze wires.

BULL WHEEL A term applied to alarge-diameter wire rope sheave; e.g., thesheaveS at the end of a ski lift.

BUTTON CONVEYOR ROPEWire ropes to which buttons or discs areattached at regular intervals to movematerial as in a trough.

CABLE . A term loosely applied to wirerope~, wire strand and electriCalconductors.

,CABLE-LAID WIRE ROPE A type ofwire rope consisting of several wire ropeslaid into a single wire rope. Example: .6 x 42 (6 x 6 x 7) tiller rope.

CABLE TOOL DRILLING LINEThe wire rope used to operate the cuttingtools in the "cable tool" drilling method(i.e., rope drilling).

100

CABLEWAY Aerial conveying system. for transporting single loads along Ii·s,uspended track cable.

CASING LINE Wire rope used toinstall oil well casings.

CATENARY The curve formed by a. wire rope when supported horizontallybetween two fixed points; e.g., the mainspans on a suspension bridge.

CENTERS Wire, strand or fiber at thecenter of a strand around which the wiresare laid.

CHOKER ROPE A short wire ropesling that forms a slip noose around anobject that is to be moved or lifted.

CIRCUMFERENCE Measuredperimeter of a circle that circumscribeseither the wires of a strand or the strandsof a wire rope.

CLAMPS, STRAND A fitting forforming a loop at the end of a length ofstrand, consisting of two grooved platesand bolts.

CLASSIFICATION Group or familydesignation based on wire rope con­structions with strengths and weightsjointly lisied under the broad designation.

CLEANING OUT LINE Wire ropeused in conjunction with tools that areused to clean an oil well.

CLEVIS See SHACKLE.

CLIP Fitting for clamping two parts ofwire rope to each other.

CLOSED SOCKET A wire rope endfitting consisting of basket and bail madeintegral.

CLOSER A machine which lays (winds)strand around a central core to form rope.

CLOSING LINE Wire rope that per­forms two functions: 1) closes a clamshellor orange peel bucket, and 2) operatesas a hoisting rope.

COARSE LAID ROPE Term generallyused in oil fields to designate a 6 x 7.wire rope.

COIL Circular bundle or package ofwire rope that is not affixed to a reel.

COMEALONG Device for making atemporary grip on a wire rope.

CONICAL DRUM Grooved hoistingdrum with a varying diameter. SeeDRUM.

CONSTRUCTION Geometric designdescription of the wire rope's cross section.This includes the number of STRANDS,the-number of WIRES per strand and thepattern of wire arrangement in eachSTRAND.

CONTINUOUS BEND Reeving of wirerope over sheaves and drums so that itbends in one direction, as opposed toREVERSE BEND.

CONVEYOR ROPE Endless wire ropeused to carry material. See BUTTONCONVEYOR ROPE.

CORD Term applied to small size wireropes or strands.

CORE The central member of a wirerope aboutwhich the strands are laid.It can be made of fiber, a wire strand oran independent wire rope.

CORING LINE Wire rope used tooperate the coring tool that is used to takecore samples during oil well drilling.

CORROSION Chemical decompositionof the wires in a rope through the actionof moisture, acids, alkalines or other ­destructive agents.

CORROSION-RESISTING STEELChrome-nickel steel alloys designed forincreased resistance to corrosion.

CORRUGATED Term used to describethe grooves of a sheave or drum afterthese have been worn down to a pointwhere they show an impression of awire rope.

101

COlTON CENTER See FIBERCENTERS.

COTTON CORE See FIBER CORES.

COUPLING (track strand) Device forjoining the ends of two lengths oftrack strand.

COVER WIRES Outer layer of wires.

CRACKER Manila rope spliced orotherwise attached to the end of a wiredrilling line.

CREEP The unique movement of awire rope with respect to a drum surfaceor sheave surface resulting from theasymmetrical load between one side of thesheave (drum) and the other; It is notdissimilar from the action of a caterpillar­moving over a flat surface. It should bedistinguished from slip which is yetanother type of relative movementbetween rope and the sheave or drumsurface.

CRITICAL DIAMETER For any givenwire rope, it is the diameter oJ the smallestbend that permits both wires and strandsto adjust themselves by relative movementwhile retaining their normal cross-secti9nposition.

CROSS LAY See LAY, TYPES.

CROWD ROPE A wire rope used todrive or force a power shovel bucket intothe material that is to be handled.

CYLINDRICAL DRUM A hoistingdrum of uniform diameter. See DRUM.

DEAD-LINE In drilling, it is the end ofthe rotary drilling line fastened to theanchor or dead-line clamp.

DECELERATION STRESSThe additional stress that is imposed ona wire rope as a result of a decreasein the load velocity.

DEFLECTION a) The sag of a rope ina span. Usually measured at mid-spanas the depth from the chord "joining thetops of the two supports. b) Anydeviation from a straight line.

DESIGN FACTOR In a wire rope, itis the ratio of the listed breaking strengthto the total working load.

DIAMETER A line segment whichpasses through the center of a circle andwhose end points lie on the circle. Asrelated to wire rope it would be thediameter of a circle which circumscribesthe wire rope.

DOG-LEG Permanent short bend orkink in a wire rope caused by improperuse or handling.

DRAGLINE a) Wire rope used forpulling excavating or drag buckets, andb) name applied to a specific type ofexcavator.

DRILLING LINE See CABLE TOOLDRILLING LINE and ROTARYDRILLING LINE.

DRUM A cylindrical flanged barrel,either of uniform or tapering diameter, onwhich rope is wound either for operationor storage. Its surface may be smooth orgrooved.

EFFICIENCY Ratio of a wire rope'smeasured breaking strength and theaggregate strength of all individual wirestested separately-usually expressedas a percentage.

ELASTIC LIMIT Stress limit abovewhich permanent deformation will takeplace within the material.

ELLIPTIC SPOOL An endless-ropedrive drum with a face in the shape of anelliptic arc.

ELONGATION See STRETCH.

ENDLESS ROPE Rope whose two endsare spliced together to. form a singlecontinuous loop.

lO~

EQUALIZING SHEAVE The sheaveat the center of a rope system over which

. -no rope movement occurs other thanequalizing movement. It is frequentlyoverlooked during crane inspections, withdiasastrous consequences. It can be thesource of severe fatigue deterioration.

EQUALIZING SLINGS Multiple-legslings composed of wire rope and fittingsthat are designed to help distribute theload equally. See SLING.

EQUALIZING THIMBLES Specialtype of load-distributing fitting used asa component of certain wire rope slings.

EXTRA FLEXIBLE WIRE ROPEAn ambiguous and archaic term some­times applied to describe wire ropes inthe 8 x 19 class and 6 x 37 class. The termis so indefinite as to be meaningless andis in disfavor today.

EXTRA HIGH-STRENGTH STRANDA grade of galvanized or bright strand.

EXTRA IMPROVED PLOW STEELROPE A specific wire rope grade.

EYE OR EYE SPLICE A loop, with orwithout a thimble, formed at the endof a wire rope.

FACTOR OF SAFETY A term origin­ally used in the wire rope industry tostate the ratio of nominal strength to thetotal working load. The term is no longerused since it implies the permanentexistence of this ratio when, in actuality.the rope strength begins to reduce themoment it is placed in service.See DESIGN FACTOR.

FATIGUE In wire rope the term isusually applied to the process of progres­sive fracture. from bending. of theindividual wires. These fractures may andusually do occur at bending stresses wellbelow the ultimate strength of thematerial: it is not an abnormality althoughit may be accelerated due to conditions inthe rope such as rust or lack of lubrication.

: .. ,

FERRULE A metallic button, usuallycylindrical in shape, normally fastened toa wire rope by swaging but sometimes byspelter socketing.

FERRY ROPE Refers to wire rope thatis suspended over water for the purposeof guiding a boat.

FIBER CENTERS Cords or rope madeof vegetable or synthetic fiber that areused as the center of a strand.

FIBER CORES Cords or rope made ofvegetable of synthetic fiber that are usedas the center of a wire rope.

FILLER WIRE Small auxiliary wireswithin a strand whose primary purpose isto position and support other wires.

FIITING Any functional accessoryattached to a wire rope.

FLAG Marker placed on a rope so asto locate the load position.

FLAT ROPE Wire rope that is made ofa series of parallel, alternating right-layand left-lay ropes, sewn together withrelatively soft wires. '

FLAITENED STRAND ROPE, Wire rope that is made either of oval or

triangular shaped strands in order to'form a flattened rope surface.

FLEET ANGLE That angle betweenthe rope's position at the extreme endwrap on a drum, and 'a line drawn perpen­dicular to the axis of the drum throughthe center of the nearest fixed sheave.See DRUM and SHEAVE.

FLEXIBLE WIRE ROPE An archaicand imprecise term to differentiate onerope construction from another; such as,6 x 7 (least flexible) and 6 x 19 classifi­cation (somewhat more flexible). SeeEXTRA FLEXIBLE WIRE ROPE.

GALVANIZED Hot-dipped (occasion­ally electro-chemical) zinc coating forcorrosion resistance.

GALVANIZED ROPE Wire rope madeup of galvanized wire.

103

GALVANIZED STRAND Strand madeup of galvanized wire.

GALVANIZED WIRE Zinc-coated wire.

GRADE Wire rope or strand classifica­tion by strength and/or type of material­i.e., Improved Plow Steel, Type 302Stainless, Phosphor Bronze, etc. It doesnot imply a strength of the basic wire usedto meet the rope's nominal strength.

GRADES, ROPE Classification of wirerope by the wire's metallic compositionand the rope's breaking strength.

GRADES, STRAND Classification ofstrand by the wire's metallic compositionand the strand's breaking strength. In theorder of increasing breaking strengths,the grades are Common, Siemens Martin,High-Strength and Extra-High Strength.A Utilities grade strength is also madeto meet special requit.ements and itsstrength is usually greater than high-:strength.

GRAIN SHOVEL ROPE 6 x 19Marline clad rope used for. handlinggrain in scoops.

GROMMET An endless 6-strand wirerope with a strand core made of onecontinuous length of strand.

GROOVED DRUM Drum with agrooved surface that accommodates therope and guides it for proper winding andun-winding.

GROOVES Depressions-helical orparallel-in the periphery of a sheave ordrum that are shaped to position andsupport the rope.

GUY LINE Strand or rope, usuallygalvanized, for stabilizing or maintaining~ s~ructure in fixed-position.

HAULAGE ROPE Wire rope used forpulling movable devices such as cars thatroll on a track.

HAWSER Wire rope. usually galvan­ized, used for towing or mooring marinevessels.

,;>

. HERRINGBONE See LAY, TYPES.

HI'GH·STRENGTH STRANDGrade of galvanized or bright strand.See GALZANIZED and BRIGHT ROPE.

HOLDING LINE Wire rope on aclamshell or orange peel bucket that actsas a restraint on the bucket while theclosing line is released to dump its load.

IDLER Sheave or roller used to guideor support a rope. See SHEAVE.

IMPROVED PLOW STEEL ROPEA specific grade of wire rope.

INCLINE ROPES Ropes used in theoperation of cars on an inclined haulage.

INDEPENDENT WIRE ROPE COREWire rope that is used as the core withina larger rope. In rope specifications,it is usually denoted by the abbreviationIWRC.

INNER WmES AIl wires of a strandexcept the outer or cover wires.

INTERNALLY LUBRICATEDWire rope or strand having all of its wirecomponents coated with lubricant.

mON ROPE A specific grade ofwire rope.

mONING See MILKING.

IWRC See INDEPENDENT WIREROPE CORE.

KINK A unique deformation of a wirerope caused by a loop of rope being pulleddown tight. It represents irreparabledamage to the rope and an indeterminableloss of strength.

LAGGING a) External wood coveringon a reel to protect the wire rope or strand,or b) the grooved shell of a drum.

LANG LAY ROPE See LAY, TYPES.

LAY a) The manner in which the wiresin a strand or the strands in a rope arehelically laid, or b) the length, parallel to

"the longitudinal axis, in which a wire

104

makes one complete turn about the axis of. the strand or a strand about the axis ofIi rope. In this connection lay is alsoreferred to as lay length or pitch.

LAY,TYPES1) Right Lay: product in which the

, elements are laid in a right hand helix.2) Left Lay: product in which theelements are laid in a left hand helix.3) Cross Lay: product in which one ormore laying or closing operations areperformend in opposite directions. Amultiple operation product is namedaccording to the direction of the outsidelayer.4) Regular Lay: wire rope in which thewires in the strands and the strands in therope are laid in opposite directions. Thecrowns of the wires appear to line upwith the axis of the rope.5) Lang Lay: wire rope in which thewires in the strands and the strands in therope are laid in the same direction. Thecrowns of the wires make an angle withthe axis of the rope.6) A lternate Lay: lay of a wire rope inwhich the strands are alternately regularand lang lay.7) Alberts Lay: an old, now rarely used,term for lang lay.8) Reverse Lay: another term foralternate lay.9) Spring Lay: this is not actually aunique lay and more properly refers to awire rope construction. See MOORINGLINES and SPRING LAY.10) Herringbone: an unusual constructionconsisting of 4 Lang Lay strands, eachpair of which is separated by aRegular Lay strand. See LAY.

LAY LENGm See LAY (b).

LEAD LINE That part of a rope tac~le

leading from the first, or fast, sheave tothe drum. See DRUM and SHEAVE.

LEFT LAY See LAY, TYPES.

LINE Term used synonymously withWIRE ROPE.

LOCKED COIL STRAND Smooth­surfaced strand ordinarily constructedofshaped, outer wires arranged in concentriclayers around a center of round wires.

LOOP A 360 0 change of direction in thecourse of a wire rope which when pulleddown tight will result in a kink. See EYEand EYE SPLICE.

MARLINE-A pre-lubricated fiber material.

MARLINE-CLAD ROPE Rope withindividual strands spirally wrappedwith Marline.

MARLINE SPIKE Tapered steel pinused as a tool for splicing wire rope.

MARTENSTITE A micro-constituentof steel that becomes extremely brittlewhen the steel is heated above the criticaltemperature and rapidly quenched; This canoccur in wire ropes as a result of frictionalheating and the mass cooling effect of thecold metal beneath. Martenstite cracksvery easily when bent and such crackspropagate through the entire structurebelow.

MESSENGER STRAND Galvanizedstrand used to support telephone andelectrical cables.

METALLIC CORES See WIRESTRAND CORE and INDEPENDENTWIRE ROPE CORE.

MILD PLOW See GRADES, ROPE.

MILKING Sometimes called ironing, itis the progressive movement of strandsalong the axis of the rope 'that results fromits movement through a restricted passagesuch as a tight sheave. '

MODULUS OF ELASTICITYMathematical quantity expressing theratio, within the elastic limit, between adefinite range of unit stress on a wire ropeand the corresponding unit elongation.

MONOCABLE A term usually appliedto an aerial tramway designed with asingle wire rope that not only supports theload but conveys it as well.

105

MOORING LINES Galvanized wirerope, usually 6 x 12, 6 x 24, or 6 x 3 x 19spring lay for holding ships to dock.

NON-ROTATING WIRE ROPEAn abandoned reference to 19 x 7 or18 x 7 rope. See ROTATIONRESISTANT.

NON-SPINNING WIRE ROPESee NON-ROTATING WIRE ROPE.

OPEN SOCKET A wire rope fitting thatconsists of a "basket" and two "ears"with a pin. See FITTING.

OUTER WIRES See COVER WIRES.

PEENING Permanent distortionresulting from cold plastic flow of theouter wires. Usually caused by poundingagainst a sheave or machine member or byheavy operating pressure between ropeand sheave, rope and drum, or rope andadjacent wrap of rope.

PITCH See LAY (b).

PLOW STEEL See GRADES, ROPE.

PREFORMED STRANDS Strand inwhich the wires are permanently shapedbefore fabrication into strand to thehelical form they assume in the strand.

PREFORMED WIRE ROPEWire rope in which the strands arepermanently shaped before fabricationinto the rope to the helical form they willassume in the wire rope.

PRESSED FITTINGS Fittings whichare attached to wire rope by cold formingthe fitting onto the rope by means of arotary swager or a press. See SWAGEDFITTINGS.

PRE-STRESSING An incorrectreference to prestretching.

PRESTRETCHING Subjecting a wirerope or strand to tension prior to itsintended application, for an extent andover a period of time sufficient to removemost of the constructional stretch.

SIEMENS-MARTIN STRANDA grade of galvanized strand.See GALVANIZE.

SHACKLE A D- or anchor-shapedfitting with pin.

SHEAVE A groovedplll1ey for wire rope.

SEWING WIRES See FLAT ROPE.

SERVE To cover the surface of a wirerope or strand with a fiber cord or wirewrapping.

SEIZE To make a secure binding at theend of a wire rope or strand with seizingwire or strand. See SEIZING WIRE.

SEIZING STRAND Small strandusually made up of 7 soft wires.See SEIZE.

SEIZING WIRE A soft wire.See SEIZE.

SASH CORD Small, 6 x 7 wire ropes,commonly made of iron wires, arereferred to by this tcrm.

SEALE The name for a type of strandconstruction that is characterized by:1) covcr wires of a single size, 2) the samenumber of one size of wires in theadjacent layer and 3) each layer havingthe same length and direction of lay.The most common construction of thistype has one center wire, nine inner wiresand nine cover wires.

SAG See DEFLECTION.

SAND LINE See BAILING LINE.

PROPORTIONAL LIMIt As used in SAFETY FACTORthe rope industry this term is virtually the See DESIGN FACTOR.Same as elastic limit. It is the end of the" ":,w

SAFE WORKING LOAD Potentiallyload versus elongation relationship at

misleading. this term is in disfavor.which an increase in load no longer

Essentially, it means the portion of theprodllces a proportional increase in

nominal rope strength that can be appliedelongation and from which point recovery" to nlove or Sllstal'n a load. It )'s misleadl'ng

to the rope's original length is unlikely.because it is valid only when the ropeis new and equipment is in good condition.See RATED CAPACITY.

RATED CAPACITY The load which awire rope or wire rope sling, when new,may handle under given operating condi­titms and at an assumed design fattor.

REEL A flanged spool on which wire,rope or strand is wound for storage orshipment.

REEVE To pass a rope through a holeor around a system of sheaves.

ROTATION-RESISTANT ROPEA wire rope consisting of an inner layerof'strand laid in one direction covered-bya layer' of strand laid in the oppositedirection. This has the effect of counter­acting torque by reducing the tendencyof the finished rope to rotate.

RUNNING ROPE Term used todescribe 6x 12 galvanized wire rope.

REGULAR LAY ROPESee LAY, TYPES.

RESERVE STRENGTH The strengthof a rope exclusive of the outer wires;refers to all ropes that exhibit some type ofrotation-resistant quality or characteristic.

REVERSE BEND Reeving a wire ropeover sheaves and drums so that it bendsin opposing directions. See REEVE.

REVERSE LAY See LAY, TYPES.

RIGHT LAY See LAY, TYPES.

ROLLERS Relatively small-diametercylinders, or wide-faced sheaves, thatserve as support for ropes.

ROTARY LINE On a rotary dri11ing rig,itis the wire rope used for raising andlowering the drill pipe, as well as for

, controlling its position.

106

:,~,

SLINGS Wire rope or ropes made intoforms, with or without fittings, for:handling loads and designed to permit theattachment of an operating rope.

SLING, BRAIDED Aflexible sling,the body of which is made up of two ormore wire ropes braided together.See SLINGS.

SMOOTH-COIL TRACK STRANDStrand composed of concentric layers ofround wires, used as an aerial conveyortrack ·cable. See STRAND.

SMOOTH-FACED DRUM Drum witha plain, ungrooved surf;;;:e. Sec DRUM.

SOCKET Generic name for a type ofwire rope fitting. See BRIDGE SOCKETS,CLOSED SOCKETS, OPEN SOCKETSand WEDGE SOCKETS.

SPECIAL FLEXIBLE WIRE ROPE'Term sometimes used to describe 6 x 37classification wire rope.

SPIN RESISTANT An abandonedterm referring to a rotation-resistant ropeof the 8 x 19 type.See ROTATION RESISTANT.

SPIRAL GROOVE A continuoushelical groove that follows a path on andaround a drum face, similar to a screwthread. See DRUM.

SPLICING Making a loop or eye in theend of a rope by tucking the ends of thestrands back into the main body of therope. The term is also applied to, theformation of loops or eyes in a rope bymeans of mechanical attachments pressedonto the rope. The term also relates tothe joining of two rope ends so as to forma long or short splice in two pieces of rope.

. -SPRING LAY See LAY, TYPES.

STAINLESS STEEL ROPE Wire ropemade up of corrosion-resisting steel wires.

STANDING ROPE See GUY LINE.

STIRRUP The U-bolt or eyeboltattachment on a bridge socket.See SOCKET.

107

STONE SAWING STRAND A 2-wireor 3-wire strand used in stone and slatequarrying operations.

STONE SAWING WIRE A shaped andtwisted wire used in stone and slatequarrying operations.

STRAND A symmetrically arrangedand helically-wound assembly of wires.

STRAND CENTER See CENTERS.

STRAND CORE See CORES.

STRESS The force or resistance withinany solid body to alteration of form; inthe case of a soEd \vire it ',,",QuId be the Io:'.don the rope divided by the area of the wire.

STRETCH The elongation of a wirerope under load.

SWAB LINESee CLEANING OUT LINE.

SWAGED FITTINGS' Fittings intowhich wire rope can be inserted and thenpermanently attached by cold pressing(swaging) the shank that encloses the rope.See FITTING.

TAG LINE A small wire rope used toprevent rotation of a load.

TAPERED DRUMSee CONICAL DRUM.

TAPERING AND WELDINGReducing the diameter of a wire rope atits end, and then welding the wires so as tofacilitate reeving. See REEVE.

THIMBLE Grooved metal fitting toprotect the eye, or fastening loop ofa wire rope.

TILLER ROPE A highly flexible ropeconstructed by cable-laying six 6 x7 ropesaround a fiber core.

TINNED WIRE Wire that is coatedwith tin. See WIRE.

TRACK CABLE On an aerial conveyorit is the suspended wire rope or strandalong which the carriers move.

TRACTIoN ROPE On an aerialconveyor or haulage system it is the wirerope that propels the carriages.

TRACTION STEEL A special grade ofwire rope used for various funCtionsof an elevator system.See GRADES, ROPE.

TRAMWAY An aerial conveyingsystem for transporting multiple loads.

TURN Synonymous with the termWRAP; it is one wrap around a drum.

TURN·BACK POINT That point in thetraverse of a rope across the face ofthe drum where it reaches the flange,reverses direction and begins forming thenext layer.

WARRINGTON The name for a typeof strand construction that is characterizedby having one of its wire layers (usuallythe outer) made up of an arrangementof alternately large and small wires.

1015

WEDGE SOCKET Wire rope fittings()¥herein the rope end is secured by a

wedge. See FITIINGS.

WHIPPING An alternate term forseizing. Also, it has been suggested aspunishment for those who neglect thecautionary rules in this publication.

WIRE (round) A single, continuouslength of metal, with a circular cross­section, that is cold-drawn from rod.

WIRE (shaped) A single, continuouslength of metal with a Z- or H-shapedcross-section that is either cold-drawn orcold-rolled from rod.

WIRE ROPE A designed assembly ofsymmetrically arranged and helicallywound strands. See CORE and STRAND.

WRAP See TURN.

\ ,

Appendix C WIRE ROPE FITTINGS

CLOSED WIRE ROPE SOCKETS(POURED)

TABLE 37 DIMENSIONS (inches)

~+~---~T

Approx.Rope WtDiam. A B C D .G J R T Lb

~6& 1,4 2 1% \.16 4~jr, 1%0 !)1r. . 1h 1116 10/16 0.5916& % 2 2 lJ.1r. 4!)16 1!)16 3,4 % 111hr. 1%.6 0.9\.16& :yz 21h 21,4 11h6 5\.1r. His 10/16 % 2 1118 1.5%6& % 3 2:YZ 1t16 6%; 2% 1Ys 1 2% 1% 3.0

% 3:YZ 3 l~r. 7% 2% 11,4 11,4 3 1% 4.5'Vs 4 3lh 11,4 8% 31,4 1:YZ 1:YZ 3% 1% 7.0

1 4 1h 4 1% 9'Vs 3% 1% 1% 4':18 21,4 11.01Ys 5 4 1h 1:YZ 11 4118 2 2 41h 2:YZ 16.0

11,4 & 1% 5lh 5 1% 12Ys 4% 21,4 21,4 5 2% 22.01:YZ 6 6 110/16 1310/16 51,4 23,4 2:YZ 5% 3Ys 28.01% 6Y2 6% 2Ys 15% 51h 3 2% 5% 31,4 36.01%&1% 7lh 71%; 20/1.6 17lh 6% 3Ys 3 6% 31%2 58.0

2 &2':18 81h 810/1.6 2Y16 19% 7% 3% 31,4 7% 32%2 80.021,4 & 2% 9 9% 2% 21% 81,4 4 3% 8lh 4%2 105.02:YZ & 2% 9% 10518 3Ys 231h 91,4 4lh 4 91h 42%2 140.023,4 & 2% 11 11lh 3 25 1h 10% 4'Vs 4% 103,4 5Y.32 220.0

3 &3118 12 11% 31,4 27 11:YZ 5% 51,4 l1lh 5%2 276.031,4 & 3% 12 11% 31,4 27 11 1h 5% 51,4 l1lh 5171.32 276.03:YZ & 3518 14 13 4 31 13 6lh 61/.+ 13 6Y.32 400.03%-4 15 14 41,4 331,4 141,4 71,4 7 141,4 7~-32 540.0

NOTE: Dimensions are for reference only. Consult your supplier of the specific fittings forexact details.

109

, l >~) ..

OPEN WIRE ROPE SOCKETS(POURED)

TABLE 38 DIMENSIONS (inches)

Approx.Rope Wt

Diam. A B C D E G J K L N P Lb,

%;& 14' 2 1~11l 31'4 4~Y11l 1~"H 31'4 lYJll 1~11l ~1n FiSr. l1Afi 0.9.}

~}SG & 3/8 2 1% 'Vs 40/s 1!Jt,t; 1:!1r. 31'4 ' 1~11l 1 :~.[t:! Ph 10/1r. 1.1'Vlr.& liz 2Y2 2 ,i1"n 5°·1'u 1'Vs ' 1 1%,0 1 liz lYs , 1 2.31)10 & s/s 3 2Y2 IJ,4 631'4 21,4 111'4, P/s PA 'Hli 2v.. 1:1111 3.8

% 3Y2 3 . 11111 71~"H 2% 1Y2, IJ,4 Ph % 2% 1% ,6.0'Vs 4 31/2 1% 9 1,4 3%' 1% , 1112 13..4 % 31/s 1% 10.0

':".;,;r.'/.'

15.01 4 liz 4 ' 2~1U 10u'i,i 3% 2 1% 2 'Vs 3% 21V8 5 4 liz 2'~]li Ill::,!,; 4 2% 2 2.J,4 1 41/s 211'4 23.0

11,4&1% 51/2 5 211.1,; 13:);1n 4% 231'4 211'4 2Y2 11/8 431'4 2Y2 32.011/2, 6 6 31/8' 15Ys 5% 3 23,4 3 1:t1li 5% 2% ;47:0

,1% 61/2 61/2 31,4 161,4 5112 31,4 3 3 1ilti 5% 3 55.01%&I'Vs 711z 7 3% 18 1,4 6% 3Ys 31/lj 31/2 l!J.1°tj 6112 3112 85.0

2 & 21/8 8112 9 4 211/2 7% 41,4 33..4 4 11:1111 7 3% 125.021,4 & 2318 9 10 4112 23 112 81,4 43/s 4 41/2 .21/8 7%" 41,4 165.021/2 & 2% 93,4 1031'4 :; 2'5Vi' 91,4 4~i; 4 1/2 5 2% 81/2 43,4 252.0231'4 & 2'Vs 11 11 5 1,4 27 1,4 1031'4 4'Vs 4Y8 511'4 2'Vs 9 5 315.0

3 & 31/8 12 1JI,4 5:}4 29 11 1/2 5 I;~ 51,4 53..4 3 91/2 51,4 380.031,4 & 3% 13 1B~ 6 J/M 30% 12 1'4 53,4 53,4' 6 1/4 31/8 10 51/2 434.031/2 &3~1l 14 121/2 ':6~4 33 1,4 13 61,4 61/2 M4 31,4 103,4 6 563.03%-4 15 13Y2 7% 3611.1 14 1/.i 7 7 1,4 71/2 3lj2 12~'2 7 783.0

'i{;'; 'NOTE: DifuensidJisatefot,reference6rtly. Consult your supplier of the specific fittings forexact details.

lID

OPEN SWAGED WIRE ROPESOCKETS

TABLE 39 DIMENSIONS (inches) (after swaging)

After, Jaw PinRope Swaging opening diam. Approx.diam. A B C D E F H L wt/lb

W ~6 % 1~6 l~G Ph 1~16 1% 4 .52~'16 1~6 . Hj'b 10/16 10/16 1% 10/16 1% 5~16 1.12% 1~6 1%2 10/16 10/16 13,4 19,j(j 1% 5%6 1.07Ylfl % %6 1 1 2 P/s 2 61~6 2.08

1/2 % %6 1 2 1Ys 2 611/16 2.08% lYs ,1%2 lw, H1G 2w 1% 2% 8Ys 4.28% 1% 2~2 11/2 1% 2% 1%6 2% 10 7.97'Vs lY2 % 1% 1% 31/:' 12ry{{2 3~/s llVs 11.3

1 13.4 % 2 2 33,4 2%2 31~6 13% 17.8·1% 2 1 2w 2'IA 4w 2')16 4~6 15 26.0H~ 2w P/s 2~ 2112 4~ 2g'16 4 1h 16 112 34.91% 2 112 P/s 2~ 2112 5 lA 21~1t, 5 18 1/s 44.4

B-2 2% H16 3 2~~ 5% 3Ys 5112 19% 58.01% 3 ,,1%6 3112 3112 6% 3% 6w 23 87.52 3~ 161;(;4 4 3% 8 4%6 8 26% 150

NOTE: Dimensions are for reference only. Consult your supplier of the specific fittings forexact details.

II I

OPEN SWAGED STRANDSOCKETS

TABLE 40 DIMENSIONS FOR 19~WIREAND 37·WIRE STRAND(inches) (after swaging)

L@=rFj-l

r· k B

~---r

c-L

i, .. jJ;

Approx. ~ (.

Jaw Pin wt/1bStrand opening diarn. withoutdiam; A B C D E F H L Pin

1,4&%6 l1/s 5/S 11;4 1716 21;4 1~0 2112 83/.; 3.5% 1% % 1112 Ph 2% 11710 3 101/2 6.25

',c\;,.1716 & % 11,4 1~16 . 1% 1% 31/.; 2 3% 121;4 9.251710 & % P/.; 1132 2 2 3% 2% 4 14 14.5

1%6 & 1 2 1~6 21;4 21;4 41/.; 2!)1n 4112 153/.; 20.51710 &1 1/8 21;4 1~6 21,4 21h 4% 21~ln 5 17V2 29.251710 & 11;4 2,1/2 Hio 21h 2112 51;4 3Vs 51/.; 191;4 38.251%6 & 1% 23/.; mu. 3 2% 5% 31h 5.% 21 45.0

NOTE: Dimensions are for reference only. Consult your supplier of the specific fittings forexact details.

: "

.," '

112

/~,

CLOSED SWAGED WIRE ROPESOCKETS

.. __...---'---~

TABLE 41 DIMENSIONS (inches) (after swaging)

.'.....f----L I !

t \ r-E-+-F-l~--;--.L.......r----J._~P"--,_j C§(! [i :i n

After Eye Hole Approx.Rope Swaging thickness diam. wtdiam. A B C D E F L (lb)

'/.4 i-5.6 1h 1% % 1% 1~:16 31/2 .320/16 17:16 40/64 1% % 10/16 1%6 41/2 .77% 17:16 40/64 . 1% Ys 10/16 1~16 4Y2. .72i-5.6 Ys 50/64 2 Fh6 P/2 1ij-:12 5% 1.42

1/2 Ys 50/64 2 B:1f1 Ph Bob 53;.4 1.35§-E. 1% lVs 2% 1'/.4 11%6 1% 71/4 2.85% 1% 1%6 2% 1i-5.G 21/4 1~%~ 8% 4.90Ys Ph l1/2 3va . P7:16 21YJ.6 11~lG lOlls 7.28

1 1% 1% 3% 27:1(; 3 2~1.6 11 1h 10.3Iva 2 2 4. 2%G 30/16 2%~ 12% 14.41'/.4 21,4 .2'/.4 4Y2. 2%G 3% 20/16 14% 21.41% 2Y2. .2'/.4 5 2716 47:16 2"Vs 15% 27.9

Ph 2% 21h 51/2 21~:1G 4JA 3va 17 36.01% 3 3 6'/.4 3!j16 5va 3!YJ.r, 20 51.02 31h 3'/.4 7% 310/1\l 6 4% 23 90.0

113

CLOSED SWAGED STRANDSOCKETS

TABLE 42 DIMENSIONS FOR 19·WffiE AND 37·WIRE STRAND(inches) (after swaging)

Eye Hole Approx. \-.Strand thickness diam. wtdiam. A B C D E F L (lb)

1/2 & ~o }I/s }I/s 21h 114 2Ys l~fI 7112 2.75% 1% mo 3 II~b 2% 1% 9 5.011Ao & 34 11h I1h 3th 12%~ 31;8 2 11 7.25l:}lo & % }3;4 1% 4 2:1112 3% 214 12Y2 11.0

11~ .. & 1 2 2 4Y2 211h~ 33;4 2Y2 13 112 16.0IIA.. & 11/s 2% 214 5 21%2 414 2% 15 23.0l=})o & 1% 2112 2% 5% 21%~ 4112 31/s 161/2 29.0l ril.. & 1% 2% 2th 5th 2% 4% 3% 18 35.5

NOTE: Dimensions are for reference only. Consult your supplier of the specific fittings forexact details.

114

OPEN SWAGED SOCKETS

TABLE43 DIMENSIONS OF SOCKETS (inches)

f-B~ A.., ~'''i, ]

Center of pin Opening DiameterDiameter' hole to end' between of Approximate

of of socket ears pin hole wtrope A B C (lb)

¥!l 5~ sh 1~6 2.5~ 5Vz % 1~6 2.5%', 7 1¥!l 1% 5% 71/2 1% 1% 9

'Va 9 13,4 1% 15·1 9% ISh 1% 20

, I1h' 10% '1~ 1% 231% 11% 13,4 21h 32

1% 11% 1% 2Y8 321~ 13 1,4 2~ 3Y8 521% 13% 2~ 31h 52

OPEN WIRE ROPEWEDGE·TYPE SOCKETSThese wedge-type sockets are easily andquickly attached in the field by bending therope end around the tapered wedge. Thistype of socket is normally furnishedwithout pins.

NOTE: Dimensions are for reference only. Consult your supplier of the specific fittings forexact details.

115

.. (."

WIRE ROPE ASSEMBLIESWhen ordering wire rope ;"'ith fittingsattached. lengths-as shown-shouldbe specified. Additionally, the load atwhich this measurement is takenshould be specified, i.e., at no load, ata percentage of catalog breakingstrength etc.

The accompanying drawings donot show all possible combinations offittings; in any case, the samemeasuring methods should befollowed.'

I)

a

Zinc-attached closed wire rope socket at (Jne end; zihc;.attached open wire rbpisocket at other end. ,:.~

Measurement: Pull of closed socket to centerline of open socket pin.

b

Closed swaged wire rope socket at one end; open swaged wire rope socket atother end.Measurement: Centerline of.,pin to centerline of pin.

c

Closed bridge socket attached to one end; open bridge socket attached to other end.Measurements: Centerline of closed socket pin to centerline of open socket pin;include two of the three values: takeup, contraction, and expansion. The values ofC and 0 are also required.

d

Thimble spliced at one end.Measurement: Pull of thimble to end of rope.

e

Link'spliced atone end,' hook spliced at other end.Measurement: Pull of link to pull of hook.

f

Thimble spliced at one end; loop spliced at other end.Measurements: Pull of thimble to base of loop, and circumference of loop.

116

\.. . '.;.

a

b

~ 1Y::0f&{?ik~~",,;Z-<S,S~§§0%~ f>~::;~·;:~·~~s~-0"'':;;;'-'"'''>,c;-..=*",,-~",,"*...,,-~""'~""'""'."""""";.;S:;,,"",,","';::,"",~""~,",:,",,["-II---@I-!..-----------------LENGTH------------------......-I!

c

""""'11"'''''''"~HTAKE UP

--+-------mm-rm~~~'=::k;J~:::::::::: ~~ i

J------------------LENGTHI------------------_.. 'TAKE UP, ICONTRACT10N)+ (EXPANSION)

d

e

117

,:'.'

BOOM PENDANTS WITHSWAGED FITTINGS SINGLE-ROPE LEGS AND OPEN SWAGED SOCKETS I

I , . ',~

<Q:=:---'--;-1*~~""""="""'~......4.~~XJ~--=:§)

: 11 ~D

~ 1~~ts~~~ss~S!;S::[II==~.*.• ] R W

I SINGLE-ROPE LEGS AND OPEN AND CLOSED SWAGED SOCKETS I

@=--'----r--:I~~~~""""''''''''"''''''~~~~?I=~'''''''''',~=~=®rT[I--@

: W1 ~@:=.----I».*,......~~ =: ! I! )4

I

SINGLE- ROPE LEGS AND CLOSED SWAGED SOCKETS

I I -L\-I-!;-'!--.=_---l~~ ~~-s(Jr--.-......-=.....'---.-!..;.,..""-1) K

I '~I~ T

(--.!-;-I! =_---'~~~~---,-- ,,--,@I~...-..,.._------LENGTH OF PENDANT (SL)-,-----~I

BOOM PENDANTS WITH SWAGED FITTINGS

Length of Pendant is measured as indicated on sketches.

Note: When ordering, customer should specify parallel or rightangle (90·) socket pins.

118

119

Appendix D SOCKETING

C.l

C.2

C.3

SOCKETING PROCEDURESZinc-Poured SocketingThe following steps, in the order given. sh0l!Id be careful1y adhered to. '1. Measure the Rope Ends to be Socketed

The rope end should be of sufficient length so that the ends of the un laid wires(from the strands) will be at the top of the socket basket. (Fig. C.1 ).

2. Apply Serving at Base of Socket ,Apply a tight wire serving band, at the point where the socket base will be,for a length of two rope diameters. (Figs. C.2 & C.3).

3. Broom Out Strand WiresUnlay and straighten the individual rope strands and spread them evenly sothat they form an included angle of approximately 60°, Unlay the win~s of.each

, individual strand for the full length of the rope end-being careful not todisturb or change the Jay of the wires and strands under the serving band.Unlay the wires of an independent wire rope core in the same manner.A fiber core should be cut out and removed as close to the serving bandas possible (Fig. C.3).

4. Clean the Broomed-Out EndsA suggested cleaning solvent for this step is SC-5 Methyl Chloroform. It is alsoknown under the names Chlorothane VG and 1-1-1 Trichlorethane.

CAUTION: Breathing the vapor of this solvent is harmful;it should only be used in a well-ventilated area. Be sure to follow thesolvent manufacturer's instructions, and carefitlly observe all,instructions printed on the hlbel.

Swish the broomed-out rope end in the solvent. then brush vigorously toremove all grease and dirt-making certain that the wires are clean to thevery bottom close to the serving band (Fig. C.4). Additional1y. a solution ofmuriatic acid may also be used. If. however. acid is used thebroomed-outends should be rinsed in a solution of bicarbonate of soda so as to neutralize anyacid that may remain on the rope. Care should be exercised to prevent aCidfrom entering the core; this is particularly important if the rope has a fibercore. Where it is feasible. the best and preferred cleaning method for ropeends prior to socketing is ultrasonic cleaning. After this cleaning step, placethe broomed-out end upright in a vise al10wing it to remain until allsolvent has evaporated and the wires are dry.

Solvent should never be permitted to remain on the rope or on the servingband since it v,'ill run down the wires when the rope is remo\'ed from the vise.

5. Dip the Broomed-Oll/ Rope Ends in FluxPrepare a hot solution of zinc-ammonium chloride flux comparable to Zaclon K.Use a concentration of 1 Ib of zinc-ammonium chloride to I gallon of water;maintain this at a tempera'ture of 180 0 to 200 0 F. Swish th~ broomed-outend in the flux solution. then place the rope end upright in the vise until suchtime as the wires have dried thoroughly (Fig, C. 5).

6. Close Rope Ends and Place .'iacketUse clean wire to compress the broomed-out rope end into a tight bundlethat will permit the socket to be slipped on easily over the wires (Fig. C. 6).Before placing the socket on the rope. make certain that the socket itself

120

\.

C.4

e.s

m•

is clean and heated. This heating is necessary in order to dispel any residualmoisture, and to prevent the zinc from cooling prematurely. A word ofcaution: Never heat a socket after it is placed on the rope. To do so maycause heat damage to the rope.

After the socket ison the rope end. the wires should be distributed evenlyin the socket basket so that zinc can surround each wire. Use extreme carein aligning the socket with the rope's centerline. and in making certain thatthere is a minimum vertical length of rope, extending from the socket,that is equal to about 30 rope diameters (Fig. e.7).

Seal the socket base with fire clay or putty but make certain that thismaterial does not penetrate into the socket base. Should this occur, it wouldprevent the zinc from penetrating the full length of the socket basketthere by creating a void that would collect moisture after the socket is placedin service.

7. Pour the ZincThe zinc used should meet ASTM Specification designation B6-49 Grade (1 )High Grade, and Federal Specification 00-Z-35l-a Amendment 1. interimAmendment 2. Pour the zinc at a temperature of 950° to 970° F (Fig. e.8);make allowances for cooling if the zinc pot is more than 25 ft from the socket.A word of caution: Do not heat zinc above 1100° F or its bonding propertieswill be lost. The zinc temperature may be measured with a portable pyrometer.or a Tempilstik.Remove all dross before pouring. Pour the zinc in onecontinuous stream until it reaches the basket top and all wire ends are covered;there should be no "capping" of the socket.

8. Remove ServingRemove the serving band from the socket base; check to make certain thatzinc has penetrated to the socket base (Fig. e.9) .

. 9. Lubricate the RopeApply wire rope lubricant to the rope at the socket base. and on any ropesection where the original lubricant may have been removed.

C.6 C.7

J21

e.s e.9

thermo-Set Resin Sock~ting

Before proceeding with a thermo-set resin socketing procedure, checkmanufacturer's instructions carefully. Give particular attention to selectingsockets that have been specifically designed for resin socketing. Follow the steps,outlined below, or manufacturer's directions, in the order given.1. Seizing and Cutting the Rope

Follow rope manufacturer's directions for a particular rope size or constructionwith regard to the number, position, length of seizings and the seizing wiresize. The seizing, located at the base of the installed fitting, must be positionedso that the ends of the embedded wires will be slightly below the level of the topof the fitting's basket. The best means to cut the rope is with an abrasive wheel.

2. Opening and Brooming the Strand WiresBefore opening the rope end, place a short temporary seizing directly abovethe seizing that represents the broom base. Temporary seizing preventsbrooming the wires the full length of the basket and also prevents loss of layin the strands and rope outside the socket. Remove all seizing betweenthe end of the rope and the temporary seizing. Unlay the strands comprisingthe rope. Starting with the IWRC, or strand core, open each strand ofthe rope and broom or unlay the individual wires. (Note: A fiber core in therope may be cut at the base of the seizing; some prefer to leave the core in.Consult the manufacturer's instruction.) When the brooming is completed,wires should be distributed evenly within a cone so that they form an includedangle of approximately 60°. Some types of sockets will require a somewhatdifferent brooming procedure, in which case the manufacturer's instructionsshould be followed.

3; Cleaning the Wires and FittingsDifferent types of resin with different characteristics require varying degreesof cleanliness. In some cases, merely using a soluble cleaning oil has beenfound effective. For one type of polyester resin, on which over 800 tensile testson ropes in sizes 114 /I to 3112 /I diameter were made without failure in theresin socket attachment, the cleaning procedure was as follows:

Clean wires thoroughly so as to obtain resin adhesion. Ultrasoniccleaning in recommended solvents such as trichloroethylene or1-1-1 trichloroethane or other non-flammable grease-cutting solvents isthe preferred method of cleaning the wires in accordance with OSHAStandards. Where ultrasonic cleaning is not available, brush or dip-cleaningin trichloroethane may be used; but fresh solvent should be used for each

. rope and fitting and discarded after use. After cleaning, the broom should bedried with clean compressed air or in other suitable fashion beforeproceeding to the next step. The use of acid to etch the wires before resinsocketing is unnecessary and not recommended. Also, the use of a fluxon the wires before pouring resin should be avoided since this adverselyaffects resin bonding to the steel wires. Since there is much variation inthe properties of different resins, manufacturers' instructions shouldbe carefully followed.

4. Close Rope Ends and Place SocketPlace rope in a vertical position with the broom end up. Close and compact

..",~

. I

the broom to permit insertion of thebroomed end into the base ofthefitting.Slip the fitting on, removing any temporary banding or seizing as required.Make certain the broomed wires are uniformly spaced in the basket, withwire ends slightly below the top edge of the basket, and that the axis of the ropeand the fitting are aligned. Seal the a:qnular space between the base of thefitting and the exiting rope to prevent leakage of the resin from the basket.A non-hardening butyl rubber-base sealant is satisfactory for this purpose.Make sure that the sealant does not enter the base of the socket so that theresin will be able to fiIl the complete depth of the socket basket.

5. Pouring the ResinControIled heat-curing (no open flame) at a temperature rangeof 250°-300° Fis recommended. If ambient temperatures are less than 60° F, this is required!When controIled heat curing is not available and ambient temperatures arenot less than 60° F the attachment should not be disturbed and tension shouldnot be applied to the socketed assembly for at least 24 hours.

6. Lubrication After Socket AttachmentAfter the resin has cured, re-Iubricate the wire rope at the base of the socketto replace any lubricant that may have been removed during the cleaningoperation.

·7. Acceptable Resin TypesCommerciaIly-available resin properties vary considerably. Hence, it isimportant to refer to the individual manufacturer's instructions·before usinganyone type. General rules cannot, of course, be established.,

When properly formulated, most thermoset resins are acceptable forsocketing. These formulations, when mixed, form a pourable material whichwill harden at ambient temperatures, or upon the application of moderateheat. No open flame or molten metal hazards exist with resin socketing sinceheat-curing when necessary, requires a relatively low temperature (250-300° F)obtainable by electric resistance heating.

Tests have demonstrated that satisfactory wire rope socketing performancecan be obtained with resins having characteristics and properties as follows:

General DescriptionThe resin shall be a liquid thermoset material that will harden after beingmixed with the correct proportion of catalyst or curing agent.A. Properties of Liquid (Uncured) Material

Resin and catalyst are normally supplied in two separate containers.After thoroughly mixing them together, the liquid can be poured into thesocket basket. Liquid resins and catalysts shall.have the following properties:

. 1) Viscosity of the Resin-Catalyst Mixture30-40,000 CPS at 75° F immediately after mixing. Viscosity wiIl increaseat lower ambient terriperatures and resin may need warming prior tomixing in the catalyst if ambient temperatures drop below 40° F.

2) Flash PointBoth resin and catalyst shall have a minimum flash point of 100° F.

3) Shelf LifeUnmixed resin and catalyst shaH have a minimum of 1 yearshelf life at 70° F.

123

4) Pot Life and Cure TimeAfter mixing, the resin-catalyst blend shall be pourable for a minimumof eight minutes at 60 0 F and shall harden in 15 minutes. Heatingof the resin in the socket to a maximum temperature of 250 0 F ispermissible to obtain full cure.

B. Properties of Cured Resin1) Socket Performance

Resin shall exhibit sufficient bonding to solvent-washed wire in typicalwire rope end fittings to develop the nominal strength of all types andgrades of rope. No slippage of wire is permissible when testing resin-filledrope socket assemblies in tension. After testing, however, some"seating" of the resin cone may be apparent and is acceptable.

Resin adhesion to wires shall be capable of withstandingtensile-shock loading.

2) Compressive StrengthThe minimum allowable compressive strength for fully cured resinis 12,000 psi.

3) ShrinkageMaximum allowable shrinkage is 2 %. To control shrinkage, an inertfiller may be used in the resin provided that viscosity requirements asspecified above (A.l) for the liquid resin are met.

4) HardnessThe desired hardness of the resin is in the range of BarcoI40-55.

Resin Socketing CompositionsManufacturer's directions should be followed in handling, mixing and pouringthe resin composition.Performance of Cured-Resin SocketsPoured-resin sockets may be moved after the resin has hardened. Following theambient- or elevated-temperature cure, recommended by the manufacturer,resin sockets should develop the nominal strength of the rope, and have thecapability of withstanding shock loading to a degree sufficient to breakthe rope. without cracking or breakage. Manufacturers of resin socketingmaterial shall be required to test these criteria before resin materials willbe approved for rope socketing use.

A final note of caution: the foregoing discussion is a generalized descriptionof but one of many commercially available thermo-set resins suitable for wire ropesocketing. Characteristics of these products vary significantly and each must behandled differently. ThLiS, as noted earlier, specific information of any kindconcerning any resin must be obtained from the individual manufacturer beforesetting up a resin socketing ~rocedure.

1~4

Appendix E SHIPPING REEL CAPACITY

SHIPPING REEL CAPACITYWhile it is virtually impossible to calculate the precise length of wire ropethat can be spooled on a reel or drum, the following formula provides a sufficientlyclose approximation.

The'formula* is: L = (A+D)· A • B • K

DK

Hx =

I....t-------L-- B----<.I

flH JLf---J-------1

where: L = length of rope (ft)A = depth of rope space on drum (inches)B width of drum between

flanges (inches)drum barrel diameter (inches)comtant for given rope diameter(see table below)diameter of reel flanges (inches)clearance

TABLE 45'"K" FACTORS:~*(0.2618 ..;- rope diameter2)

Diam. Diam.(inches) K (inches) K

1A.6 49.8 112 0.925~~2 23.4 !XI; 0.741Ys 13.6 O/S 0.607%~. 8.72 l1A.6 0.506~ .. 6.14 % 0.428

1f.l2 4.59 . 10/1(; 0.354'1.4 3.29 . 'VB 0.308

'hI> 2.21 1 0.239

* 1.58 1Ys 0.191'Yi6 1.19 11.4 0.152

*This formula is based on uniform rope winding on the reel.. It will not give correct results if the winding is non-uniform.

The formula also assumes that there will be the samenum ber of wraps of rope in each layer. While this is no: strictlycorrect. there is no appreciable error in the result unlessthe traverse of the reel·is quite small relative to the flangediameter ("H").

*"*The values given for "K" factors take normal rope oversizeinto account. Clearance ("x") should be about 2 inchesunless rope-end fittings require more.

125

Diam.(inches) K

1* 0.1271 1/2~ 0.1071% 0.08861% 0.07701'Vs 0.0675

2 0.05972 1/s 0.053221.4 0.0476

2* 0.041921/2 0.0380

Appendix F WEIGHTS OF MATERIALS'~''''='''

*Weights are derived from average specificgravities. except where noted as bulk, heapedor loose material. etc.

.Substance

METALS, ALLOYS, ORESAluminum, cast~hammeredAluminum, bronze ,..•...Antimony ..Arsenic ;.;; .Bismuth .Brass, cast-rolled .Bronze (gun metal)-

cOpper 88, tin 10,zinc 2% ..

Bronze (Phosphor)­copper 80, tin 10.lead 10% ..

Chromium ..Cobalt ; .Copper, cast-rolled ..Copper, ore, pyrites .Gold, cast-hammered .Iron. cast, pig ..Iron, wrought ..Iron, Spiegel-eisen .Iron, ferro-silicon ..Iron, ore, hematite ..Iron, ore, hematite in bankIron, ore. hematite loose .Iron, ore, limonite .Iron, ore, magnetite ..Iron, slag ..Lead ; .Lead ore, galena ,.Magnesium ..Manganese ..Manganese or(f, pyrolusiteMercury .Molybdenum .Nickel ..Nickel monel metal ..Platinum. cast-hammered ..Silver, cast hammered ,.Steel ~ ..Tin. cast-hammered ..Tin. babbitt metal .Tin. ore, cassiterite .Tungsten .Vanadium ..Zinc. cast-rolled .Zinc, ore. blende ..

Weight(Ib/ft3)

165481416358608534

544

562428552556262

1205450485468437325

160-180130-160

237315172706465109456259.848562545556

1330656490459443418

1180350440253

Substance'(.'. VARIOUS SOLIDS

Carbon, amorphous,graphitic .

Cork .Ebony .Fats .Glass, common, plate ..Glass, crystal ..Glass, flint .Phosphorous, white ..Porcelain, china ..Resins, Rosin, Amber .Rubber, caoutchouc ..Silicon ..Sulphur, Amorphous .Wax .

TIMBER, U.S. SEASONEDAsh, white ..Beech ..Birch, yellow .Cedar, Port Orford ..Cedar, white, red .Chestnut .Cypress, southern ..Douglas Fir, coast type ..Douglas Fir, mountain ..Elm, American ..Hemlock, eastern, westernHickory, bigleaf .Hickory, pignut .Larch, western ..Maple, red, black ..Maple, silver : ..Oak, Oregon white .Oak, red ..Pine, red ..Pine, white, yellow,

western .Poplar, yellow .Redwood .Spruce, black, red ..Spruce, Engelmann ..Tamarack .\Valnut .Moisture Contents:Seasoned timber 12%Green timber up to 50%

Weight(Ib/ft3)

129157658

160184220114150

6758

155128

60

414443 \ . .i29

..

22-23303234303528485336

38-4033514433

27-282830282337

39-40

GASESAir, O°C, 760mm 08071Ammonia 0478Carbon dioxide .1234Carbon monoxide 0781Gas, illuminating 028-.036Gas, natural : 038-.039Hydrogen .00559Nitrogen .0784Oxygen .0892

MINERALSAsbestos 153Barytes 281Basalt 184Bauxite 159Borax 109Chalk 137Clay, marl 137Dolomite 181Feldspar, orthoclase :...... 159Granite, gneiss 172Greenstone, trap 187Gypsum, alabaster 159Hornblende 187Limestone, crystalline ......160Limestone, oolitic 144Magnesite 187Marble 168Phosphate rock, apatite 200Porphyry 172Pumice, natural................ 40Quartz, flint 165Sandstone, bluestone 147

Substance

VARIOUS LIQUIDSAlcohol, 100% .Acids, Muriatic 40% .Acids, nitric 91 % .Acids, sulphuric 87% .Lye, soda 66% ..........•.......Oils, vegetable .Oils, mineral, lubricants .Petroleum .Gasoline .Water, 4°C, max. densilY ..Water, 100°C .Water, ice .Water, snow, fresh fallen ..Water, sea water .

Weight(Ib/ft3)

497594

11210658575542

62.42859.830

568

64

Substance

Slate, shale ..Soapstone, talc .

STONE, QUARRIED,PILED

Basalt, granite, gneiss .Limestone, marble, quartzSandstone "..Shale .Greenstone, hornblende .

BITUMINOUSSUBSTANCES

Asphaltum ..Coal, anthracite : .Coal, bituminous .Coal, lignite .Coal, peat, turf, dry .Coal, charcoal, pine ..Coal, charcoal, oak .Coal, coke ..Graphite .Paraffine .Petroleum, crude : .Petroleum, refined ..Petroleum, benzine .Petroleum, gasoline ..Pitch .Tar, bituminous .

COAL AND COKE, PILEDCoal, anthracite .Coal, bituminous, lignite ..Coal, peat, turf .Coal, charcoal ..Coal, coke ..

ASHLAR MASONRYGranite, gneiss ..Limestone, crystalline ..Limestone, oolitic ..Marble' :.: .Sandstone, bluestone .

MORTAR RUBBLEMASONRY

Granite, gneiss .Limestone, crystalline ..Limestone, oolitic ..Marble .Sandstone, bluestone ..

127

Weight(Ib /ft3)

172.169

96958292

107

8197847847233375

13156555046426975

47-5840-5420-2610-1423-32

172160144168147

165156138162140

Substance

BRICK MASONRY.Pressed brick .Common brick .Soft brick ..

CONCRETECement, stone, sand .Cement, slag, etc .Cement, cinder, etc .

VARIOUS BUILDINGMATERIAL

Ashes, cinders .Cement, Portland, loose .Cement, Portland, set .Lime, gypsum, loose .Mortar, set .Slags, bimk slag ..Slags, bank, screenings ..Slags, machine slag .Slags, slag sand ..: .

EARTH, ETC.,EXCAVATED

Clay, dry .Clay, damp, plastic .Clay and gravel, dry ..Earth, dry, loose .Earth, dry, packed ..Earth, moist, loose .Earth, moist, packed .Earth, mud, flowing ..Earth, mud, packed .Riprap, limestone ..Riprap, sandstone .Riprap, shale .Sand, gravel, dry, loose .Sand, gravel, dry, packed..Sand, gravel, wet .

EXCAVATIONS INWATER

Sand or gravel :; .Sand or gravel and clay ..Clay ..River mud _ .Soil .Stone riprap ..

Weight(Ib/ft3)

140120100

144130100

40-4590

18365-75

10367-7298-117

9649-55

6311010076957896

J08115

80-8590

10590-105

100-120118-120

606580907065

CONTENTS IN ALPHA:BETICAL ORDER'

BasitComponents /.7Bending Rope Over Sheaves & Drums / 39Breaking ina New Wire Rope /45Breaking Strengths / 77Clips, How to Apply /29Cutting Wire Rope / 24Design Factors /76Drums: Grooved / 34

Multiple Layers /36Plain (Smooth) / 35

Efficiency of End Attachments / 25Elastic Properties of Wire Rope / 73End Attachments / 25Factors Affecting the Selection of Wire Rope / 49Field Lubrication / 68Fleet Angle / 48Glossary of Wire Rope Terms (Appendix B) / 99Handling Wire Rope /17Inspections and Reports, Guidelines to / 52Introduction / 5Operation and Maintenance of Wire Rope / 37Ordering, Storing and Unreeling Wire Rope (Appendix A) / 97Physical Properties /73Receiving, Inspection and Storage / 17Seizing Wire Rope / 22Sheaves & Drums / 37Sheaves & Drums, Inspection of / 42Shipping Reel Capacity (Appendix E) / 125Socketing / 28Socketing Procedures (Appendix D) / 120Strength Loss of Rope Over Sheaves or Stationary Pins / 47Unreeling & Uncoiling / 19Wedge Sockets/ 33 "Weights.of M,lterials (App~ndix F) / 126Wire Rope: Clips / 29

Efficiency Over Sheaves / 70Fittings (Appendix C) / 109Identification / 9Installation /18Operations Inspection/ 45

"X-Chart": Abrasion Resistance. vs. Bending-Fatigue Resistance / 44