Extreme Environments

Causes of Aridity: Cold Ocean CurrentsAs air masses pass on wind currents, there is an

upwelling of cold ocean water, cooling clouds and reducing their carrying capacity. This causes what

little water is left to be precipitated along the coastline, leaving none for further inland.

Causes of Aridity: ReliefAir masses pick up water from the sea and rise on

prevailing winds, reducing pressure. As it depressurises, it cools so condensation and

precipitation occur over the mountain range. Dry air continues to the other side and there is no moisture

left to rain.

Causes of Aridity: Global Atmospheric CirculationThere is an are of low pressure between the Hadley

cells called the inter-tropical convergence zone (ITCZ) where air will rise and move polewards, sinking

between 20-30▫ North or South in the Hadley cells. It meets air doing the opposite in the Ferrel cells, causing a high pressure zone with anticyclonic

conditions, building up heat during the day, picking up moisture from the area and radiating heat out at

night.

Causes of Aridity: ContinentialityMaritime regions often receive the majority of rain

from evaporated sea water, and with less water sources on land, there is often far less moisture to be

distributed inland.

Normal soil profile:Vegetation: the layer of plant life on topHumus: the uppermost layer of soil where organic material decomposes and leaves nutrients and mineralsTop soil: area that includes the humus and where nutrients and minerals may sink toSub soil: several layers of old soil which have been pressurised by new soilBedrock: a layer made of solid stone

Aridisol profile:Vegetation: a layer of plant life which is far sparser than a normal profile, with only certain plants being able to adapt to the conditionsHumus: a much thinner layer than a normal profile as there is no decomposing matter to add to itTop soil: also far thinner than a normal profile, contains less minerals and nutrientsSub soil: a single layer primarily made of sand and salt making it hydrophobic with possible salinizationBedrock: same as a normal profile, made of solid stone

Hydrophobility: Fear/Hatred of water. Sand will no absorb water, it will sit on top and cause the high salt

content to salinize when dry

Salinized soil: Where the high salt content has formed a crust on top which solidifies, allowing even

less water through to the soil if any

Desert Flora: Aloe Vera• Uses it’s tissue to store large volumes of water

• Thick fleshy leaves for tissue• Leaf cuticle is thick and covered in wax to reduce

water loss• Maintains the high volume of water for dry periods

Desert Flora: Desert Melon• Thrives in warm climates

• Single creeper can produce several fruit• Only grow to shrub size to reduce surface area,

stomata and transpiration• Horns deter animals that may eat it

Desert Flora: Saguaro Cactus• Grow as tall as 50 metres

• Live for 200 years• Large water storage space• Shallow net of roots

• Grows arms to increase reproduction• Needles reduce transpiration and deter animals• Very green to allow maximum photosynthesis

Desert Fauna: Gila Monster• Yellow, pink or orange colouration to camouflage

into surroundings• Venomous

• Can store fat in its tail• Thick skin prevents water loss

• Spends 98% of its life underground• Slow metabolic rate – fat lasts longer so it needs to

feed less often

Desert Fauna: Sidewinder• Well developed muscles allow sideways movement

to cope with shifting sands• Scales over eyes to protect them

• Movement reduces the time its body touches the hot sands

• Nocturnal to avoid heat of the day• Sandy colouration to camouflage into surroundings

Desert Fauna: Fennec fox• Nocturnal and burrow during the day

• Extremely large ears to increase surface area to volume ratio and keep cool

• Good hearing for hunting• Camouflaged colouration

• Thick fur on feet to insulate from the heat• Kidneys restrict water loss

Human pressures on deserts: Population growthSonoran Desert1970 2.3 million 4% annual growth1995 5.5 million 3% annual growth2001 8 million+Mexicali has 500,000 people

Reasons: MigrationMovement of retireesBirth rate>Death rate

Human pressures on deserts: Population growthPositivesTourism produces economic stabilityBetter facilities are developed e.g. Hospitals

NegativesLoss of plants and animalsDisruption of natural drainage systemDepletion of water and foodIncreased flash floods due to new impermeable surfaces e.g. Buildings and roads

Human pressures on deserts: Population growthMojave Desert1.9 mil people in Las Vegas, 2.3 mil in the desertDivided amongst urban centres (Vegas, California)In 2003, 1.5 mil were present, 660,000 residents2000-2003 the population grew by 3%

Reasons:Tourism industryMilitary stations

Human pressures on deserts: Population growthPositivesMillions in tourist revenueUrban centres are sparse and spread out, reducing pressure on single areasMore people means more facilities

NegativesSoil erosion and land degredation from residential and tourist activites e.g. Use of all terrain vehiclesUrban sprawl and rapid growth e.g. South CaliforniaIt can effect the wildlife dramatically

Human Pressures on deserts: MiningRoxby Downs - Australia

Largest source of uranium in the world5th largest mine in the world

Established in 1987It also produces copper, gold and silver

Human Pressures on deserts: MiningPositivesEmploys 1,136 of the 4,000 population, and 900 commutersSold for $9.2 billion$5 billion expansion plan will lead to more jobs

NegativesLots of water required to process the ores (35 milion litres daily)60 million tonnes rsdioactive wasteDec 2003 145,000 tonnes of uranium solution spilled

Human pressures on deserts: MiningTanami Desert – Australia

Gold mining site since 1900In 2010, a single operation produced 2 million oz of

gold$30 milion has been invested in a deep shaft projectSince 1997, expenditure has been in excess of $12

million

Human pressures on deserts: MiningPositivesBoosts the economyIt allows countries to developSome profit was used for the development of aboriginal people

NegativesWork is dangerous: In 2006, 17 were trapped, 14 escapred, 1 died, 2 found after 5 daysDestroys habitat and isn’t an unlimited resourceMachinery can be expensive

Human pressures on deserts: FarmingAtacama desert – Chile

Crops: Cucumbers, beans, cotton, olives, grapesLivestock: Cattle, pigs, alpacas

Method: Solar panels create energy which is used to pump water from the groundwater storage to irrigate

crops at night when evapotranspiration is at its lowest point

Human pressures on deserts: FarmingPositivesContributes to 20% of revenueMakes use of unused land

NegativesGroundwater storage will not be replaced quickly – the Atacama received 0.01in of rain a yearFarmers must compete with other industries e.g. mining

Human pressures on deserts: FarmingSonoran desert – USA/Mexico

Crops: 1.5 million tonnes of wheat, 100,000 potatoes, 177,000 oranges

Livestock: 1.4 million cattle, 1.2 million pigs, 38,000 sheep

Method: Dams and reservoirs are used to irrigate land when it is at its coolest in the night

Human pressures on deserts: FarmingPositivesProduces more foodContributes to revenue

NegativesLess water for consumptionWater table droppingIncreased soil salinity

Sonoran Desert Conservation PlanThe program was established in 1998 and targets 5

key areas:• Critical habitat and biological corridors

• Riparian protection• Mountain parks and nature preserves

• Cultural resources• Ranch conservation

Sonoran Desert Conservation PlanAchievements to date:

• Over 200 reports compiled• Over 60,000 acres in county management

• Rehabilitation projects over another 200 acres• 16% of perennial streamsides are either in or will so

be in county management•2,000 of the 16,000 acres of intermittent streamside

will be in the preservation network

Sonoran Desert Conservation PlanPositives

Has prevented some further damage from occuringRestored some habitats

Tax is proportionate to cattle

NegativesMore planning than action

Nothing has been done since 2009Land degredation cannot be reversedCost $174 million ($559.48 per km2)

Tried to save “endangered” owl but miscounted

Sonoran Desert Conservation Plan

Overall the plan has failed due to:• More planning occuring than taking action

• That nothing has been done in relation to the plan since 2009, and that was a report on turtles with

nothing 5 years prior

Arid Recovery – Roxby DownsThe program was set up to:

• Facilitate the restoration of arid zone ecosystems• Protect a range of native biota e.g. Long-lived flora

which had been driven out by short-lived annual or week species

• Re-introduce regionally extinct animals e.g. The greater stick nest rat, the western barred bandicoot

and the woma python.

Arid Recovery – Roxby DownsAchievements to date:

• An exclusion fence has been built to protect native biota

•Radio tracking GPS collars were put on wild cats and foxes to gain a greater understanding of them

• Native floras have been regenerated within the reserve

• Research and monitoring has been developed to help the program

Arid Recovery – Roxby DownsPositives

It protects threatened species from extinction and reintroduces those regionally extinct

Raises awareness an gains volunteer involvementNatural area is conserved

NegativesExcluded animals could gain access when the fence was

washed out by rainFence became rusted after 9 days

Dingoes broke in and killed all foxes within 17 daysIt cost $12,432 AUD per km ($13,057.33 per km)

Arid Recovery – Roxby Downs

Overall the program is working as there are more positive impacts than negative ones, primarily in

favour of the wildlife.

Though it had some problems initially, the fence does protect conserved animals from the excluded

predators and many are now becoming safer as a species in the region.

Dubai Desert Conservation ReserveThe program was established to:

• Create a permanently protected area which ensures the future for habitats

• Protects natural resources and maintains original desert landscapes

• Ensures the community and visitors have access in a sustainable way

• Registering to get international recognition for the reserve under the United Nations Protected Area

Management

Dubai Desert Conservation ReserveAchievements to date:

• In 1997, camels were evicted from 5% of the country to protect native species

• In 1999, 70 Arabian Oryx were reintroduced to the area in a 27km2 conservation reserve and 6000 native

shrubs planted• Emrites Airline entered a 5 year sponsorship deal

worth $14 million. The government added $7 mil.• The DDCR (4.7% of countries land) was created to

protect animals and landscape

Dubai Desert Conservation ReservePositives

The list of bird species in the DDCR rose from 60 to 126The 70 Oryx formed the basis of the herd of now 400

There has been a rapid recovery in plant biomassNegatives

Ecological health and indigenous knowledge are in declineLarge areas of land are rapidly becoming urbanised

Overgrazing reduced the range of species and biodiversityIt is costly - $21 mil was required for initial infrastructure

across 225km2 (4.7%) = $93,333. per km2

Dubai Desert Conservation Plan

Overall the plan has failed as, though it has made a significant difference to biodiversity and saved

endangered animals, it is far too expensive to be sustainable, even with tourism revenue being

generated

There are 2 types of Tundra – arctic and alpine, caused by either latitude or altitude.

Arctic Tundra: is located 60◦ North in latitude and includes parts of Canada, Greenland, Russia and Alaska.

There is a full 24 hours of light and a full 24 hours of darkness annually to class as arctic tundra.

Alpine Tundra: is found in mountain ranges around the world. For each 10 metres altitude increased, the

temperate drops 1◦, so you would be able to have a tundra environment 4000m above the equator (Andes)

The soil of tundra environments is also vastly different from normal soil profiles. Where as

temperate environments have a ‘normal’ soil profile, and deserts have aridisol, tundra environments

generally have cryosol and inceptisol. There are often large areas of permafrost, ground which has been

frozen at or below 0◦c for two years or more.

Frost heave results from water in the soil freezing and forming ice, and as more water passes through

porous soils, it is able to grow bigger. Once a sufficient size, it may be able to lift soil above it,

causing ‘lenses’ of uneven ground levels.

Tundra Flora: Puya Raimondii• Antifreeze chemical in sap• Grow up to 10 metres high

• Takes between 80-150 years to flower• Produces 8-12 million seeds

Tundra Flora: Rhododendron• Leaves photosynthesise even when cold

• Thrive in acidic soil• Grows at between 12,000 and 14,500 feet• Low lying to withstand strong winds

Tundra Flora: Moss Campion• 5-15cm tall

• Close to the ground to conserve heat• Small leaves give it less exposure to the harsh

environment• Protective cushion shape to restrain moisture and

heat• Plant is 10◦c warmer than its surroundings

Tundra Flora: Artic Willow• Forms pesticide to keep animals and insects away

• Suited to cold, dry places• 15-20cm tall to avoid high winds• Oval shaped, pointed leaves• 15-50mm leave length

• Dark green bottom, light green top• Petals don’t fall off, they just release seeds• Has adapted a shallow net of lateral shoots

Tundra Flora: Arctic Moss• Aquatic to avoid winds• 1cm growth per year• Tiny rootlets 1 cell thick

• Stores fat• Long life span 7-9 years

Tundra Flora: Bearberry• Low lying

• 2-8 inches tall• Thick bark and fine silk hairs for warmth

• Blooms between March and June (warmer months)• Adapted to non-nutrient rich soils• Doesn’t use moisture or heat• Provides food for animals

Tundra Fauna: Alpaca

Tundra Fauna: Wild Yak • 12 million in the world• 23 year life span

• Females have 20in horn, males have 40in horn• Use horns to dig up food• Long thick coat for warmth

• Hot digestive tract• Travel in single sex herds

• Only give birth when the temperature is above freezing

• Move above snowline in summer

Tundra Fauna: Elk• Herbivores

•4 part stomach for bark, grass, shrubs and tree limbs• Heavy coat for warmth

• Strong legs to escape predators• Have antlers for 6 months of the year

• Sharp hooves to lash out• Teeth for grinding

Tundra Fauna: Wolverine• Related to weasel rather than bears

• Large teeth and jaws• 65-107cm tall• 13 year life span

• Hydrophobic thick coat• Large feet to spread weight

• 5 large claws per foot for climbing• Pounces on prey from trees

• Lets other animals hunt then scavenges food

Tundra Fauna: Snowy Owl• Thick layers of down and feathers

• Claws to pick up prey• 9.5 year life span in wild• 30 years + in captivity• Wing span of 1.5 metres

• 60-75cm tall• Camouflaged beak• Short sharp beak

• Eyes don’t move, head does

Tundra Fauna: Musk Ox• Herbivore

• Breaks through ice to get to plants• 12-20 year life span

• 4-5 ft tall• Long fur coat for warmth

• 500-800lb• Found in Alaska, Greenland and Russia

• Males and females have horns

Human pressures on tundra: Tourism in IcelandTourism created 7,385 jobs in 2000, 8,211 in 2006

and 8,500 in 2009Tourism related jobs make up a significant

percentage of tourisms revenueWinter sports often attract tourists

Human pressures on tundra: Tourism in IcelandPositivesCreates jobs, employment, increases foreign exchange and regional developmentImproves amenities and facilities, may encourage traditional customs and craftsSome sites may have higher call for preservation eg. Historical, cultural or environmental sites (volcanoes)NegativesInflation and higher land values, overdependence on tourism industry (Eyjafjallajokull eruption)Bad visitor behaiour, erosion of local culturesOveruse of water, pressure on local resources, wildlife harmed

Human pressures on tundra: Pollution: NorilskLocated in a continuous permafrost zone in Russia,

covered in snow 250-270 days a yearTemperature ranges from -23◦c to 25◦c

Main reason is smelting of ores, approximately 4 million tonnes of cadmium, copper, lead, nickel,

arsenic etc. being released into the air every year6th most polluted city in the world

Population declined from 183,000 in 1982 to 131,900 in 2005

Human pressures on tundra: Pollution: NorilskPositivesCompany is worth £17 billion, 2006 net profit was £3 billion, employs cities workforce, investment in South African gold miningProduces many jobs and deals with unemploymentIn 2015, SO2 emissions will be reduced by 2/3NegativesProcess to produce economic gain can still be costlyRespiratory disease from emissions amounts to 15.8% of child deaths, life expectance 10 years below the rest of RussiaCNN claims there isn’t a tree with 48km, contamination has been found 60km away, 1% of world’s pollution

Human pressures on tundra: Mineral exploitation: Prudhoe BayLargest oil field in North America

Two major oil producers: BP and Phillips5 other companies with financial interest

Produces 1 million barrels of oil a year15 million barrels in 25 year history, nearly 1/5 of the

total US consumption

Human pressures on tundra: Mineral exploitation: Prudhoe BayPositivesOil and gas produce mass revenue, $5.18 billion in 2009, $95 billion since 1957Accounts for 41,744 jobs, 9.4% of Alaska’s totalNew technology reduces damage caused by drillingNegativesSuccess rate is low and expenditure is high, oil reserves will run out eventuallyMay force native Inuits out of their homesFreshwater resources drained, lowers planning permissions for other forms of exploitation, significant damage to corals, destruction to habitat from infrastructure e.g. Alaskan pipeline

Alaska Department of Fish and Game•Run water programs to make recommendations based

on data and analysis• Establishes hydroelectric projects

•Works with the Alaska Clean Water Actions program to bring resource agencies together

•Work with private land owners in costa share programs to restore habitats, e.g. Kenai peninsula

• Controlled areas e.g. Southern Southwest Islands cannot use vehicles for black bear hunting

• Sets laws and regulations in fish-bearing areas

Alaska Department of Fish and GamePositivesProtected areas vary from wildlife refuges, critical habitat areas, important waters and state parks220,051 acres provide protection for wildlifeNegativesIt’s limited just to certain parts of AlaskaIt will prevent oil drilling based revenue in conservation areas, also limiting jobsInuits who rely on hunting in certain areas may be penalized for it

WWF• Support the Catlin Arctic survey to measure sea ice

loss• Assessing Arctic vunerability to climate change• Working with national governments and local communities to promote networks of ecologically-

based Marine Protected areas• Welcomes the initiative in April 2009 that brought together ministers from the Arctic Council and Antarctic

Treaty to discuss the environmental role of each area

WWFPositivesIUU fishing in the Barents Sea has been reduced by 50%It has significantly raised awareness of the issuesIt aids and guides governments who can take actions

NegativesThey work around the world so only a limited amount of time can be allocated to Arctic conservationThey are just a pressure group, they don’t actually hold any power over governments

Conservation of Arctic Flora and Fauna• Serve as a vehicle for co-operation on species and

habitat management• Facilitate knowledgeable decision making on

biodiversity management and conservation• Promote sustainability of Arctic resources

• Report to key stakeholders and governments in order to facilitate an active response to changes in

the environment, providing policy recommendation if necessary

Conservation of Arctic Flora and FaunaPositivesIt may not be a government organization, but does aid in the decisions made by 9 member nationsHundreds of programs are already underway, which CAFF will co-ordinateNegativesIt does more monitoring and assessing than taking actionIt doesn’t actually hold any power and member nations are free to leave