Wolfgang WildgenWolfgang WildgenThe Evolution of Meaning The Evolution of Meaning

and Discourseand Discourse

Cognitive ScienceCognitive Science

Case Western Reserve University, Case Western Reserve University, 3rd of October 20073rd of October 2007

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ContentsContents1.1.Introduction: Introduction: Catastrophic transitions in the evolution of lifeCatastrophic transitions in the evolution of life2.2. From image to concept: Thom’s concepts of “salency” and From image to concept: Thom’s concepts of “salency” and

“pregnance”“pregnance”3.3. An illustrative fragment of catastrophe theoretic semanticsAn illustrative fragment of catastrophe theoretic semantics

3.13.1 Changes in a quality spaceChanges in a quality space3.23.2 The archetype of transfer and trivalent scenariosThe archetype of transfer and trivalent scenarios

4.4. From tool-From tool-manufacturingmanufacturing to propositional semantics to propositional semantics4.14.1 Instrumentality in higher mammals and manInstrumentality in higher mammals and man4.24.2 Is tool-making a pragmatic source of propositional Is tool-making a pragmatic source of propositional semantics?semantics?

5.5. The evolution of discourseThe evolution of discourse5.15.1 From ecological space to social pragmaticsFrom ecological space to social pragmatics5.25.2 From social pragmatics to discourseFrom social pragmatics to discourse5.35.3 A possible hierarchy of A possible hierarchy of discoursediscourse functions functions

6.6. Consequences for an evolutionary grammarConsequences for an evolutionary grammar

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IntroductionIntroduction Language, the exchange of meaningful messages, the Language, the exchange of meaningful messages, the

systematic reference to a world beyond ourselves, the systematic reference to a world beyond ourselves, the reflection on our use of language is a dramatic step beyond reflection on our use of language is a dramatic step beyond the behavior and the psychic states of other creatures and the behavior and the psychic states of other creatures and beyond the material world. It was therefore a major challenge beyond the material world. It was therefore a major challenge for evolutionary thinking first during the controversies of the for evolutionary thinking first during the controversies of the 18th century (Condillac, Rousseau, Diderot, Herder), later for 18th century (Condillac, Rousseau, Diderot, Herder), later for Darwin and his followers. The central problem concerns the Darwin and his followers. The central problem concerns the apparent perfection of human language and the difficulty to apparent perfection of human language and the difficulty to explain preparatory stages and their adaptive value.explain preparatory stages and their adaptive value.

I will start with a parallel problem due to perfection and the I will start with a parallel problem due to perfection and the lack of transition which concerns a much earlier step in lack of transition which concerns a much earlier step in evolution: the evolution of the eye during the so-called evolution: the evolution of the eye during the so-called Cambrian revolution some 500 my ago (cf. Park, 2005). Cambrian revolution some 500 my ago (cf. Park, 2005).

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Charles Darwin in the Charles Darwin in the Origin of SpeciesOrigin of Species (1859) treated (1859) treated the eye under the heading ORGANS OF EXTREME the eye under the heading ORGANS OF EXTREME PERFECTION AND COMPLICATION. He admits that PERFECTION AND COMPLICATION. He admits that the idea that it has been created by natural selection is the idea that it has been created by natural selection is “absurd to the highest degree”.“absurd to the highest degree”.

The Cambrian revolution affected only six out of 38 The Cambrian revolution affected only six out of 38 phyla, but 95% of multicellular animals existing today phyla, but 95% of multicellular animals existing today have eyes. Therefore, it is probably the most decisive have eyes. Therefore, it is probably the most decisive evolutionary step in the last billion years. Vision, i.e., the evolutionary step in the last billion years. Vision, i.e., the faculty to form images of selected aspects of the faculty to form images of selected aspects of the environment, triggered on arms-race which shaped environment, triggered on arms-race which shaped bodies, behaviors, enhanced the control and perception bodies, behaviors, enhanced the control and perception of motion (a visually guided attack or escape) and of motion (a visually guided attack or escape) and created the world of colors we experience. In a sense, it created the world of colors we experience. In a sense, it created a world of meanings centered in the brains of created a world of meanings centered in the brains of animals (a kind of virtual reality) animals (a kind of virtual reality)

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Figure 1: The rough evolution of receptors for different sense organs in geological time (graphics from Parker, 2005)

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I will argue in the next section that the origin of language I will argue in the next section that the origin of language (roughly 2 my BP) produced a comparable catastrophic (roughly 2 my BP) produced a comparable catastrophic jump which could become the basis of evolutionary jump which could become the basis of evolutionary processes (losses and gains) in the future (the next processes (losses and gains) in the future (the next millions of years).millions of years).

In the case of vision two subfields are coordinated and cannot In the case of vision two subfields are coordinated and cannot be reduced to one another:be reduced to one another:

1.1. The physics of light/refraction/absorption, etc.The physics of light/refraction/absorption, etc.2.2. The psychophysics of perception and the neurodynamics The psychophysics of perception and the neurodynamics

of image formation, storage and imagination.of image formation, storage and imagination.I will argue that with the emergence of language a third, non I will argue that with the emergence of language a third, non

reducible domain is added, cultural significance and reducible domain is added, cultural significance and meaning. Therefore, any theory of language has to meaning. Therefore, any theory of language has to consider at least three levels and the context of their consider at least three levels and the context of their emergence.emergence.

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1.1. The physics of light: emergence shortly after the Big The physics of light: emergence shortly after the Big Bang with the appearance of stars (other physical fields Bang with the appearance of stars (other physical fields relevant for perception follow later, thus sound fields for relevant for perception follow later, thus sound fields for hearing or chemical fields for smell and taste).hearing or chemical fields for smell and taste).Cf. Guth’s “inflationary universe”. The inflationary stage is followed Cf. Guth’s “inflationary universe”. The inflationary stage is followed by a dark age and later the creation of stars which emit light.by a dark age and later the creation of stars which emit light.

2.2. The (neuro)psychology of image-formation: emergence The (neuro)psychology of image-formation: emergence in the Cambrian revolution; 500 my BP (later auditory in the Cambrian revolution; 500 my BP (later auditory gestalts rival with visual ones for dominance)gestalts rival with visual ones for dominance)

3.3. The cultural significance of sign-behavior and meaningful The cultural significance of sign-behavior and meaningful social communication: emergence 2 my BP (probably social communication: emergence 2 my BP (probably both in the auditory and the visual mode; the auditory both in the auditory and the visual mode; the auditory becomes dominant in humans).becomes dominant in humans).

The architecture of a theory of language has to consider The architecture of a theory of language has to consider these levels. these levels.

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From image to concept From image to concept The Cambrian revolution created an image making The Cambrian revolution created an image making

“machine” which became the motor of evolutionary “machine” which became the motor of evolutionary diversity and which controlled body shapes, color displays, diversity and which controlled body shapes, color displays, camouflage, mimicry, pursuit and escape behaviors, social camouflage, mimicry, pursuit and escape behaviors, social identification, and social cooperation. In a sense, the identification, and social cooperation. In a sense, the image-machine became the functional heart of higher image-machine became the functional heart of higher organized animals and it is still at the heart of human organized animals and it is still at the heart of human behavior and culture.behavior and culture.

One may distinguish two factors in these dynamics, one is One may distinguish two factors in these dynamics, one is linked to the perceptual organ and neuronal centers (e.g., linked to the perceptual organ and neuronal centers (e.g., the eye, the visual pathway, area 7 and its projections), the eye, the visual pathway, area 7 and its projections), the other is linked to selectional forces, such as feeding, the other is linked to selectional forces, such as feeding, hunting prey, protection against predators, and sexual hunting prey, protection against predators, and sexual reproduction. René Thom (1991/2003) called these two reproduction. René Thom (1991/2003) called these two ”forms”: salency (sensory apparatus) and pregnancy ”forms”: salency (sensory apparatus) and pregnancy (biological needs). The major criteria of distinction are:(biological needs). The major criteria of distinction are:

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Thom compares subjective pregnancies found in Thom compares subjective pregnancies found in animals (and man) with objective pregnancies animals (and man) with objective pregnancies (forces) in nature. Linguistic meaning (concepts) (forces) in nature. Linguistic meaning (concepts) which are necessary to form propositions by which are necessary to form propositions by predication are at a point of convergence between predication are at a point of convergence between biological pregnancies, natural forces, motion biological pregnancies, natural forces, motion patterns and geometric formspatterns and geometric forms

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subjectiveobjective

free isotropic propagationdiffusion

controlled propagation

constrained propagation

no propagation

temperaturesoundchemical diffusion

physical fieldse.g. lightstate transitions

motion of solid bodies

geometrical forms

biological pregnances

concepts:words and syntax

phonetic gestalts

written words

color

odor, taste,touch

valence-patterns

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The Lower Paleolithic revolutionThe Lower Paleolithic revolution

In humans and mainly in speaking humans this strict In humans and mainly in speaking humans this strict dependency on biological pregnancies disappears and the dependency on biological pregnancies disappears and the question is: question is: How did the propagation of meaning become to a How did the propagation of meaning become to a large extent independent from basic survival mechanisms?large extent independent from basic survival mechanisms?

As we assume that this transition was prepared in the stage of As we assume that this transition was prepared in the stage of Homo erectus (2 my BP), biologically fixed with the speciation Homo erectus (2 my BP), biologically fixed with the speciation of Homo sapiens (ca. 300.000 y BP) and fully unfolded since of Homo sapiens (ca. 300.000 y BP) and fully unfolded since the populations of cave painters (ca. 40.000 y BP), we can call the populations of cave painters (ca. 40.000 y BP), we can call it the (Lower) it the (Lower) Paleolithic revolutionPaleolithic revolution..

This does not mean that the creation of meaning lost its This does not mean that the creation of meaning lost its biological significance but the Rubicon between a biologically biological significance but the Rubicon between a biologically controlled meaning propagation and a cultural control and controlled meaning propagation and a cultural control and social embedding of meaning has been crossed in this period social embedding of meaning has been crossed in this period (2 my-40.000 y BP). (2 my-40.000 y BP).

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The catastrophic transition to The catastrophic transition to languagelanguage

Non-language Language

Communicative capacities

2 my BP to 40.000 y BP

Evolutionary time scale since the Cambrian revolution

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Thom’s conjectureThom’s conjecture René Thom conjectured that the lexico-syntactic valences René Thom conjectured that the lexico-syntactic valences

described by Tesnière (1959) or the case-frames enumerated described by Tesnière (1959) or the case-frames enumerated by Fillmore (1968) are basically a reflection of restrictions by Fillmore (1968) are basically a reflection of restrictions imposed on natural processes. This hypothesis underlies imposed on natural processes. This hypothesis underlies catastrophe theoretic semantics (cf. Wildgen, 1982). In semiotic catastrophe theoretic semantics (cf. Wildgen, 1982). In semiotic terms, the relational architecture underlying language has a terms, the relational architecture underlying language has a foundation in natural laws, or more provocatively, the foundation in natural laws, or more provocatively, the archetypical architecture of linguistic utterances (sentences) is archetypical architecture of linguistic utterances (sentences) is rooted in natural laws, it is an icon of the real world in which rooted in natural laws, it is an icon of the real world in which human beings live. human beings live.

As a corollary this explains why humans endowed with As a corollary this explains why humans endowed with language are able to discover natural laws, use them for language are able to discover natural laws, use them for technology and control the ambient world which for all other technology and control the ambient world which for all other beings, including non-human hominids, is opaque and just an beings, including non-human hominids, is opaque and just an all-mighty force which beings must endure passively. all-mighty force which beings must endure passively.

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An illustrative fragment of An illustrative fragment of catastrophe theoretic semantics catastrophe theoretic semantics

The valence pattern is globally described as a conflict of The valence pattern is globally described as a conflict of “pregances” in Thom (1978c: 76). If these conflicts are “pregances” in Thom (1978c: 76). If these conflicts are stripped off their specific intentional and real-life content, a stripped off their specific intentional and real-life content, a formal topologico-dynamic pattern is left, which can be formal topologico-dynamic pattern is left, which can be matched against the hierarchy of elementary catastrophes in matched against the hierarchy of elementary catastrophes in Thom (1972). These archetypes (cf. for elaborations, Thom (1972). These archetypes (cf. for elaborations, Wildgen, 1982) are pure theoretical entities, which allow the Wildgen, 1982) are pure theoretical entities, which allow the formulation of a family of interesting hypotheses. Like the formulation of a family of interesting hypotheses. Like the theoretical terms used in physics, they formulate a program theoretical terms used in physics, they formulate a program of empirical research, such that some of the hypotheses of empirical research, such that some of the hypotheses formulated in these terms may be elaborated or falsified (cf. formulated in these terms may be elaborated or falsified (cf. Wildgen, 1994, for relevant elaborations and corrections of Wildgen, 1994, for relevant elaborations and corrections of the theoretical conjectures generated by Thom).the theoretical conjectures generated by Thom).

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(a) to distort, to bend

(German: verbiegen)

scales

qualitative scale: + _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ -straight twisted, crooked

(b) to clean ( German: reinigen)

qualitative scale: - _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ +dirty clean, neat

If we assume a linear space with two poles we can describe the process contained in the two verbs above in the way shown in Figure 4. The curved surface above describes the states of stability and instability (the attractors and the repellors of the system). The process makes a catastrophic jump from one partial surface to another (e.g. from 'dirty' to 'clean').

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The archetype of transfer and trivalent scenariosThe archetype of transfer and trivalent scenarios

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Evolutionary explanation of Thom’s Evolutionary explanation of Thom’s conjectureconjecture

Thom’s assumption is on one side tempting, because it could Thom’s assumption is on one side tempting, because it could provide a much deeper foundation of linguistics than any provide a much deeper foundation of linguistics than any current theory, but on the other side it cannot explain how current theory, but on the other side it cannot explain how human language could become a mirror of natural processes. human language could become a mirror of natural processes. In Wildgen (2004) I proposed a transition mediated by tool In Wildgen (2004) I proposed a transition mediated by tool making and early technologies. In fact, language has not making and early technologies. In fact, language has not emerged in isolation, it rather came together with other emerged in isolation, it rather came together with other “symbolic forms” (a term coined by Cassirer) like myth (ritual), “symbolic forms” (a term coined by Cassirer) like myth (ritual), art and technology. Lithic technologies used since more than art and technology. Lithic technologies used since more than 2 my could stand for a first stage (possibly in the context of 2 my could stand for a first stage (possibly in the context of rituals, an early proto-language and body-painting). rituals, an early proto-language and body-painting).

Insofar as such technologies asked for a precise control of Insofar as such technologies asked for a precise control of natural forces, human symbolic behavior was at the start natural forces, human symbolic behavior was at the start parallel to a kind of “scientific” insight and corresponding parallel to a kind of “scientific” insight and corresponding conceptual elaborations.conceptual elaborations.

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From tool-From tool-manufacturingmanufacturing to to propositional semantics propositional semantics

In the evolutionary line of primates, tool-use is reported both for In the evolutionary line of primates, tool-use is reported both for new world apes and old world apes. The first show only the new world apes and old world apes. The first show only the behavior of throwing objects (from above down to the bottom of behavior of throwing objects (from above down to the bottom of trees) in attack and defense, whereas the second show a trees) in attack and defense, whereas the second show a higher diversity of tool uses (cf. Becker, 1993: 79-110). Rather higher diversity of tool uses (cf. Becker, 1993: 79-110). Rather sophisticated tool-use with beginning tool modifying is reported sophisticated tool-use with beginning tool modifying is reported by Boesch (1993), who describes the nut-cracking behavior of by Boesch (1993), who describes the nut-cracking behavior of wild chimpanzees of the Taï National Park (Côte d’Ivoire). The wild chimpanzees of the Taï National Park (Côte d’Ivoire). The animals transport both nuts and hammers to roots, which are animals transport both nuts and hammers to roots, which are used as anvil. As stone hammers are rare and necessary to used as anvil. As stone hammers are rare and necessary to crack very hard nuts (Panda oleosa), they are transported and crack very hard nuts (Panda oleosa), they are transported and preserved. Wooden hammers may be shortened using fallen preserved. Wooden hammers may be shortened using fallen branches until they fit. Infants must learn the use of tools and branches until they fit. Infants must learn the use of tools and different ways of passing on the proper method of use have different ways of passing on the proper method of use have been observed: been observed: stimulationstimulation, , facilitationfacilitation, and , and active teachingactive teaching. .

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Is tool-making a source of propositional semantics?Is tool-making a source of propositional semantics?

Basic script of tool manufacturing:Basic script of tool manufacturing:1.1. Seeking for materials.Seeking for materials.2.2. Using both hands, such that one hand fixes the material, Using both hands, such that one hand fixes the material,

which has to be shaped, and the other controls a tool used for which has to be shaped, and the other controls a tool used for shaping. shaping.

3.3. The tool is adapted to specific contexts; it becomes the blade The tool is adapted to specific contexts; it becomes the blade of a knife, the point of an arrow, the body of an ax, etc., or it is of a knife, the point of an arrow, the body of an ax, etc., or it is used to perform one phase of a process, e.g., cleaning the fur used to perform one phase of a process, e.g., cleaning the fur of an animal; the fur is already the result of a longer goal-of an animal; the fur is already the result of a longer goal-oriented process beginning with the hunting of the animal. oriented process beginning with the hunting of the animal. The mastering of tool-production allows the production of The mastering of tool-production allows the production of cultural objects and art; these may become objects of value. cultural objects and art; these may become objects of value. Elaborated tools and objects of art show geometrical Elaborated tools and objects of art show geometrical abstraction and iconicity.abstraction and iconicity.

4.4. A further stage produces pictures (signs) of the hand, the A further stage produces pictures (signs) of the hand, the “instrument” which shapes tools.“instrument” which shapes tools.

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Simple pebble tools from the Olduwan-gorge (around 2 my BP)

Refined and small tools from the Magdalenian-culture (around 16.000 y. BP)

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The evolution of discourse The evolution of discourse The pragmatics of action with hands establishes a micro-level of The pragmatics of action with hands establishes a micro-level of

emerging functions which elaborate the relation between cause and emerging functions which elaborate the relation between cause and effect.effect.

At the macro-level human housing and house-building is a domain At the macro-level human housing and house-building is a domain where structures emerge, which can be reorganized in the shape of where structures emerge, which can be reorganized in the shape of space-oriented communication, linguistic orientation in space and space-oriented communication, linguistic orientation in space and memory of narrative contents related to space.memory of narrative contents related to space.

The background of these processes is given by the The background of these processes is given by the ecological/situational context. Some objects or context features ecological/situational context. Some objects or context features become become culturally significantculturally significant. These are mainly:. These are mainly:

places (of living, of chase, etc.),places (of living, of chase, etc.), tools and the techniques of their use,tools and the techniques of their use, motion patterns, gestures, gestured signs, dance, motion patterns, gestures, gestured signs, dance, The relevance of places (in space and time), of spatial orientation and The relevance of places (in space and time), of spatial orientation and

categorization are of primordial importance for the semantics of categorization are of primordial importance for the semantics of natural languages as the tradition of localistic theories shows.natural languages as the tradition of localistic theories shows.

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Already in the last common ancestor of humans and Already in the last common ancestor of humans and chimpanzees (LCA), contextual space acts as an chimpanzees (LCA), contextual space acts as an external memory of affordances, which is indexically external memory of affordances, which is indexically given by paths (of social locomotion and predator/prey-given by paths (of social locomotion and predator/prey-locomotion), harvesting locations (and times), dangerous locomotion), harvesting locations (and times), dangerous locations, places for sleep, courtship, housing, frontiers locations, places for sleep, courtship, housing, frontiers of territories, etc. These indexically loaded areas and of territories, etc. These indexically loaded areas and places function like a catalyst of social action, insofar as places function like a catalyst of social action, insofar as they can coordinate social perception and action. they can coordinate social perception and action.

As soon as space is more specifically organized in As soon as space is more specifically organized in relation to cognition and social use, it unfolds in a cycle relation to cognition and social use, it unfolds in a cycle of social “investment”. Architecture and the spatial of social “investment”. Architecture and the spatial organization of a village (or later a town) are clear organization of a village (or later a town) are clear examples. This level is autocatalytic insofar as the examples. This level is autocatalytic insofar as the spatial organization becomes itself a cyclic structure in spatial organization becomes itself a cyclic structure in which different functions cooperate. which different functions cooperate.

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Semiotically invested subspaces Semiotically invested subspaces

housing

fire place

myth. space

ritual

public space

tool making

outside

chase, harvest

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From social pragmatics to From social pragmatics to discourse discourse

Tool manufacturing, body art and rituals may be either Tool manufacturing, body art and rituals may be either preadaptations enabling the emergence of language or already preadaptations enabling the emergence of language or already be parallel and fostered by a protolanguage. Due to the non-be parallel and fostered by a protolanguage. Due to the non-permanent nature of spoken language, we have no chance to permanent nature of spoken language, we have no chance to check which of the alternatives is valid. The fact that language check which of the alternatives is valid. The fact that language usage is primarily a social communicative phenomenon usage is primarily a social communicative phenomenon encourages the search for a cultural/social origin of language encourages the search for a cultural/social origin of language and discourse. In this perspective it is not predication or and discourse. In this perspective it is not predication or propositional structure, but discursive processing in social propositional structure, but discursive processing in social contexts which must be foregrounded. contexts which must be foregrounded.

Therefore, one must ask, if discourse functions like narrative, Therefore, one must ask, if discourse functions like narrative, descriptive, argumentative or ritual discourse had a survival descriptive, argumentative or ritual discourse had a survival value in early human populations (before hominisation), which value in early human populations (before hominisation), which differs sharply from the survival patterns in chimpanzees and differs sharply from the survival patterns in chimpanzees and other primates which did not evolve a linguistic capacity.other primates which did not evolve a linguistic capacity.

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A possible hierarchy of A possible hierarchy of discoursediscourse functions functions

Classical speech-act theories placed the proposition (and its Classical speech-act theories placed the proposition (and its elocution) at the center and added illocution and perlocution. elocution) at the center and added illocution and perlocution. The perlocution (the impact on the audience) and its social The perlocution (the impact on the audience) and its social effects are neglected. The relation of language use to its effects are neglected. The relation of language use to its contextual evaluation and thus to its selective relevance is contextual evaluation and thus to its selective relevance is excluded. An evolutionary account must start from excluded. An evolutionary account must start from perlocutionary effects, like: A persuades / convinces B (via an perlocutionary effects, like: A persuades / convinces B (via an utterance), A evokes positive feelings / gets help /in/by B (via utterance), A evokes positive feelings / gets help /in/by B (via an utterance); A contributes verbally to the solution of a an utterance); A contributes verbally to the solution of a problem / teaches / helps to find a solution (via an utterance).problem / teaches / helps to find a solution (via an utterance).

If the perlocutionary effect is increasing the fitness of the group, If the perlocutionary effect is increasing the fitness of the group, such a feature (and the underlying faculty) can be selected. As such a feature (and the underlying faculty) can be selected. As no other human species with lesser communicative faculties no other human species with lesser communicative faculties exists, it is impossible to test the selective advantage our exists, it is impossible to test the selective advantage our species got and why. The only approach which is feasible species got and why. The only approach which is feasible concerns the analysis of actual discursive effects. concerns the analysis of actual discursive effects.

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1.1. If the scout can describe the place and number If the scout can describe the place and number of a herd of bison accurately, the group will of a herd of bison accurately, the group will follow him and bring food to the clan, which will follow him and bring food to the clan, which will not starve and thus survive.not starve and thus survive.

2.2. If the experienced warrior can give a good story If the experienced warrior can give a good story for his undertakings others will join a new for his undertakings others will join a new enterprise and learn from his experience how to enterprise and learn from his experience how to overcome the enemy.overcome the enemy.

3.3. If the perpetrator can defend his cause If the perpetrator can defend his cause effectively he will not be expelled or killed.effectively he will not be expelled or killed.

These examples show three different discourse These examples show three different discourse functions: functions: descriptive, narrative and descriptive, narrative and argumentativeargumentative..

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Discourse as basic achievementDiscourse as basic achievement

My hypothesis is that rhetoric (and possibly poetic) functions My hypothesis is that rhetoric (and possibly poetic) functions stood at the beginning when discourse emerged. I will only stood at the beginning when discourse emerged. I will only discuss he narrative function in the folowing.discuss he narrative function in the folowing.

The central concern in the The central concern in the narrativenarrative is: is: How can a sequence of events/actions be How can a sequence of events/actions be

segmented/compressed into sentences? segmented/compressed into sentences? How are these arranged such that not only the temporal How are these arranged such that not only the temporal

sequence can be derived but also spatial itineraries and sequence can be derived but also spatial itineraries and causal effects can be imagined or reproduced? The causal effects can be imagined or reproduced? The problem concerns a mapping of time, space and problem concerns a mapping of time, space and cause/force in a text such that an easy and reliable cause/force in a text such that an easy and reliable understanding by the audience is made possible. understanding by the audience is made possible.

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Evaluative and relevance functionsEvaluative and relevance functions

This is, however, not sufficient. In each narrative text, This is, however, not sufficient. In each narrative text, evaluative and relevance assigning processes have to evaluative and relevance assigning processes have to be controlled. As Labov (1972) has shown, the be controlled. As Labov (1972) has shown, the Abstract/Title must sketch the relevance of the story Abstract/Title must sketch the relevance of the story which will be told, the Climax separates the Complication which will be told, the Climax separates the Complication and the Result and spans an arch of interest for the and the Result and spans an arch of interest for the audience. In many cases, self-evaluative information is audience. In many cases, self-evaluative information is distributed over the story, etc. Thus even simple stories distributed over the story, etc. Thus even simple stories contain two components:contain two components:

Time/space/force mappingsTime/space/force mappings A socio-evaluative profile or a relevance component in A socio-evaluative profile or a relevance component in

which social values are exchanged (respecting the which social values are exchanged (respecting the audience and self-advertisement)audience and self-advertisement)

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These factors point into the direction of a twofold functionality of These factors point into the direction of a twofold functionality of (narrative) discourse. It has a referential function (mapping a (narrative) discourse. It has a referential function (mapping a sequence of events/actions) and a socio-evaluative function. In sequence of events/actions) and a socio-evaluative function. In the emergence of (narrative) discourse, two different selective the emergence of (narrative) discourse, two different selective processes must have cooperated. If in small talk the socio-processes must have cooperated. If in small talk the socio-evaluative component dominates, this does not mean (as evaluative component dominates, this does not mean (as Dunbar suggests) that discourse emerged from social contact Dunbar suggests) that discourse emerged from social contact (grooming).(grooming).

The two factors have probably different evolutionary histories. The two factors have probably different evolutionary histories. The referential function elaborates cognitive functions already The referential function elaborates cognitive functions already developed since the Cambrian revolution (helped by bigger developed since the Cambrian revolution (helped by bigger brain, which was made possible by high energy food and brain, which was made possible by high energy food and allowed for the construction of sophisticated tools). A further allowed for the construction of sophisticated tools). A further function is based on the evolution of social groups and their function is based on the evolution of social groups and their organization and more specifically of cooperative/competitive organization and more specifically of cooperative/competitive processes in dense social networks. processes in dense social networks.

The key to the solution, the social organization of human The key to the solution, the social organization of human populations 300.000 y ago and that of neighboring human populations 300.000 y ago and that of neighboring human species in competition with them is not accessible empirically. species in competition with them is not accessible empirically.

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Consequences for an evolutionary Consequences for an evolutionary grammar grammar

A grammar is called A grammar is called evolutionaryevolutionary, if its architecture , if its architecture reflects the order in which important linguistic features reflects the order in which important linguistic features emerged and respects the natural (causal) relations emerged and respects the natural (causal) relations between components which were selected at different between components which were selected at different stages (e.g., 2 my, 500.000 y, 100.000 y, 50.000 y, stages (e.g., 2 my, 500.000 y, 100.000 y, 50.000 y, 5.000 y BP).5.000 y BP).

In conclusion of the facts and hypotheses exposed in In conclusion of the facts and hypotheses exposed in this lecture, a grammar should first consider the this lecture, a grammar should first consider the cognitive basics, i.e., the mapping of space, time, force cognitive basics, i.e., the mapping of space, time, force (cause) into a language. (cause) into a language.

Secondly, it should pay attention to discourse Secondly, it should pay attention to discourse organization in relation to social functions of language. organization in relation to social functions of language.

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Self-organization and the arbitrariness of Self-organization and the arbitrariness of languageslanguages

The basic factors which shaped human language led to The basic factors which shaped human language led to numberless but functionally equivalent individual numberless but functionally equivalent individual languages/dialects/jargons/repertoires, etc. This feature was languages/dialects/jargons/repertoires, etc. This feature was called the called the arbitrarinessarbitrariness of the linguistic sign by Ferdinand de of the linguistic sign by Ferdinand de Saussure. Saussure.

In reality it is only the effect of multiple processes of self-In reality it is only the effect of multiple processes of self-organization which fulfill the basic cognitive and social organization which fulfill the basic cognitive and social functions. As the set of concepts grows, and at the same pace functions. As the set of concepts grows, and at the same pace the length of utterances, the fine-grained structure of languages the length of utterances, the fine-grained structure of languages is only grossly constrained by the basic functions. Internal is only grossly constrained by the basic functions. Internal measures of economy and optimality select one or several measures of economy and optimality select one or several solutions and by a law of conservation the system stops the solutions and by a law of conservation the system stops the search for other solutions. search for other solutions.

The differences between languages are the out-come of a The differences between languages are the out-come of a process weakly constrained by the basic functions and selected process weakly constrained by the basic functions and selected by mechanisms of self-organization, which allow for many by mechanisms of self-organization, which allow for many equivalent solutions.equivalent solutions.

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Some bibliographical hintsSome bibliographical hintsLabov, William, 1972. Labov, William, 1972. The Transformation of Experience in Narrative The Transformation of Experience in Narrative

Syntax, chapter 9 of: Labov, W., LanguaSyntax, chapter 9 of: Labov, W., Language in the Inner City. Studies ge in the Inner City. Studies in the Black English Vernacular. Philadelphia: University of in the Black English Vernacular. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 354-396.Pennsylvania Press, 354-396.

Parker, Andrew, 2005. Seven Deadly Colours. The Genius of Nature’s Parker, Andrew, 2005. Seven Deadly Colours. The Genius of Nature’s Palette and How it Eluded Darwin, Free Press, London.Palette and How it Eluded Darwin, Free Press, London.

Thom, René, 1990. Semiophysics : a sketch, Addison-Wesley, Thom, René, 1990. Semiophysics : a sketch, Addison-Wesley, Redwood City, Calif Redwood City, Calif

Wildgen, Wolfgang, 1982. Catastrophe Theoretic Semantics. An Wildgen, Wolfgang, 1982. Catastrophe Theoretic Semantics. An Elaboration and Application of René Thom’s Theory, Benjamins, Elaboration and Application of René Thom’s Theory, Benjamins, Amsterdam/Philadelphia.Amsterdam/Philadelphia.

Wildgen, Wolfgang, 1994. Process, Image, and Meaning. A Realistic Wildgen, Wolfgang, 1994. Process, Image, and Meaning. A Realistic Model of the Meanings of Sentences and Narrative Texts, Model of the Meanings of Sentences and Narrative Texts, Benjamins, Amsterdam/Philadelphia.Benjamins, Amsterdam/Philadelphia.

Wildgen, Wolfgang, 2004a. The Evolution of Human Languages. Wildgen, Wolfgang, 2004a. The Evolution of Human Languages. Scenarios, Principles, and Cultural Dynamics, Benjamins, Scenarios, Principles, and Cultural Dynamics, Benjamins, AmsterdamAmsterdam/Philadelphia/Philadelphia..