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Joints, by William Fairham

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Title: Woodwork Joints

How they are Set Out, How Made

and Where Used.

Author: William Fairham

Release Date: May 19, 2007 [EBook

#21531]

Language: English

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WOODWORKJOINTS

(THE WOODWORKER SERIES)

REVISED EDITION

WOODWORKJOINTS

HOW THEY ARE SETOUT, HOW MADE AND

WHERE USED; WITHFOUR HUNDRED

ILLUSTRATIONS ANDINDEX

REVISED EDITION

LONDON

EVANS BROTHERS,LIMITED

MONTAGUE HOUSE, RUSSELL SQUARE,W.C.1

THEWOODWORKER SERIES

WOODWORK JOINTS.CABINET CONSTRUCTION.STAINING AND POLISHING.WOODWORK TOOLS.PRACTICAL UPHOLSTERY.

WOOD TURNING.WOODCARVING.TIMBERS FOR WOODWORK.FURNITURE REPAIRING AND RE-UPHOLSTERY.HOUSEHOLD REPAIRS ANDRENOVATIONS.CARPENTRY FOR BEGINNERS.KITCHEN FURNITURE DESIGNS.BUREAU AND BOOKCASEDESIGNS.LIGHT CARPENTRY DESIGNS.DOORMAKING.

EVANS BROTHERS, LIMITED,MONTAGUE HOUSE, RUSSELL SQUARE,

LONDON, W.C.1.

EDITORIALFOREWORD

To be successful in woodworkconstruction the possession of twosecrets is essential—to know the rightjoint to use, and to know how to makethat joint in the right way. Thewoodwork structure or the piece ofcabinet-work that endures is the one onwhich skilful hands have combined tocarry out what the constructive mindplanned. And it is just here that thepresent Volume will help, not alone thebeginner who wishes preliminary

instruction, but also the expert whodesires guidance over ground hithertounexplored by him.

In the preparation of this new editionthe Publishers have secured theservices of Mr. William Fairham, bywhom the chapters have been carefullyrevised and re-illustrated. Althoughintended for the practical man, and notprofessing to be a graded course of"educational woodwork," the Volumeis one which Handicraft Instructorswill find of the greatest value inconducting woodwork classes. No bookhitherto published contains such avariety of illustrations of joints, almostall of which will form suitableexercises of practical educational

importance in a woodworking course.

J. C. S. B.

Old Oak Chests, showing the Methodof Structure which forms the originof most of our English Furniture.

(From The Woodworker, January,1927.)

CONTENTS

PAGETHE GLUED JOINT 1THE HALVED JOINT 13THE BRIDLE JOINT 35THE TONGUED AND GROOVED JOINT 48THE MORTISE AND TENON JOINT 64THE DOWELLING JOINT 93THE SCARF JOINT 103THE HINGED JOINT 109SHUTTING JOINTS 127THE DOVETAIL JOINT 132DOVETAIL GROOVING 160

THE MITRED JOINT 163JOINTS FOR CURVED WORK 172MISCELLANEOUS JOINTS 176PUZZLE JOINTS 189INDEX 209

Staircase of the Second Half ofSeventeenth Century.

(From The Woodworker, September,1929.)

THE GLUED JOINT

The glued joint in its various forms isin use in every country in the world,and is frequently met with in mummycases and other examples of ancientwoodwork. Alternative names underwhich it is known are the butt joint, therubbed joint, the slipped joint, whilst incertain localities it is known as theslaped (pronounced slayped) joint.

Fig. 1.—Simplest Form of Glued orRubbed Joint.

The glued joint is made by planing twopieces of timber so that when placedtogether they are in contact with eachother at every point; they are thenusually united with glue. Fig. 1 shows asketch of a butt joint in its simplestform. In Fig. 2 is indicated the methodof holding the joint whilst being glued;the upright portion is held rigid in thebench vice, thus leaving the left handto hold the piece which is to be jointed,whilst the right hand operates the gluebrush. The pieces of wood which forma butt joint may be glued together withor without the aid of cramps orartificial pressure. If the joint is to be

made without cramping, the twosurfaces of the timber are warmed so asnot to chill the glue. The surfaces arethen glued and put together and rubbedbackwards and forwards so as to get ridof the superfluous glue. They are thenput aside to dry.

Glueing.—The better the gluepenetrates into the pores of the wood,the stronger the joint will be; for thisreason timber of the loose-fibredvariety, such as pine, etc., will hold upat the joint better than hardwoods liketeak and rosewood. The glue used forjointing should be neither too thick nortoo thin; the consistency of cream willbe found suitable for most purposes. Itshould be nice and hot, and be rapidly

spread over the surface of the wood.

Fig. 2.—How the Wood is held whilstGlueing.

If light-coloured woods, such as pine,satinwood, sycamore, etc., have to bejointed, a little flake white should beprocured and mixed into the liquidglue. This will prevent the glueshowing a thin black line on the joint.

Broad surfaces of close-grainedhardwood having a shiny surface areusually carefully roughened with a fine

toothing plane blade previous toglueing.

Supporting the Joint.—The jointedboards should not be reared up againsta "bench leg" or wall without havingany support in the centre, as dotted lineat Fig. 5, because in all probability theywill fracture before the glue has time toset; and, when we go to take them up torenew working operations, we shall beannoyed to find that they have assumeda position similar to that at Fig. 5(shown exaggerated), and this will, ofcourse, necessitate re-jointing.

Fig. 3.—CorrectJointing.

Fig. 4.—Faulty

Jointing.

Fig. 5.—Boards

unsupported.

Fig. 6.—Boards

supported.

Fig. 7.—(A) GluedSlip, (B)Glued

Moulding.

A correct method to adopt is seen at

Fig. 6. Here we have supported thejoint by rearing up against the wall acouple of pieces of batten, one at eachend of the board, thus supporting itthroughout its entire width until theglue is thoroughly set. The two or morepieces of timber in a butt joint adhereby crystallisation of the glue andatmospheric pressure. A well-fittedjoint made with good quality glue is sostrong that, when boards of 3 feet andupwards are jointed together by thismethod, the timber in most cases willbreak with the grain sooner than part atthe joint.

Butt joints may be cramped up, ifdesired, and it is customary to warmthem as previously stated. In the

absence of the usual iron cramp, theamateur may make an excellentwooden arrangement out of any oddpieces of timber that happen to behandy. Two blocks of hardwood arescrewed on the base board at a suitabledistance for the work in hand; theboards to be jointed are glued andplaced in position between the blocks;and the two hardwood wedges areinserted and hammered in oppositedirections to each other, thus exertingthe desired pressure. An example ofthis method of cramping is shown inFig. 25, which also indicates the use ofiron "dogs."

When jointing, care should be taken tofirst plane up the boards true on one

side—i.e., take them out of winding.The method of testing for this is shownat Fig. 9, and it may with advantage beused when jointing the edges of theboards. Two laths or strips of wood areplaned up to exactly the same width,having their edges straight and parallel.One edge of each lath may, if desired,be bevelled a little. The method ofusing these "twist sticks" or "windinglaths" is to put them on the board asindicated, and sight along their topedges. The winding laths, being muchlonger than the width of the board,show up the irregularity greatlypronounced.

The Tools generally used for makingthe butt joints are:—

The jack plane, for roughing the edges,etc.

The wooden trying plane (or ironjointing plane) for trueing up the work.

The try square for testing purposes.

The winding laths and straight edge.

The Method of Work is as follows:Each board is in turn put in the viceand planed straight lengthwise; it isthen tested with winding laths and a trysquare (the latter method is shown atFig. 22).

Fig. 9.—Testing Surface withWinding Laths.

The boards are then put on the top ofone another as at Fig. 1 and tested witha straight edge; they should appear trueas shown at Fig. 3; if they show faultyas at Fig. 4 the joints must be againfitted until the required degree ofaccuracy is obtained. Difficulties maybe avoided by care in selecting timbersuitable for jointing, and it must be

remembered that timber shrinkscircumferentially (the heart sidebecoming curved) as dotted lines inFig. 10. If the timber be jointed with allthe heart side one way as at Fig. 10, thetendency will be for it to cast as shownby the dotted line. If the timber bealternated as at Fig. 11, the tendencywill be to cast wavy, whereas ifquartered timber can be obtained it willstand practically straight as thetendency to shrink is in thickness only.The grain of quartered timber is shownin Fig. 12.

Fig. 10.—Showing Heart side ofTimber one way.

Fig. 11.—Heart side of Timbershown alternated.

Fig. 13.—Boards showing uniformityof Grain.

Judgment should also be exercised toavoid jointing in which one piece oftimber is wild and large in the grain,and the adjoining piece of a mild-grained nature. Jointed boards shouldalways be glued up with the grainrunning in the same direction ifpossible; this we show at Fig. 13, andnothing looks worse than a dressingchest end or similar piece of work inwhich the grain runs haphazard. Whenjointing thin timber (say, 1⁄4-in., 3⁄8-in.,1⁄2-in. and 5⁄8-in. boards) the bestmethod is to use a shooting board (Fig.26). It must be noted, however, that ashooting board and plane practicallynever give a true right angle, owing towear and the grinding of the blade.

Therefore, the boards should not all belaid with the "face mark" on theshooting board whilst the edges areshot, because any inequality would bemultiplied by the number of piecesjointed. A better method is to alternatethe boards, face side up, then face sidedown, whilst shooting the edges; thiswill prevent convexity or concavity onthe face of the jointed board, becauseany slight error in the angle isneutralised (see Fig. 8).

Applications of the Joint.—Thefollowing show various applications ofthe butt or glued joint:—

Fig. 14.—Carcase Wing-pieces Gluedon.

Fig. 7A shows a mahogany or otherhardwood slip glued on the edge of acheaper wood, such as pine orwhitewood, as is the case on bookcaseshelves when only the front edge isseen and polished.

Fig. 7B shows a moulding glued on ashelf, both mould and shelf in thisinstance being of polished hardwood. Ashelf of this type might be used in arecess, the object of the overhanging

moulding being to hide a small 3⁄8-in.iron rod which would carry the curtainrings and heading of the curtain whichcovers the recess. The shelf would befixed about 3 ft. 9 ins. to 4 ft. 3 ins.from the floor.

Fig. 14 shows the wing pieces glued onthe top bearer of carcase work. Theapplication of this bearer in its positionwill be shown in the chapter onDovetailing.

Fig. 15 shows a butt joint planed at anangle of 45 degrees (commonly calleda mitre), used for box feet, etc.

Fig. 16 shows jointing up of an ogee-shaped panel. The dotted lines indicate

the thickness of the timber previous toits being worked up to the finishedshape. Bow-fronted and semicircularpanels are jointed in a similar manner.

Fig. 15.—Butting Mitred Angle Joint.

Fig. 16.—Jointing Ogee-shapedPanel.

Fig. 17 shows timber jointed at rightangles to the upright piece, and at anangle of 30 degrees.

Fig. 18 indicates quarter-circlejointing, as used in round-corneredchests of drawers, wardrobes,cupboards, etc.

Fig. 19 is similar to Fig. 18, but withhollow (or concave) corners.

Fig. 17.—Jointed Timberat 30° and 90° angles.

Fig. 18.—ConvexCorner.

Fig. 20.—Jointing a

shapedSpandrel.

Fig. 21.—Building up Caseof Piano Front.

Fig. 22.—Useof theTry-

squarefor

TestingEdge.

Fig. 23.—Example of CircularLaminated work.

Fig. 25.

Fig. 24.—Glueing Ploughslipsto Drawer.

—Method

ofholdingGluedJointswithIronDogs.

Fig. 26.—Method of using ShootingBoard.

Fig. 20 gives us the jointing up of ashaped spandrel to the required width.In a case of this description suitablygrained and coloured wood should beselected, otherwise the bad match willat once draw attention to the joint.

Fig. 21 shows the application of butt orglued jointing to the building up of the

core of a piano fall previous to shapingup and veneering.

Fig. 23.—Laminated work—thebuilding up of circular rims for cabinetand joinery work. Plan and elevationshow rim pattern of a pulley as used inthe pattern-making trade.

Fig. 27.—Cramping Glued Joints:

Handscrews and Batten shown atleft; temporary Batten at right to

keep the wood flat.

Fig. 24.—The glueing of a ploughslipto a drawer side is seen here, theploughslip being used to carry thedrawer bottom.

Fig. 26 shows the method of jointingwith shooting board and trying plane;the right hand operates the plane whilstthe left hand holds the wood firm uponthe shooting board.

Owing to the importation of narrowand faulty timber the necessity ofjointing is greater to-day than ever itwas, wide timber of course meaning

higher cost for raw material.

The method of using iron dogs isillustrated in Fig. 25, and it will beobserved that owing to the wedge-likeformation of each fang (see enlargedsketch) the dog exerts the necessarypressure to close the joint. At thecentre of this illustration is suggestedthe home-made hardwood blocks,baseboard and wedges referred to onpage 4.

Fig. 27 shows how the iron sash crampsare used to apply pressure to the joint.As this method is in some cases apt tobend and distort thin boards it is wisepractice to fix (as a temporarymeasure) a stout piece of straight wood

on to the board to be joined by usingtwo handscrews as shown at the lefthand of the illustration. At the righthand of the sketch a wooden crampingarrangement of the box type is given,and by wedging up the boards areclosed together. It is obvious that ifthis type of box cramp be used it willprevent the boards buckling and thehandscrew method at the left may bedispensed with.

THE HALVEDJOINT

T he halved joint is frequently knownas half-lapping, and sometimes aschecking and half-checking. In themajority of cases it is made by halvingthe two pieces, i.e., by cutting half thedepth of the wood away. There are,however, exceptions to this rule, as inthe case of "three-piece halving" (or, asit is sometimes called, "third lapping")and in the halving of timber withrebated or moulded edges. Halving isone of the simplest methods of

connecting two pieces of timber,especially where it is desired to makeframes and bracket supports for eitherinside or outside use.

Fig. 28.—Frame, with various halvedjoints. These joints, numbered 1, 2, 3,etc., are shown in detail in Figs. 29 to

38.

Fig. 28 shows the elevation of an

imaginary frame which is indicated asmade up of a number of halving joints;it shows also the application of thevarious joints to this class of work.Each joint used in the construction ofthis frame may be dealt withseparately. The numbers marked onFig. 28 refer to the individual joints,shown separately in Figs. 29 to 38.

Fig. 29.—Halved Corner Joint.

30.—Halved

Joint.

Fig. 29 shows the "Halved Joint" at thecorner of the frame where the twopieces form a right angle (see Fig. 28,1). Each piece is halved and shoulderedat opposite sides, thus forming aperfect fit one with the other andgiving a strong joint with a minimumamount of labour. For inside work thejoint would be glued and screwedtogether, the screw heads beingcountersunk so as not to come incontact with the cutting iron of the

plane when levelling off the work. Foroutside work, in exposed positionswhere the work will have to withstandthe weather, the alternative method ofsmearing the joint with paint or with amixture of varnish and white leadwould be advisable, the joint beingnailed or screwed. Fig. 29 shows thetwo pieces separated.

Fig. 30 shows a similar joint to theabove, but in this case the top rail runsthrough and it is generally spoken of asa "Halved T Joint" (Fig. 28, 2). It maybe used in nearly all cases where a topor bottom rail runs through an upright.The method of securing the joint is asbefore. Fig. 30 shows a sketch of thejoint separated.

Fig. 31.—Oblique Halvingwith Shoulder.

Fig. 32.—ObliqueHalving.

A t Fig. 31 is shown an "Oblique

Halving Joint," where the obliquepiece, or strut, does not run through(Fig. 28, 3). This type of joint is usedfor strengthening framings and shelfbrackets; an example of the latter isshown at Fig. 48. A strut or rail of thistype prevents movement or distortionto a frame diagonally (generallyspoken of in the trade as "racking").Fig. 31 shows the joint apart.

Fig. 32 is an example of ObliqueHalving with the upper piece runningthrough (Fig. 28, 4). This joint is usedin similar positions to Fig. 31, and hasin some cases the disadvantage ofshowing end grain at the top of theframe. The sketch shows the two piecesseparated.

Fig. 33 is "Dovetail Halving," thedovetail running through the top piece(Fig. 28, 5). This is a strong joint, usedwhere outside strain is likely to occurin the top piece, the dovetail preventingthe rail from being drawn away fromthe shoulder. The two pieces are shownseparate.

Fig. 33.—Dovetail Halving.

Fig. 34.—MitreHalving.

At Fig. 34 is seen "Mitred Halving," asomewhat weak joint, but necessary inmirror frames, etc., where good

appearance is required on the face side(Fig. 28, 6). Its use is obvious if theface of the frame be moulded withbeads or other sections which requireto intersect one with the other. Thisalso applies if the frame be moulded onits face edges.

Fig. 35 is a halved joint with one sideof the piece dovetailed (Fig. 28, 8).This joint is used in similar positionst o Fig. 33, and rather less labour isrequired in the making. The two piecesare shown separate for clearness.

Fig. 36 indicates the "Halved Joint,"the pieces at one end showing a doubledovetail (Fig. 28, 7). This particularjoint is seldom used except for Manual

Training purposes. The illustrationshows a sketch of the joint apart.

Fig. 37 is "Oblique Dovetail Halving,"one side of the piece being dovetailed.The joint is used to prevent "racking,"and as a cross brace to framing. It isoccasionally made with both its sidesdovetailed as shown at Fig. 33. (Forreference, see Fig. 28, 9).

Fig. 36.—Halved Jointwith Double

Fig. 35.—HalvedJoint with one side

Dovetailed.

Dovetail.

Fig. 37.—ObliqueDovetail Halving.

Fig. 38.—StoppedDovetailHalving.

Fig. 38 shows "Stopped DovetailHalving." In this case the dovetail is

similar to Fig. 33, with the exceptionthat it does not run through the bottomrail. This is an advantage if the bottomedge of the rail is in evidence, or if it isrequired to glue a moulding orhardwood facing slip on the loweredge. The glue adheres better with thegrain than it would end way of thegrain, and if slight shrinkage occursacross the width of the bottom rail themoulding would not be forced away bythe upright (see example at Fig. 28,10).

Fig. 39.—Cross Halving Joint.

Fig. 40.—Cross

HalvingJoint

Edgeways.

Fig. 41.—Tee Halving Joint.

The joint lettered B in Fig. 28 is a"Cross Halving Joint" where each pieceruns through the other. Fig. 39 showsthis joint separated, and Fig. 40 showsa similar joint separated where thejoint is made edgeways.

Fig. 41 shows a "Tee Halving Joint"with a dovetail cut on the edge. This isseldom used except as a woodwork

exercise.

Fig. 42 is a "Dovetailed Halving Joint"used for lengthening timber, and is alsoa favourite Manual Training model. Itmight also come under the heading ofscarf joint, although rarely used inactual practice as such. As a practicalwoodwork exercise it calls for accuratemarking out and careful fitting.

Fig. 42.—Dovetailed Halving Joint

used for Lengthening Timber.

Fig. 43.—Dovetailed andHalved Joint.

Fig. 44.—Dovetailed

HalvedJoint withShoulders.

Fig. 43 shows a combination of ahalved joint dovetailed edgeways,whi l s t Fig. 44 shows a dovetailedhalved joint with the shoulders housed.This latter is seldom used in actual

work.

A t Fig. 45 we have the application ofhalving joints when constructing abarrow wheel. The centre portion is anexample of three pieces half-lapped or,as it is sometimes called, one-thirdlapped. A sketch of the three piecesseparated is shown at L, B, C, Fig. 46.

This joint is extensively used in thepattern making trade for lap-jointingthe arms of pulley patterns, etc. It isprobably the most difficult of thehalving joints to mark out andconstruct with the desired degree ofaccuracy.

Fig. 45.—Halved Jointson Barrow Wheels.

Fig. 46.—Detail ofHalved

Joints in Fig.45.

Fig. 47 shows a combination of abevelled dovetail half-lapped joint.This is only used as a puzzle joint.When neatly constructed and gluedtogether it is apparently impossible to

make it, showing as it does a half lapon one side and a dovetailed half lap onthe reverse side.

Fig. 48 is the end view of a kitchentable with drop leaf, showing theskirting board scribed to the solid side.A table of this type is fastened to thewall with two iron holdfasts whichengage the ends of the table.

Fig. 48.—

Bracketof Drop

Fig. 47.—BevelledDovetailed Half Lap.

Table.

Figs. 49 and 50.—Separate pieces ofHalved Moulded Joint.

Fig. 51.—Oblique Cross HalvingJoint.

The hinged bracket frame shows theapplication of the halving joint tobracket supports for this and similarpurposes, such as brackets to supportshelving, etc. In this example thehinged brackets turn underneath thetable top, and allow the leaf to drop outof the way when not required. The

dotted lines show the position of ashelf for boots and shoes.

Fig. 52.—Manual Training HalvedExercise Joint.

Fig. 53.

ExerciseDovetail

Joint.

Fig. 54.—Carpentry Tie Joint.

Figs. 49 and 50 indicate the halving ofcross pieces which have their edgesmoulded; the pieces are shownseparately, the moulding being omittedto give a clearer representation of themethod of construction.

Fig. 55.—Cross Halving Jointwith Housed Corners.

Fig. 56.—The

parts ofFig. 55shown

separate.

Fig. 51 is an "Oblique Cross HalvingJoint" where the two pieces are not atright angles. A plan and elevation ofthe joint are shown at the left, whilst a

sketch of one piece of the joint is givenin the right-hand illustration.

Figs. 52 and 53 are principally used asManual Training models, and call forpatience and manual dexterity.

Fig. 54 is used in carpentry and joinerywhere a tie or cross piece ties joists orbeams at an angle.

Fig. 55 shows the elevation and endview of a "Cross Halving Joint" withhoused or notched shoulders. This jointis seldom used in actual practice. Theseparate parts are given in Fig. 56.

A t Fig. 57 are shown two cross railsand an upright halved together. Thistype of joint is used where three pieces

meet, as is the case in building theframing of a poultry house. The joint isnailed together.

Fig. 57.—Cross Rail and

Fig. 58.—Workshop

TrestleJoint.

Upright Halved Joint.

Fig. 59.—Cellarette Partition Joints.

Fig. 58 is the end view of an ordinaryworkshop trestle, showing theapplication of dovetailed halving wherethe legs have a tendency to strain

outwards. The inset sketch of jointshows the housing of the top rail toreceive the legs.

Fig. 59 shows a deep drawer, generallyknown as a cellarette, and used in asideboard to accommodate winebottles. Here we have a good exampleof halving the cross pieces so as toform compartments. The part shownseparately illustrates the method ofconstruction. The ends of these piecesengage the housings or grooves of thedrawer sides. Pigeon holes orcompartments in stationery cases,bookcases and writing bureaux areconstructed in a similar manner,although the method of housing, orcombined halving and housing, is to be

preferred in some cases.

Fig. 60.—Joint used for Table withCircular Top or Rim.

At Fig. 60 is the plan of a circular tablehaving a small circular shelf with thetop removed. The rims or framing arebuilt by the method known aslaminating (see Fig. 23 in chapter onthe The Glued Joint), after which theyare veneered on the face sides. Theapplication of the halving joint to theshaped bottom rails, which in this casecarry and support the small shelf, isshown in the part elevation.

Fig. 61 (A).—Oxford Frame withHalved Joints. (Four alternative

corner treatments are given.)

Fig. 61 (B).—Halved Joint of OxfordFrame with front edges champered.

Fig. 61 (A) shows the well-known"Oxford frame," illustrating halvedjoints when the edge is rebated. Figs.61 (B) and 61 (C) make clear theconstruction of this type of joint.Alternative suggestions are shown forthe treatment of the corners, the simple

inlay being black and white (ebony andholly or boxwood). Frames of this typeare made in various widths and sizesand are used for pictures, mirrors, etc.

Fig. 62.—The Two Pieces of a HalvedJoint.

The tools used for making joints of the

above class are: planes, the gauge,tenon or other saw, chisels, try square,and in some cases a joiner's bevel toobtain and mark the necessary angles,pencil and marking knife.

Plane up the face side and face edge ofthe timber, gauge and plane to boththickness and width; mark shoulderswith pencil or marking knife; gauge tothe thickness of the required halving;saw waste portions away; pare up withchisel to a good fit; glue or glue andscrew, or use paint as previouslymentioned, and then level off thesurfaces.

Setting out the Halved Joint.—Although at first sight the halved joint

may appear to be a very easy item ofconstruction, it requires much care andattention in marking out and sawing.Fig. 62 shows the two pieces whichform the joint separated, and it will benoticed that each piece of wood hashalf its thickness cut away, so as toaccommodate the other piece. Thistype of joint is used where two piecesof wood cross each other at rightangles, or at an angle as shown in Fig.51. The halving joint is used also forjoining two pieces of wood at theirends, as, for instance, the corner of aframe, one half of this joint beingshown at Fig. 65 (B).

Fig. 63.—How the Timber is Marked.

Fig. 64.—Marking the Joint with Try

Square.

To make the joint, the timber should becarefully planed to its exact width andthickness. The two pieces may then beplaced upon the bench (as shown atFig. 63) or fixed in the vice.

Find the centre of the timber, C, Fig.63, and set out half the width of thewood on each side of the dotted centreline. Thus, suppose the wood (W) to be2 ins. wide, then set 1 in. on each sideof the centre line. Take a square as atFig. 64, and with a sharp penknifeblade score or cut a line all round eachpiece of timber.

Fig. 65.—Using the Marking Gauge.

Next take up a marking gauge, and setthe marking point to half the thicknessof the wood. The distance may bemeasured, and its exactness tested, bypricking a small hole from each side ofthe wood with the marking gauge and

carefully noting that the pricked holescoincide. The gauge mark is clearlyshown in the various illustrations.Now, take a pencil and scribble ormark "waste" on the parts you intend tocut away. This will save trouble lateron, especially if you are makingseveral joints at once. Take your sharppenknife or marking knife blade, andcut fairly deeply into the marked lineon the portion you are going to pareaway.

Fig. 66.—Chiselling away Wood upto Gauge Line.

Fig. 67.—How work is held whenSawing Shoulder.

Fix the wood firmly in your vice, oragainst your cutting board or benchstop, as may be more convenient toyou, and with a sharp chisel cut awaythe wood up to the marked line, as atFig. 66. The channel in the sketch is

exaggerated, so as to show the methodclearly. The object of using a penknifeor marking knife to mark your work,instead of using a pencil, will beobvious. Owing to the knife havingscored about 1⁄16 in. deep across thefibres of the wood, the timber willcome away cleanly when the chisel isused, as at Fig. 66. The small channelthus made will form a guide in whichto start your tenon or dovetail saw; itprevents the saw cutting on the wrongside of the marked line and thusmaking the halving too wide.

Fig. 68.—Paring away Waste withChisel.

Fig. 69.—Showing an ObliqueHalved Joint.

Sawing.—Lay the work on the cuttingboard as at Fig. 67; or, if you prefer,put the work in the vice. Carefully sawdown the work until you just touch thegauge line. Do not press heavily withthe saw; use it lightly; the weight of theback iron which is fixed on the sawwill ensure the saw feeding into thework quite fast enough. If the saw isnewly sharpened it will, in fact, be anadvantage to slightly ease the weight ofthe saw from off the wood, owing tothe keenness of its edge. If the halvingis a very wide one, additional cuts maybe sawn between the outside marks,and these will greatly facilitate theremoval of the waste wood whenparing it away. For sawing the joint

reference may be made to the chapteron Dovetailing.

Fig. 70.—Sawing the Cheek of aHalving Joint.

Paring away the waste material with a

chisel is the next step, and this isshown at Fig. 68. The work may bechiselled either in a vertical or ahorizontal position. The horizontalposition is the easiest for the amateurwho has a vice or handscrew, becausehe may hold the work securely with amechanical device and so avoid theunnecessary risk to his fingers.

Take the chisel and cut away A, Fig.68; now turn the chisel and cut away B;after which keep the chisel horizontaland cut off "the top of the hill," as itwere, C. Repeat the three operationsuntil you gradually pare the wood awayexactly to the gauge line. Whenchiselling, if you find a tendency forthe work to chip or crumble at the back

edge owing to the forward pressure ofthe chisel, turn your wood round andbegin to cut from the other edge,allowing the chisel to finish paring atthe centre.

Joints Other than a Right Angle.—Ifthe halving joint is at an angle similarto the sketch shown at Fig. 69, greatcare will have to be exercised in theuse of the chisel, owing to the changein the direction of the grain of thewood. The arrow marks in this sketchdistinctly indicate the direction inwhich the chiselling must be done so asto give a smooth result. This change ofdirection for cutting also applies to thebottom of the halving joint.

Cutting Joint at End of Timber (Fig.70).—Should the halving joint be usedat the end of a piece of wood, as at Fig.30, the waste material may be roughlysawn away and the flat surfacetrimmed up with a chisel.

To saw out this type of halving joint,proceed to work the shoulder line asalready described; then place the pieceof wood obliquely in the vice as shown(Fig. 70) and proceed to saw down thevertical line, carefully watching thegauge line to see that you saw on thewaste side of the lines. Then turn thepiece of timber with its opposite edgetowards you, and again use the saw asillustrated. You will this time onlyhave to watch the gauge mark on the

edge of the wood, because the saw willreadily follow in the saw kerf alreadymade. Now place the wood vertically inthe vice, and keeping the saw in ahorizontal position, saw down to theshoulder line.

Halving joints properly made and fittedshould knock together with the weightof the clenched fist; the use of a heavymallet or hammer will deface the work.

Fig. 71.—Joints used in the erectionof a Queen Post Roof Truss.

THE BRIDLE JOINT

A bridle joint is often defined as thereverse of a mortise and tenon, and ischiefly used in the carpentry andjoinery trades. The name probablyoriginated from the fact that it bearssome resemblance to the manner inwhich a bit slips into the horse's mouthand is fastened to the bridle. There arefewer varieties of the bridle joint thanof the halved or the mortise and tenon;and this being the case we may take theopportunity of giving a few detaileddirections, with explanatory

illustrations, on the setting out and themaking.

Fig. 72.—Simple Bridle Joint.

Fig. 72 shows a bridle joint in what isperhaps its simplest form, the separatepieces being given at the left and thecompleted joint at the right. A joint ofthis type may be applied in nearly all

cases where a halved or a mortise andtenon joint could be used. Bridle jointshave an advantage as regardsappearance over the mortise andtenoned variety in cases such as Fig.73, which shows an occasional tableleg fitted to the circular top framing.The bridle joint here allows the grainof the leg to run through to the top, andgives a better and more workmanlikeappearance to the completed article.

Fig. 73.—Table Leg Bridle-jointed toRail.

Fig. 74 is a "Mitred bridle joint," the

p a r t a showing the upright portionseparated. This is a most useful jointfor positions similar to that shown inthe small glass frame, Fig. 75. Thewood framing in this case is only 13⁄8in. in width, and if a mortise were usedit would have to be exceptionallysmall. The shaped rail at the bottom ofthis frame again shows the applicationof the bridle joint.

Fig. 76 shows an "Oblique bridle joint,"used in many instances as a brace, orstrut, to prevent framing from racking.(See also Figs. 31 and 32.)

Fig. 77 is a "Stopped bridle joint," usedin positions where the top or bottomedge of the work meets the eye, and

where, if the rail were allowed to runthrough, the end grain would appearunsightly.

Fig. 74.—MitreBridle Joint.

Fig. 75.—MirrorFrame with Bridle

Joints.

Fig. 78 is a so-called bridle-joint at thecorner of a frame. This is also called an

"Open slot mortise and tenon joint," agood strong, serviceable joint whichcan be used instead of the closedmortise and tenon type, its advantagebeing that less labour is required in themaking. (See also Fig. 169.)

Fig. 79 is an "Oblique angle bridlejoint," used in similar positions to theabove, but when the two pieces meet atan acute angle at the end of a frame.

Fig. 80 shows the application of thebridle joint to a roof truss. Twosketches are shown at the joining of thetie beam and the principal rafter. Thejoint a is the type generally used. (Seealso Fig. 71 for the joints in a queenpost roof.)

Fig. 76.—ObliqueBridle Joint. Fig. 77.—

Stopped BridleJoint.

Fig. 78.—BridleJoint at Corner of

Frame.

Fig. 79.—Oblique AngleBridle Joint.

Fig. 80.—Application of Bridle Jointto Roof Truss.

Setting Out and Marking.—It is asafe rule, when setting out a bridlejoint, to divide the thickness of thetimber into three equal parts. This willleave the timber on each side of thetongue equal to the thickness of thetongue, thus giving uniform strength tothe joint. The bridle joint is chieflyused for connecting the internal partsof wooden frames. It is stronger thanthe halving joint, and, owing to itspeculiar construction, requires little inthe way of pegs, screws or nails tosecure it in position. Fig. 81 illustratesthe joint, both open and closed.

To understand the method of settingout and marking, glance at the sketch,Fig. 81. It is not necessary that thebridle piece A be the same width as thecross piece B; but it must beremembered when setting out the jointwith the marking knife or pencil thatthe width marked W on piece B mustbe equal to the width W on the piece A.The timber should be fairly accuratelysawn or planed to the same thickness,and all edges should be square and true.

The wood is placed upon the bench,and the joint marked out by using amarking knife or penknife blade andthe try square. A knife blade is muchbetter than a pencil, as the sharp edgesevers the fibres of the wood and gives

a finer line than the pencil. It is notalways necessary to exactly square andtrim the end of piece A; it may withadvantage in many cases be left at least1⁄4 in. longer than necessary andlevelled off with the saw, plane andchisel after the joint is put together.(See Method of Cutting in Fig. 92, page47.)

When the piece A has to have a bridlejoint fitted at each end, it is customaryto cut the timber about 3⁄8 in. longerthan necessary, and mark the shoulderlines C to the exact length, after whichthe joints are cut. This leaves the endsstanding over the horizontal rails, and,after fixing the complete frametogether, the small projecting ends are

levelled off flush with the cross rails.

Gauging.—After squaring all theshoulder lines round the timber withthe knife and try square, the mortisegauge should be set so as to strike thetwo gauge lines marked G, Figs. 83 and84, at one operation. If the worker doesnot possess a mortise gauge the linesmay be marked at two distinctoperations with the aid of the markinggauge (Fig. 82). The gauge should beadjusted so as to mark the wood intothirds, and the stock of the gauge (theportion of the gauge containing thethumb screw in Fig. 82) must be usedfrom the face side of the timber whengauging up the whole of the piecesforming a frame. The face mark on the

work is indicated by a glorifiedcomma, and the edge mark is shown byX, as in the various illustrations. Fig.82 shows the method of holding thegauge in the right hand whilst gaugingthe lines on the work.

Fig. 82.—

Gaugingthe

Timber.

Fig. 81.—Bridle Joint, openand closed.

The joint, when marked out, willappear as at Figs. 83 and 84, and theportions which are to be cut away maybe shaded with a pencil as indicated;this will prevent mistakes arisingwhilst cutting the work, especially byone who is not thoroughly familiarwith the joint.

The distance A B, in Fig. 84, must notbe less than the distance A B in Fig. 83.

Fig. 83.

Fig. 84.

The Two Parts of the Joint Marked.

Boring Away Waste. —Examine Fig.84; the shaded portion in the centre hasto be cut away, and it will greatlyfacilitate the removal of this wastepiece by boring a hole with a twist bitat the position shown. The twist bit

should be about 1⁄8 in. less in diameterthan the width between the gauge linesG. The easiest method of boring outthis hole is shown at Fig. 85, whichgives the correct position of theworker.

Fig. 85.—Vertical Boring previous toChiselling.

Sawing.—The wood should be put inthe vice as Fig. 86. Taking up a saw,with the index finger on the side of thehandle, commence sawing, and proceeduntil you come to the positionindicated by the dotted hand and sawA; this will leave a saw kerf or cutrunning diagonally from the shoulderline to corner of the wood. Release thevice and refix the wood so that it leansin exactly the opposite direction to Fig.86; then reverse your own position andrepeat the sawing, so as to cut anotherdiagonal saw cut from the shoulder lineto the corner. Fix the wood upright, asshown at Fig. 87, and saw as shown,

when you will find that the saw has notendency to run out of the guide cutsalready formed by the method used atFig. 86. Remember, when commencingto saw at Fig. 86, that it is necessary tosaw inside the gauge line; otherwisethe joint will be too slack, owing to theamount of sawdust removed by thethickness of the saw blade. The indexfinger on the side of the saw, pointingin the direction of the saw cut, willgreatly help the worker to saw in astraight line, as it is natural to pointwith this finger to any object that is tobe aimed at.

Fig. 86.—How the Saw is held for thefirst Cut.

Cut down the other line in a similarmanner, and then with a chisel ofsuitable width carefully chop away the

waste material. The wood may beplaced edge way upon the bench, or inthe vice, and the chisel should be heldvertically. The hole which has beenbored with the twist bit will allow thechips which are cut away to offer littleor no resistance to the chisel blade. Thechiselling should not all be done fromone side, or a chipped under-edge willbe the result; it is better to chisel thework until half-way through and thenturn the other edge of the wooduppermost and again begin to chiselfrom the top. This method will finishthe cutting in the centre of the workand prevent burred and ragged orchipped edges at the shoulder.

Fig. 87.—Third, or Horizontal Cut.

Fig. 88.—Chiselling Operation.

Cutting the Shoulders.—With regardto working the piece B, Fig. 81, placethe wood against the bench stop or inthe vice, and taking up a 3⁄4-in. chiselcarefully cut away a small channel, asshown at Fig. 88; treat the othershoulder lines in a similar manner. Ifthe marking knife or penknife blade

has been used with a fair amount ofpressure so as to score the fibres of thewood, this small channel, which is toform a guide for the saw, will quicklyand easily be cut. Next place the woodin the vice or on the cutting board asshown at Fig. 89, and begin by sawinglightly at the back edge as shown.When the saw has entered the wood 1⁄4in. gradually bring the handle downfrom position A to position B (dottedlines) whilst the saw is in motion.Continue sawing until just on the gaugeline; then treat the other shoulder linesin a similar manner.

Fig. 89.—Sawing the Shoulders.

Chiselling away Waste.—Fix yourwood firmly in any suitable manner,vice or otherwise, and, holding your

chisel tilted as at Fig. 90, pare away theblacked portion 1; then pare away theblacked portion 2; after which hold thechisel flat and by gradual operationspare away the dotted lines 3, until youcome down to the gauge line; thenrepeat the method of cutting on theopposite side of the wood. If anydifficulty be experienced by chipped orragged edges whilst chiselling, it caneasily be overcome by chisellingalternately from the outside of thewood, so that the finish of the chiselcut takes place in the centre of thework. Some prefer to chisel away thewaste by placing the wood on its edgeand using the chisel vertically insteadof horizontally. The same methods (1,

2 and 3) hold good in this case.

Fig. 90.—Chiselling away Waste.

Joints Other than at 90°.—The twopieces forming a bridle joint are notalways at right angles, as at Fig. 81; inmany instances it is necessary that thejoint be at other than 90 degrees. The

work, however, is treated in a similarmanner, with the exception that anadjustable joiner's bevel is used insteadof a try square to mark out the shoulderlines, and that a change of direction inthe grain of the wood will occur whenchiselling out the work. Fig. 91indicates the change in the grain of thewood, and the adjustable joiner's bevelis also shown.

Fig. 91.—Bridle Joint at Angle otherthan Right Angle.

Fig. 92.—Sawing off Waste fromBridle Joint. (See reference on page

39.)

THE TONGUEDAND

GROOVED JOINT

T he tongued and grooved joint isused in one form or another throughoutthe whole of the woodworking trades,covering, as it does, a great variety ofwork from the laying of flooringboards to the construction of dressers,bookcases and other cabinet work.

Flooring and match boarding generallyhave the tongues worked on the solid

board, and examples of a few of thevarious types are shown as follows:—

Fig. 93.—Tongued and GroovedFlooring Board.

Fig. 94.

Fig.95.

Method of Nailing Hardwood Floors.

Fig. 93 shows the end view of the

ordinary 7⁄8-in. "Tongued and GroovedFlooring board," as used in theconstruction of floors for mills,workshops and cottage property. Thistype of flooring is nailed to the joists inthe ordinary manner, no attempt beingmade to conceal the nails used.

Fig. 94 is a section of flooring which isgenerally made of hardwood, such asmaple, oak, or jarrah. It is used inpositions such as ballroom and skatingrink floors, etc., the tongue and groovebeing worked in such a manner that thejoint covers the nails as shown. Eachnail is driven into its position at oneedge of the board, the groove holdingthe next board and hiding the nail (Fig.95).

Fig. 96.—Tongued and

GroovedMatchboarding,

with Bead onOne Side.

Fig. 97.—Tonguedand Grooved

Matchboarding,with Bead at Each

Side.

Matchboarding,

Fig. 96 shows an example ofmatchboarding known as "Tongued,Grooved and Beaded" on one side only,a n d Fig. 97 shows a similar typetongued, grooved and beaded on bothsides. This variety of matchboarding isknown in the trade as "T. G. and B." It

is used for nailing on framing to formpartitions for rooms, offices, etc., forpanelling corridors, etc., and formaking framed and ledged doors,building tool houses, cycle sheds andother outhouses.

Fig. 98 is an example of matchboardingthat is tongued, grooved and vee'd onone side, and Fig. 99 shows tongued,grooved and vee'd both sides. These areused for similar purposes to Figs. 96and 97, and many prefer the Vmatchboarding variety because it ismore easily painted than the beadedvariety.

The object of working a bead or beadson matchboarding is to break the

jointing of the various pieces and toaim at ornamental effect; also toprevent unsightliness should the timbershrink slightly. When a moderateamount of shrinkage takes place, as isnearly always the case, the joint at theside of the bead appears to the casualobserver to be the fillet or channelworked at the side of the bead. If thetongues are not painted before the workis put together, the shrinkage will causethe raw wood to show and thus makethe joint too much in evidence.

Fig. 99.— Fig. 100.—

Fig. 101.—

dovetailed,

MatchboardingVee'd Both

Sides.

Double-tonguedMatchboarding.

Grooved.

Fig. 100 shows a "Double tongued andgrooved" joint used in the wholesalecabinet factories. It is preferred for thejointing of cabinet stock, and theamateur can make a similar joint byworking two grooves and insertingloose tongues.

Fig. 101 is the end view of a "Double-dovetailed, tongued and grooved" joint,and Fig. 102 is a sketch of a similarjoint having only one dovetailedtongue.

From a constructional point of viewFig. 101 is far and away the best jointthat has yet been produced.Unfortunately, however, there is not atthe present time any hand tool that willeconomically produce it, owingprobably to the fact that the joint is thesubject of a patent. The dovetail tonguetapers slightly throughout its entirelength, gripping the joint on theprinciple of the wedge and squeezingthe glue into the pores of the wood.

Fig. 102.—Joint with Single DovetailTongue and Groove.

Fig. 104.—Method of

Secret-

Fig. 103.—(A) CrossTongue. (B) Feather

Tongue.

nailingHardwoodFlooringBoards.

Cabinet-work Joints.—With regard totongued and grooved joints whichapply more particularly to the jointingof cabinet work, Fig. 93 is produced byplanes which are specially made for thepurpose. One plane makes the tongueand another the groove. The handiestsizes to buy are those which joint 3⁄8in., 5⁄8 in., and 3⁄4 in. timber, it beingusual to dowel or loose-tongue thickerboards. The 3⁄8 in. partitions (or, as theyare sometimes called, dustboards)between the drawers of a sideboard or

dressing chest are in good work jointedin this manner. The 5⁄8 in. and 3⁄4 in.ends and tops of pine or Americanwhitewood dressing tables, wardrobes,etc., call for the larger sized plane.

Loose Tongues.—There are twomethods of jointing with loose tongues,viz., the use of the cross tongue, Fig.103 A, and the use of the feathertongue, Fig. 103 B. Cross tongues arethe stronger when glued in theirposition and can be used very muchthinner than feather tongues. Feathertongues are cut diagonally across thegrain as illustrated.

Fig. 105.—Cradle for Planing.

Fig. 105 is a cradle for planing up loosetongues to the required width(generally 7⁄8 in.). Two grooves aremade in a piece of 11⁄4 in. hardwood;one groove is used for planing thewidth way of the tongue and the otherfor planing the edge way. Thesetongues can be cut to accurate size on acircular saw bench if power andmachinery are at hand.

Applications of the Joint.—Fig. 106 isa sketch of a portion of a sideboard top,showing the plough groove ready

worked out to receive the tongue; theother half of the top is treated in asimilar manner. It will be noticed thatthe groove is not worked through thefull length of the board, but stoppedabout 11⁄4 in. from each end; this leavesa square joint at each end of the top onwhich the moulding is worked. If thegroove be run through the board itlooks very unsightly when the mould isfinished.

Fig. 107 is a shaped spandrel, such as isfixed in the recess of a sideboard orcupboard or shop window fitment. It isof such a width that, were it cut from awide board, the shaped portion wouldbe apt to break off owing to the shortgrain at C. The shaping is therefore

built up out of three separate pieces,the grain running as indicated. Theloose tongue is represented by thedotted line and a section is shown ofthe joint at the line A B. At theopposite corner the tongue is left blind,i.e., not run through the edge. This isthe method that should be used whenthe shaping is above the level of theeye.

Fig. 106.—Part of Sideboard Top;

grooved with ends left blind. (Theboards are shown upright.)

Fig. 107.—Shaped Spandrel forRecess.

Fig. 108 shows part of a carcase of adressing table. The drawer runner A isshown grooved across the end toreceive a cross tongue; this crosstongue engages a similar groove in thefront bearer. This method of fasteningthe runner to the bearer is in everydayuse.

Fig. 108.—Part Carcase of DressingTable.

Fig. 109.—Framed Writing TableTop.

Fig. 109 is a writing table top. Thecentre boards are first jointed and

glued up, after which the ends andsides are grooved ready to receive thecross tongues. The hardwood marginsare shown at one end and at the front,and the grooves are arranged so that, oncompletion, the marginal frame standsabove the top just the amount of thethickness of the leather which willcover the table. In some cases themargin at the end runs the same way ofthe grain as the top, thus allowing forslight shrinkage. Cross tongues wouldof course be used in this case.

Fig. 110 is a sketch showing one-quarter of a barred or tracery cabinetdoor. An enlarged section of theastragal mould which is grooved to fiton the bar which forms the rebate is

also shown.

Fig. 111 is a "Combing or cornerlocking" joint, a method of makingboxes by means of a continuous use oftongues and grooves instead ofdovetails. This type of joint isgenerally machine made. The amateur,however, who is not proficient toundertake a dovetailed box frequentlyuses this method.

Fig. 110.—Corner of

Barred Door.

Fig. 111.—Combingor Locking Joint.

Corner Joints.—Fig. 112 shows both asingle loose tongue and a double solidtongue. Both are methods used toconnect circular cornered work, such asa counter end, to the front framing.

Fig. 113 indicates a tongued andgrooved joint suitable for edge or endjointing, such as fitting matchboardinground a chimney breast, making smalljewel drawers, etc.

Fig. 114 is a tongued and grooved jointwith a bead worked on same to hide thejoint, sometimes called a staff-bead. Itwould be used in positions such asboarding around an upright iron pillar,etc., the bead giving a neat finish ateach corner.

Fig. 115 is a similar joint, but at anobtuse angle. An example of its use isin fixing boarding around an octagonalcolumn of brickwork.

Fig. 113. Fig. 114.

Fig.115.

Examples of Tongued and GroovedCorner Joints.

Fig. 116 shows a tongued and groovedmitre as used for strengthening thecorners of cabinet work, such as teacaddies, small boxes, plinths, etc. Twopieces of wood are glued in positionand allowed to set prior to glueing andcramping the joint proper. These piecesare afterwards planed away, thus

leaving a clear surface to the box sides.

Fig. 117 shows the method of workingthe groove in the above joints. Thepieces are turned back to back, themitres thus making a right angle. Theguide on the grooving plane thus worksagainst each face of the joint, and thisensures correct jointing.

Fig. 118 is somewhat similar to Fig.113, but with a quarter circle mould tohide the joint.

Fig. 119 indicates the building up of adouble skirting mould. C represents thebrickwork, A the oak-framed panelling,and B the packing and fixing block. Awide skirting of this type is made in

two portions for convenience inworking the moulding and to preventundue shrinkage.

Fig. 116.—Cramping a Tongued andGrooved Mitre.

Fig. 117.—Working a Groove.

Fig.118.—CornerJointwith

CornerMould.

Fig. 120 illustrates the use of a tonguedand grooved joint for fixing togetherthe sides of a corner bracket, and thesame method holds good when jointing

a corner cupboard. A capping mould ortop shelf will conceal the joint; it thenhas the appearance of a glued buttjoint, but is of course considerablystronger. No screws or nails arerequired if this joint be used.

Ploughing.—When grooves have to beworked in the edge or face of a board toreceive tongues, the process isgenerally called ploughing, and it isusually accomplished by a special toolcalled a plough (or, as it is occasionallyspelt, "plow"). When a plough plane isbought it is usual to procure eightplough bits or blades of various sizes tofit the plane. In Fig. 121 is given thesketch of a plough plane with thenames of the various parts lettered

thereon.

Fig. 119.—Double Skirting

Mould.Fig. 120.—Joint

for CornerBracket orCupboard.

The board or boards which it is desiredto groove are first planed straight andtrue, exactly as though it were desiredto make a glued or butt joint. One ofthe boards is now placed edge way upin the vice and with the face side to theworker.

Take the plough plane and select asuitably-sized blade; fix it in the planein the usual way, allowing the cuttingedge to project beyond the steel skateabout 1⁄32 in., and securely drive up thewedge. Next loosen the small boxwoodwedges at the side of each stem, andadjust the plane by tapping the stemswith a hammer until the cutting iron is

in the desired position; then knock upthe small wedges nice and tight. Whensetting the fence to or from the blade itis a wise precaution to measure thedistance from the fence to the skate ateach end of the plane; this will ensurethe skate being parallel to the fence.The neglect of this is a source ofannoyance to many amateurs. Nowadjust the depth stop by turning thescrew at the top of the plane,measuring the depth of the requiredgroove from the edge of the blade tothe stop, and carefully lock the screwwhich adjusts this stop.

Fig. 121.—The Plough Plane and itsParts.

The plane is now ready for use. Holdthe fence close up to the side of thetimber, the hands in position as showna t Fig. 122, the position of the body

being that generally assumed inplaning. Move the plane backwards andforwards in the usual manner,beginning the cut at the end of theboard nearest to the vice jaws (thefront), and proceed with the planinguntil the depth stop is in contact withthe wood. Then take a step backwardsand repeat the process until the wholelength of the groove is ploughed. Caremust be taken to force the fence up tothe board with the left hand, whilst theright hand thrusts the plane backwardsand forwards, and the plane must bekept vertical.

Fig. 122.—Method of using thePlough Plane.

Tongueing.—The grooves having beencompleted, the tongues have to bemade. Fig. 123 shows a sketch of aboard and the method of marking outcross tongues (A) and feather tongues(B). The usual procedure for makingcross tongues is to plane the end of theboard and use a cutting gauge to give aline the required distance from the end(see sketch). The board is sawn with atenon or panel saw, and the piece oftimber for the tongue is thus procured.If a feather tongue is to be used it is cutdiagonally from the board (B) and theends cut square as shown by the dottedline.

Fig. 123.—Method of Marking Outfor Cross Tongues and Feather

Tongues.

Feather tongues can be obtained infairly long lengths out of narrowboards, whilst on the other hand crosstongues are limited by the width of theboard. After cutting off the tongues,they require planing with nicety to fitthe grooves, and the advantage of agrooved board (Fig. 105) will beappreciated. A glue spoon similar to a

plumber's ladle is generally used topour the glue into the grooves, and it iscustomary to glue the tongue into oneboard first; after allowing this to set,the joint is completed in the usualmanner.

Tongueing Planes.—Fig. 124 showsthe end view of a tongueing plane forworking matched joints out of thesolid. The method of holding and usingthe plane is similar to the directionsgiven for using the plough. The partlettered F (in front) represents thefence, which in this case is notadjustable.

Fig. 124.

Fig. 125.

End Views of Tongueing andGrooving Planes.

In description Fig. 125 is similar toFig. 124. The steel skate runs in thegroove and supports the cutting bladesimilar to that in the plough plane, andprovided a grooving plane of this typeis of suitable width it may be used formaking grooves for loose tongues.There is on the market a metal planewhich is specially designed withhandles at both ends. This plane carriesa grooving iron on one side and atongueing iron on the other side; thuswith one plane both the tongue and the

groove can be worked.

Fig. 126.—Tongueing Shoulders ofTenons.

Fig. 126 shows the method oftongueing the shoulders of tenons as

used in thick timber which is to beveneered on the face. A temporarypiece of wood (A) is put between thetenon cheek and the saw, thus forminga guide for the latter. After cutting onesaw kerf a thicker piece is made and asecond saw kerf cut; the waste betweenthe saw kerfs is now removed with an1⁄8 in. chisel and this completes thegroove. A tongue of this type acts as anextra tenon and prevents the joint from"lipping" (becoming uneven) on theface side.

THE MORTISE ANDTENON JOINT

A mortise and tenon joint is themethod of joining timber by working asolid rectangular projection in the onepiece and cutting a correspondingcavity to receive it in the adjoiningpiece. The projection is called thetenon, and the cavity the mortise.Joints of this type are secured invarious ways. Small wedges, woodendowels, metal dowel pins, glue andpaint are frequently used, and prior tothe introduction of glue we have

examples of Egyptian furniture inwhich the mortise and tenon jointswere united by a composition ofcheese.

Fig. 127.—Barefaced TenonJoint.

Fig.128.—Stub

Tenon.

Barefaced Tenons.—Fig. 127illustrates the joint in its simplest formand shows a tenon having only oneshoulder. This is called a barefacedtenon, and it will be noticed that theportion which carries the mortise isthicker than the rail on which the tenonis cut. The joint is therefore level (orflush as it is called) on one side only,and it should never be used at thecorner of a frame. It is a useful interiorjoint for framing that has to be coveredon the back side with matchboarding,and allows the work to finish level atthe back when the boarding has beenapplied (see plan, Fig. 127).

Stub or Stump Tenon (Fig. 128; alsooccasionally called a joggle tenon).—

The illustration shows a tenon as usedin the interior of a frame. The tenon isnot allowed to run through the stile,and unslightliness on the edge is thusavoided. This type of tenon is oftenused at the corner of a frame, and itthen requires to be haunched. A goodworkshop method of gauging the depthof the mortise for a stub tenon is shownin Fig. 129; a piece of gummed stamppaper is stuck on the side of themortise chisel, indicating the desireddepth of the mortise. This greatlyfacilitates the work, as it is notnecessary to be constantly measuring.

A Haunched Tenon as used at the endof a door frame is shown at Fig. 130.—In this case it will be seen that the

width of the tenon is reduced, so thatsufficient timber will be left at the endof the stile to resist the pressure of thetenon when the joint is driven together.The short portion (A) which is left onthe tenon is called the haunch, and thecavity it engages is termed thehaunching. The haunch and haunchingprevent the two pieces of timberlipping, or becoming uneven on theface side, as would be the result if itwere cut away entirely up to theshoulder.

Fig. 131 shows the type of tenon andhaunch used when the stile or uprightrail is grooved to receive a panel. Inthis and similar cases the haunch ismade the same width and the same

depth as the groove; the groovetherefore acts as the haunching. Anapplication of this joint is shown in thetop rail of the door frame, Fig. 132.

This type of joint is also used toconnect the rail to the leg of anordinary kitchen table (see Fig. 167).

Fig. 129.—Method of Gauging fordepth of Tenon.

Fig. 130.—HaunchedTenon used at end of Door

Frame.

Fig. 131.—

HaunchedTenonusedwhen

Stile isGroovedfor Panel.

Fig. 132.—Application ofHaunched Tenon Joint to Door

Frame.

Fig. 133.—Occasional

StumpTenon.

Fig. 133 is a variation of the stumptenon, occasionally used where the

work in hand demands a thin tenon anda stout stump to take heavy strains.

Fig. 134.—Joint for InsideFraming.

Fig. 135.—

HaunchedBarefaced

Tenon.

A joint used for inside framing is seena t Fig. 134. The rails may be used asshown, but in the case of a door frame( a s Fig. 132) they would have the

inside edges grooved to receive thepanels; the tenons would therefore beslightly narrower than shown, owing tothe groove at each edge.

A Haunched Barefaced Tenon , usedin similar positions to Fig. 131, isshown at Fig. 135. The door or frame inthis case would be made ofmatchboarding nailed on the back asshown in the plan at Fig. 127.

Wedges.—Fig. 136 shows the methodof cutting wedges which are to be usedto wedge the tenons; this avoids wasteof material. Some workers cut thewedges from the pieces left out of thehaunching of the lock rail, or thebottom rail.

Fig. 136.—Cutting Wedgesfrom Waste of Haunching.

Fig.137.—Stileand

CrossRailwith

Horn.

A Stile and Cross Rail, framedtogether, are shown at Fig. 137. Theportion above the rail is called thehorn, and it is usual to leave sufficientlength of stile to project above and

below the cross rails, so that there willbe no tendency for the stile to burst outat the end whilst the cramping andwedging of the frame is in progress. Oncompleting the framing the horn is cutaway.

I n Fig. 138 we have a type of jointfrequently used for garden gates. Theillustration shows the method oftenoning the three pieces to the top rail,barefaced tenons being employed.

Fig. 138.—Joint used forGarden Gates.

Fig. 139.—

SprocketWheel.

Sprocket Wheel.— A t Fig. 139 are

shown the guide bar and chain of achain-mortising machine, two enlargedlinks of the chain being indicated at A.The chain is similar in construction tothe driving chain of a bicycle, with theexception that it is provided with teethwhich cut away the timber as the chainrevolves. When using a chain mortiserthe portion of the machine carrying thechain is fed downwards into the timber,thus cutting a clean and true mortise.If, however, a stump mortise isrequired it is necessary to pare away acertain amount of timber by hand,because the machine obviously leaves asemicircular bottom to the mortise. Toovercome this difficulty the latesttypes of mortising machines have a

square hole-boring attachment fixedalongside the chain. This tool, theworking portion of which is illustratedin Fig. 140, consists of a square hollowchisel (E), which is sharpened from theinside, and a revolving twist bit (D)fitted with spurs or nickers, but withouta point (one spur can be seen at thebottom of the illustration). This bitrevolves inside the shell like a chisel,and bores away the superfluous timber,whilst the pressure exerted on thechisel causes the corners to be cut awaydead square. A mortise 3⁄8 in. square by6 ins. in depth may thus be cut. Theportion marked A is the shank of thechisel (Fig. 140), where it is fixed intothe body of the machine, and the hole

at E allows the boring bit to free itself.

Fig. 141.—Method of Fitting anInterior Table Leg.

Fig. 142.—Haunched Tenon forSkylight or Garden Frame.

Fig. 141 indicates the method of fixingan interior leg to a table having acircular or straight top rail. The inlaidleg in this case is stump-tenoned intothe top rail, and the inlaid portion ofthe leg is allowed to run through the

rail, thus giving continuity of design.

Fig. 142 shows the application of thehaunched tenon (Fig. 135) to themaking of a skylight or garden frame.In this and similar cases the side railsare rebated as shown in the section, andthe bottom rail is thinner than the siderails to allow the glass to finish levelupon it.

Long and Short ShoulderedJoint.—Fig. 143 shows a haunchedmortise and tenon joint having a longand short shoulder. This is a fairlycommon joint in framed partitions foroffices, framing for greenhouses, toolsheds, etc., and is a frequent source ofannoyance to the amateur. It is

necessary to use this joint when boththe stiles and uprights are rebated, andit calls for accurate marking out andgreat care in the making.

Fig. 144.—Joint forFencing.

Fig. 145.—

Exampleof FaultyTenon.

Fig. 144 shows the upright and rails ofcommon garden or field fencing. Thetenons are bevelled to fit and wedge

each other in the mortise. Theillustration gives both cross rails asshouldered, but in many casesshoulders are omitted when the railsare not thick enough to carry them.

Fig. 145 indicates faulty methods ofworking a tenon. At A the saw has beenallowed to run too far when cutting theshoulder, thus greatly weakening thetenon. At B faulty sawing has againoccurred, and to remedy this defect theworker has resorted to paring theshoulder with a chisel. Had the chiselbeen used vertically an undercutshoulder (as at B) would not haveoccurred. The trouble now is that theslightest amount of shrinkage in thewidth of the stile will show an open

joint. The result will be the same if it isnecessary to remove a shaving or twowhen planing or levelling up the faceof the frame.

Fig. 146.—Self-wedgingJapanese Tenon Joint.

Fig. 147.—Tenoned

and ScribedJoint.

Fig. 148.—Mitred andMoulded Tenon Joint.

Fig. 149.—TwinTenons.

A Japanese Tenoned Joint , littleknown and rarely used in this country,is shown at Fig. 146. For clearness thetwo parts are here shown separate. Thejoint is self-wedging and will be ofinterest to Handicraft Instructors.

A Tenoned and Scribed Joint is seenat Fig. 147. The cross rail is cut at theshoulder, so as to fit the mouldingwhich is worked on the stile. This is agood joint in everyday use.

Mitred and Moulded Joint.—Fig. 148shows a type of joint largely used inlight cabinet work. The method ofmitreing the moulding and tenoning thestile to rail is indicated.

Twin Tenons (Fig. 149).—The methodof tenoning the bearers which carry thedrawers, or the midfeather between twodrawers, in a dressing table or similarcarcase is here shown. On completion,the tenons on the midfeather arewedged diagonally.

Fig 150.—Method ofPinning.

Fig. 151.—Joining Top

Rails toUpright

Post.

Pinning.—Fig. 150 shows the tenoningof the inside end of a wardrobe to thetop of the carcase. This is also calledpinning. The tenons should be wedgeddiagonally. The tenons and the distance

between the tenons are moresatisfactory if made equidistant,because if slight shrinkage occurs thisis partially equalised. The widthbetween the tenons should in no caseexceed 3 ins.

Top Rails.—At Fig. 151 is shown themethod of joining the top rails to thepost of a tool shed or similar outhouse.The two rails, which are at right anglesto each other, are half-lapped andmortised; the tenon on the post runsentirely through them.

A Tusk Tenon Joint , with wedge, asused to secure the binder to the girderwhen making floors, is indicated at Fig.153. The tenon here is narrow and

engages the mortise, which is situatedin the compressional fibresimmediately adjoining the neutrallayer. Fig. 152 shows a tusk tenonfurnished with a drawbore pin.

Fig. 152.—Tusk Tenon.

Fig. 153.—Wedged Tusk Tenon.

Fig. 154 is a variation of Fig. 152.

Fig. 155 shows tusk and wedged tenonsas used when making a portable bookor medicine cabinet. The shelf ishoused into the end, and the tenons runthrough the end and are secured by

wedges. This allows the article to bequickly and easily taken to pieces forremoval or re-polishing. The dottedline in Fig. 155 indicates that the shelfmay be shaped if desired.

Fig. 154.—Another Typeof Tusk Tenon.

Fig. 155.—Tusk

Tenon andWedge.

Fig. 156.—Wheelwright's Self-wedging Tenon Joint.

In Fig. 156 a self-wedging mortise andtenon joint used by wheelwrights isshown. The dotted line (left-handdiagram) will indicate the amount oftaper given to the mortise.

Dovetailed and Wedged Tenon (Fig.157).—When two pieces such as thecross rail and leg of a carpenter's bench

are required to be held together by amortise and tenon, and to be readilytaken apart, the tenon is dovetailed onone side and the mortise is made ofsufficient width to permit the widestpart of the dovetailed tenon to pass intoit. When the tenon is in its position ahardwood wedge is driven in above thetenon, as shown.

Fig. 157.—Dovetailed and Wedged

Tenon.

Fig. 158.—Method of Fox-wedging.

Fox Wedged Tenon (Fig. 158).—Thisis the method of securing a stub tenonby small wedges. The mortise isslightly dovetailed and two saw cutsare made in the tenon about 3⁄16 in.from each side. Into each saw kerf awedge is inserted and the joint glued

up. The cramping operation forces thewedges into the saw cuts, thus causingthe end of the tenon to spread andtightly grip the mortise.

Mortise and Tenon with Mitred Face(Fig. 159).—This is a useful method ofjointing framing which has squareedges as shown; and it is equally usefuleven if the face edges have mouldsworked upon them. If the joint hassquare edges a rebate may be formed toaccommodate a panel by fixing abolection moulding around the frame.A section of the bolection mouldplanted on the frame is shown in thelower figure.

Fig. 159.—Tenon Joint with MitredFace.

Fig. 160.—RafterJoint.

Fig. 161.—Roof Joints.

Roof Joints.—Fig. 160 shows themethod of tenoning the principal rafterto the king post, whilst Fig. 161illustrates the tenoning of the struts tothe king post, and the king post to thetie beam. Both these examples are used

in roof work. (See also Fig. 71.)

Fig. 162.—Drawbore Pinning.

Fig. 163.

Fig. 164.

Operation of Pegs in DrawborePinning.

Drawbore Pinning.— A t Fig. 162 isseen the method of securing a tenon bydrawbore pinning, employed when it isnot convenient to obtain the necessarypressure by using a cramp. The joint ismade in the usual manner, and a 3⁄8-in.

twist bit is used to bore a hole throughpiece A. The tenon is driven home andthe hole is marked on the side of thetenon (B); the tenon is then withdrawnand the hole bored about 1⁄8 in. nearerto the shoulder than as marked on theseparate diagram at C. When the tenonis finally inserted the holes will notregister correctly, and if a hardwoodpin be driven into the joint it will drawthe shoulders of the tenon to a closejoint and effectually secure the parts.

Sash Bars.—Fig. 165 shows how totenon a moulded sash bar to the rebatedcross rail. In this illustration bothshoulders of the moulded bar areshown square, but in the best classwork these shoulders may be slightly

housed into the cross rail to preventside play. This type of joint is used forhorticultural buildings, etc. If the lowerrail be moulded with the samemembers as the sash bar, the end of thesash bar will have to be scribed on to itto make a fit.

Fig. 165.—Tenoning

Fig. 166.—Tenon with

Tongued and

Fig. 167.—Detailof TableFraming.

Moulded SashBar.

GroovedShoulder.

Tenon with Tongued and GroovedShoulders (Fig. 166).—The object ofthe tongues and grooves here is toprevent the face of the work casting, orbecoming warped, and thus spoiling theappearance of the surface of the work.If framing is to be veneered on the faceside this is an exceptionally goodmethod.

Table Framing.—Fig. 167 indicatesthe framing of a rail to a dining-tableleg. In cases similar to this the tenonsrun into the leg and almost touch eachother. They are therefore mitred on the

end as shown in the inset. Chair framesoften call for similar treatment.

Twin Tenons with haunch, as usedwhen the timber is of great thickness,are shown in Fig. 168.

An Open Slot Mortise at the end of aright-angled frame is seen in Fig. 169.Fig. 170 shows an open slot mortiseand tenon joint at the end of a frame of60°. Both these joints are occasionallycalled end bridle joints.

Fig. 168.—Twin Tenonsfor Thick Timber.

Fig. 169.—The Open-

slotMortiseJoint.

Hammer Head Tenons.—At Fig. 171is shown the method of jointingframing having semicircular orsegmental heads. The left-hand

diagram indicates the method ofwedging the joint so as to draw up theshoulders; the right-hand view showsthe tongueing of the shoulders, whichis necessary if thick timber has to bewrought. The sketch depicts the stilewhen taken apart from the shaped headof the frame.

Clamping.—Fig. 172 shows themethod of tenoning drawing boards,desk tops and secretaire falls. This iscommonly called clamping. Themethod is used to prevent widesurfaces from winding. A variation ofthe joint is shown at the left-hand side,the corners in this example not beingmitred. Fig. 173 shows the tenoning ofa wide to a narrow rail when the joint is

at an angle.

Inserted Tenons (Fig. 174).—Wheretwo pieces of timber run together at anacute angle it becomes necessary to useinserted tenons. Both pieces of thetimber are mortised and the insertedtenons are secured into the widestpiece. On the left is shown the insertedtenon, secured by the method known asfox-wedging; on the right the insertedtenon has been let into the wide railfrom the edge. The narrow rail issecured by wedging the tenons fromthe outside edge in the ordinarymanner.

Fig. 170.—Open-SlotMortise at 60

degrees.

Fig. 171.—Hammer-Head

Tenon Joint.

Dreadnought File.—At Fig. 175 is asketch of a portion of a dreadnoughtfile. This has superseded the old-

fashioned home-made float used toclean out the sides of a mortise.

Fig. 172.—Clamping.

Fig. 173.—

TenoningNarrow

Rail.

Fig. 174.—Inserted Tenons.

Fig. 175.—Dreadnought

Fig. 176.—External and

Internal Joints.

Fig. 177.—Settingout Stiles and Rails

for Tenoning.

General Rule.—In practically all caseswhere a single tenon is used the

thickness of the tenon should be one-third the thickness of the timber. Thisleaves the timber at each side of themortise the same strength as the tenon.

Mortise and tenon joints for insidework may be united with glue. If,however, the work has to stand theweather a better method is to unite thejoint with white lead, which is rundown to the required consistency withgood outside varnish.

Setting Out the Joint.—The principaluse of the mortise and tenon joint is inthe construction of various types offraming, such as door and windowframes. In one or other of its many andvaried forms it may be classed as the

most important joint in the generalwoodworking trade. The joint may beused as an internal one, as shown at thelower rail, Fig. 176, or as an externaljoint, as the upper rail of the sameillustration.

Whatever type of framing has to bemade, it is necessary that the face sideof the wood be planed up straight andout of winding, and the face mark (asshown in Fig. 176) pencilled upon it.The best edge of the timber should nextbe planed up true in length, and squareto the face side, and the edge mark (X)clearly placed upon it.

The marking gauge is now set to thedesired width, and gauge lines are

marked on the wood, after which thewaste wood is planed off until thetimber is the required width. Thethickness is gauged and treated in asimilar manner, except in such caseswhere the finished work is to be of arough and ready character.

The Two Stiles (or uprights) have theirfaces turned to touch each other, asshown at Fig. 177, and their length maybe anything from 1 in. to 3 ins. longerthan the required finished size. Thiswaste wood at each end of the stiles(see arrow HO) is of importance to thework, as it prevents to a great extentthe bursting of the mortise whilstcutting the hole or when knockingtogether the work. The small projection

is called the "horn," and it is cut offafter the frame has been put together.

Fig. 178.—Setting Out the Stiles withMarking Knife.

Fig. 179.—How to Saw the Tenons—First Operation.

The two Cross Rails (Fig. 177), havetheir faces placed together as shown inthe sketch. These rails may with

advantage be left 1⁄2 in. longer than thefinished size, and the portion of thetenon (which will protrude through thestile 1⁄4 in. at each end) may be cut offafter the work is put together. (See Fig.92.)

Set out the stiles with a marking knifeor penknife and a try square, as shownat Fig. 178. In this sketch only one stileis shown for clearness ofrepresentation, but two or more stiles(as at Fig. 177) may be marked out atthe same time, provided a 12-in. trysquare be used; in fact, marking out thestiles in pairs is to be recommended, asall cross lines will be exact owing totheir being marked at the sameoperation. The cut made by the

marking knife should be lightly carriedall round the work as the mortising iscut from each edge of the stile, thecutting of the mortising being finishedin the centre. The lettering on Fig. 177is as follows:—HO, horn; M, positionof mortise; H, position of haunching;A, inside line, or sight size, as it isoccasionally called.

Set out the cross rails as at Fig. 177,lower sketch. The lettering in thisfigure is as follows:—T, tenons; thesmall piece of the tenon lettered J iscalled the haunch, and the shadedportion H is cut away to allow thehaunch J to fit the haunching of thestile.

The Tenons (as already stated) aregenerally one-third the thickness of thetimber, thus leaving the same amountof substance at each side of the tenonas the tenon itself is composed of. Themortise gauge is set to the requireddistance and used as in the case of themarking gauge (Fig. 82).

Fig. 180.—Second Operation inSawing Tenons.

Fig. 181.—Cutting Channel atShoulder of Tenon before Sawing.

To saw the tenons, place the rail in thevice as at Fig. 179 and, with a panel,tenon, or hand saw, according to thesize of the work, cut down the outsideof the tenon line as shown. Reverse

your position and cut as shown at Fig.180, then place the rail in a verticalposition, and you will find little or nodifficulty in sawing down square withthe shoulder line. Repeat the abovemethods of sawing until all the tenonsare sawn.

Next saw out the pieces at the side ofthe tenon by the following procedure.Place the rail against the bench stop, orin the vice, and cut a small channel inwhich to run your tenon saw as shownat Fig. 181. If you have scored the linedeeply with your knife when you weremarking out the work, you will havelittle difficulty in removing a smallportion with the chisel. The amountremoved in the illustration is, of

course, exaggerated. In the smallchannel thus made place the tenon sawand, guiding the saw blade with thefinger so as to keep it upright or square(Fig. 182), saw away the wastematerial. Remove the waste material atthe sides of the tenons in a similar way,and then saw out the portion marked H,Fig. 177, lower sketch.

The Mortising of the stiles may nextbe taken in hand by putting the stilesedgeways in the vice and boring awaythe bulk of the waste wood from themortise with a suitable-sized twist bitand brace. This method will save agreat amount of noise, as to a greatextent it does away with the use of themallet. Take the mallet and chisel and

chop down about 3⁄8 in. as shown at Fig.183; then turn the chisel to the positionshown at Fig. 184 and remove thesmall piece as shown. Continue thesetwo operations until you are about half-way through the wood and then start ina similar manner at the line a, Fig. 183,after which turn the other edge of thetimber uppermost and repeat themethods shown.

Fig. 182.—Sawing away WasteMaterial.

Fig. 183.—Using the Chisel andMallet for Mortising.

Fig. 185 shows the sketch of a mortisewhich has its side removed so as toshow the method of successive cuts

with a chisel when removing the corefrom a mortise; this, in conjunctionwith the other sketches, clearly showsthe methods of working. In manywoodwork examinations the examinersinsist that the mortise shall be removedby successive cuts with the chisel, butwe certainly advise the removal ofmuch of the waste wood with a boringbit, provided the worker can keepstraight and well within the limitationsof his gauge lines.

Fig. 184.—Removing Waste ofMortise with Chisel.

Removing Haunching.—Afterremoving the mortise hole, the smallportion which is called the haunching

will require to be removed with achisel. This calls for no special remark,as it is clearly shown in Figs. 187 and188. Fig. 186 shows an everyday typeof mortise and tenon joint separated; itis used in cases where a straight joint isrequired on the upper or lower edge ofthe work, whereas the upper rail of Fig.176 shows the full haunch on the topedge. In cases such as Figs 187 and188, where the edges of the frames aregrooved to receive panels, etc., thewidth of the tenon is reduced by thewidth of the groove.

Fig. 185.—Mortisewith Side Removed.

Fig. 186.—TheJoint

Separated.

Fig. 187.—Removal ofHaunching.

Fig. 188.—Haunching

Grooveabove.

This must be remembered by theworker when marking out his stileswith the marking knife. Fig. 187 (right-

hand sketch) shows the haunch, tenon,and groove G at the bottom. Fig. 188(left-hand illustration) shows G(groove) at top, and HH (the haunch) atthe bottom. Tenons may be gluedtogether and wedged as shown at Fig.176 if for inside work; but if foroutside work they are generallysmeared with thick paint and wedgedup. For light-class cabinet work it isusual to cut the mortise about seven-eighths of the distance through the stileand make the tenon to match it; theedge of the finished work does not thenshow any indication of the joint, and itleaves a nice clean surface at the edgeof the work for polishing or varnishing.

Fig. 189.—Interlocking Joint for SeatRails of Chair to Leg.

Interlocking Chair Joint.—A jointdesigned with a view to strengtheningthe construction of chairs at the pointwhere they are weakest is shown in Fig.189. The joint is an interlocking one soarranged that, once the chair is glued

up, no motion of the side rail can bepossible. The groove in the side railtenon is cut in such a manner that, onthe insertion of the back rail tenon, thejoint actually draws up and, havingdone so, is locked in position. Theexact location of this groove isobtained in a similar manner to thatused in marking out tenons fordrawbore pinning, i.e., the tenon isinserted in its mortise and the positionof the back rail mortise transferred toit, after which the lines are set back by1⁄64 in. (approximately) to cause thejoint to draw.

From the illustration the constructionof the joint should be clear. Themethod is particularly adapted to a

section of rectangular form where oneside is longer than the other, such asthe back leg of a chair, as this shapeallows for the accommodation of theextra length of tenon required.

THE DOWELLINGJOINT

Dowelling is the term generally givento the method of jointing timber andother materials by wooden or metalpegs, which are called dowels. Forcabinet-making and similar workstraight-grained beechwood dowels aremostly used; these may be bought bythe gross, in lengths of about 36 ins.,and of any desired diameter.

Fig. 190.—Steel Dowel Plate.

Making Dowels.—Many, however,prefer to make what they require forthe work in hand, and the following isthe method that is generally employed.Pieces of straight-grained wood arewrought to a square section, afterwhich the corners are planed away toform an octagonal section. The sharpcorners are now planed away, and theroughly formed dowel is driventhrough a steel dowel plate, Fig. 190,by the aid of a heavy hammer, thus

giving the necessary roundness andfinish to the dowels. When hammeringdowels through a plate the hammershould on no account be allowed tocome in contact with the face of thedowel plate, or the cutting edge of thehole will be spoilt. Simply drive thedowel to within 1⁄8 in. of the plate andknock it out with the next dowel.

Fig. 191.—Cradle for PlaningDowels.

Fig. 192.—Dowel withGroove.

Fig. 193.—Sawing

Groove inDowel.

To plane off the corners a "cradle"(Fig. 191) is made and kept for thepurpose. The advantage of this cradle isobvious, preventing as it does anytendency of the partly-formed dowel toslip or wobble. A jig, or cradle, iseasily made by bevelling the edges oftwo separate pieces of wood and thenglueing and screwing them together asa t Fig. 191. A small block of wood isinserted to act as a stop whilst theplaning operation is in progress. It isusual to bevel both edges of the timberfrom which the cradle is formed, thusaccommodating all sizes of dowelsfrom 1⁄4 in. to 5⁄8 in. in diameter.

Fig. 194.—Pricking the Centresready for Boring. Also showing how

Brace is used in conjunction with TrySquare.

Fig. 192 shows a completed dowel witha small groove running along its entirelength. The object of this groove is toallow the air and superfluous glue toescape and thus avoid splitting thework on hand; the groove also secretesa certain amount of glue, whichincreases its hold on the timber.

Fig. 198 illustrates the method ofmarking out and gauging two boardsfor dowelling. The edges of the boardsare first shot to a true joint; then theface sides are placed together and thelines for the dowels are marked acrossthe edges with a fine pencil and the aid

of a try square. The boards are thengauged from the face side, thus givingthe points indicated in the sketch.

Fig. 195.—Countersink.

Fig. 196.—Dowel Rounder.

Fig. 197.—Twist Bit.

To start the twist bit (Fig. 197) it is agood plan to prick the board at thepoint of intersection of the marked

lines with a sharp, circular-pointedmarking awl. This obviates anytendency of the boring bit to run out oftruth and thus cause unevenness on theface side of the jointed board. (See Fig.194.)

A safe rule for the spacing of dowelswhen jointing sideboard tops, dressingtable and wardrobe ends, etc., is toplace the dowels 9 ins. to 10 ins. apart,and place two dowels at each end asshown at Fig. 198. The length of thedowels should be about 7⁄8 in. to 11⁄4 in.long.

Fig. 199 shows the two boards preparedready for glueing. The back one isbored to receive the dowels, and the

front one shows the dowels glued inposition. It is customary to warm theedges of the boards before spreadingthe glue, and cramps are required tosqueeze the joint tight. These should beleft on the jointed board from one tofour hours according to the state of theweather. In cases where thick timber(say 2-in. or 21⁄2-in. boards) is to bejointed, two rows of dowels may beused, the position of the dowels beingas Fig. 200.

Fig. 198.—Marking and GaugingBoards for Dowelling.

Fig. 199.—Dowelled Joint ready forGlueing.

Fig. 201 shows the plan of a 3-in.

cornice pole made to fit a bay window;the straight portions of the pole aregenerally turned in the lathe, the cornerportions being afterwards jointed andworked up to the required shape. Toavoid any difficulty in the setting outof the dowels, a disc of cardboard orsheet metal is made to the samediameter as that of the cornice pole;this disc is called a template. Thepositions of the dowels are set outgeometrically, and the centres arepricked through with a fine-pointedmarking awl (see sketch of template, a,Fig. 201). The template is put on theends of the straight pole, and the dowelcentres are pricked into the wood. Theprocess is repeated on the ends of the

corner block (b, Fig. 201), and if theholes be now bored at the centresindicated a true fit will be obtained.

Fig. 200.—Method ofDowelling

Thick Timber.

Fig. 201.—Method ofDowelling CornicePole by Means of

Template.

Fig. 201 c shows two portions of thecircular pole jointed up to a corner

block, and the dotted lines P indicatethe direct line of pressure and showsthe position for the cramp. When theglue is thoroughly set the corner blockis sawn and spokeshaved to the desiredshape as shown by the dotted line. Thismethod is illustrated to show that, bythe use of a suitable template, dowelsmay be exactly set out even when thereis no straight or square face fromwhich to use a marking gauge, and themethod may, of course, be applied tomany other examples of dowelling atthe discretion of the workman.

Fig. 202.—Dowelling a MitredFrame.

Fig.

Fig. 204.—Table Leaf with Dowels.

205.—

Blockfor

TwistBit.

Fig. 202 shows one corner of a mitredand dowelled frame. It needs little orno explanation beyond the fact that thedowels should be at right angles to theline of joint, and consequently the

dowel at the outside edge of the framewill have to be much shorter than theothers. This gives a strong andserviceable joint, suitable for manypurposes.

Frame Dowelling.—Fig. 203 showsone corner of a frame with long andshort shoulders, such as occurs whenthe upright is rebated through its entirelength. The holes in both pieces arebored for the dowels before they arerebated. This avoids any difficulty inendeavouring to bore with only oneside of the twist bit in the wood. Asimilar type of joint is used on nearlyall kinds of glass and door frames incabinet work.

Fig. 204 is a leaf for the screw type oftable. Circular dowels are shown at oneend, and rectangular wooden pegs atthe other; both methods are equallygood, and, of course, the dowels areonly glued into one leaf. The object ofthese dowels is to guide the table leafinto its proper position when the leafengages the table proper, and to makethe flat surface of the table top and leafregister correctly and thus ensure alevel surface.

Fig. 205 is a wooden block made in twoportions and held together by screws; itis used to fasten around a twist bit, theobject being to ensure that all thedowel holes are of uniform depth. Itmay be adjusted as desired and firmly

screwed round the twist bit; if the holeis made 1⁄4 in. in diameter it will clipround a 1⁄4-in. or 3⁄8-in. bit and willanswer a dual purpose. It is apreventative for bad dowelling.

Fig. 206 is an example of dowellingframing when the moulding on theedge has to be mitred. It is necessary tocut the shoulders away so as to allowthe members of the moulding tointersect. The section of the mould isnot shown in the sketch for clearness ofrepresentation. The portion marked His called the "horn," and it is not cut offuntil after the frame is glued up; itsobject is to prevent the rail splitting orbursting when knocking up the frameor during the cramping process.

Fig. 207 shows the method ofdowelling a moulded cap to the top of awooden bedstead post or similar pillarwhere it is desired to avoid anyunsightliness.

Fig. 208 is a dining-table leg andportion of the framing, showing themethod of dowelling the frame to theleg. Chairs, couch frames, etc., aremade in a similar manner.

Fig. 209 shows the top portion of atable leg and a home-made dowelgauge. The gauge is made of anyhardwood, and steel wire pins aredriven through at the required positionsand sharpened similar to the spur of amarking gauge. The legs are sawn and

planed up true and square, and theadvantage of the gauge is that all legsare marked exactly alike and aretherefore interchangeable until gluedup. A gauge of this type is easily andquickly made and may be kept for itsspecific purpose or altered for otherwork.

Fig. 210 indicates the Queen Anne typeof leg, a sketch of same broken belowthe knee also being given. Here wehave another type of irregular settingout, which is accomplished in thefollowing manner. Saw and plane thebroken portion of the leg true asshown; take the timber which is to bejointed and treat it in a similar manner;now place four ordinary pins on the

lower portion. Carefully place the topportion to the required position andsmartly give it one tap with thehammer; this will cause the pin-headsto leave indentations, and if these betaken as centres for boring, accuratework will result. The new portion ofthe leg is afterwards sawn and wroughtto the desired shape.

This is an example of work where it isnext to impossible to use a gauge, andas only one joint is required it is notworth the time taken to make atemplate.

Fig. 208.—Dowelling aDining-Table Leg.

Fig. 209.—Dowel

Gauge forLegs.

Fig. 210.—Dowelling a Cabriole Leg.

The tools used in dowelling are: Brace,countersink, dowel-rounder, twist bit,try-square, marking-awl, and the usualbench tools. The first four areillustrated at Figs. 194, 195, 196 and197 respectively.

The method of working is: Plane up,mark out, bore holes, countersink, gluedowels and complete joints.

THE SCARF JOINT

The method known as "scarfing" isused for the joining of timber in thedirection of its length, enabling theworkman to produce a joint with asmooth or flush appearance on all itsfaces. One of the simplest forms ofscarfed joint is known as the half lap,in which a portion is cut out at the endof each beam or joist, equal in depth tohalf the full depth of the beam, and ofequal length to the required scarf.

The two pieces before they are placedtogether form a joint as shown at Fig.

211, the projecting part (A) fitting intothe recessed portion marked B and thetwo pieces being secured in theirrespective positions by screws.

Fig. 212 shows a dovetailed scarf joint.This is a variation of Fig. 211, thelength of the dovetail lap being from 6ins. to 8 ins. in length.

Fig. 213 is an illustration of a jointdesigned to resist a cross strain. Theface side is left flush, whilst theunderside is assisted by an iron plate.The joint is secured with nuts, bolts,and washers. This type of joint isfrequently used for joining purlins inroof work; the iron plate on theunderside is in this case omitted.

Fig. 214 is designed to resist bothtension and compression and is anexcellent joint for all purposes. Thejoint is brought together by usingfolding wedges as shown in the centre.

Fig. 211.—Half-Lap Scarf Joint forLight Timber.

Fig. 212.—Dovetailed Scarf Joint.

Fig. 213.—Plated Scarf Joint Used inRoof Work.

Fig. 215 is a variation of Fig. 214, andit will be noticed that tenons areprovided on the face and underside toresist cross strain. Probably this is oneof the best varieties of the scarfedjoint. Unfortunately, however, its

production is somewhat costly, and thismay be the reason that it is not moreuniversally used. Folding wedges areused to secure the two pieces inposition.

Fig. 214.—Tenoned Scarf Joint.

Fig. 215.—Double Tenoned ScarfJoint.

Fig. 216.—Scarf Joint with Vee'dends.

Fig. 216 is a scarfed joint withundercut vee'd ends which prevent thejoint from lipping up or down orsideways. It is a useful joint, calling forcareful setting out and accuratecraftsmanship. Folding wedges areused in this case to draw up and securethe joint.

Fig. 217 is a "fished joint," and thefollowing difference between a scarfedand fished joint should be noted. A

fished joint need not necessarily reducethe total length of the beams to bejoined, and fish plates of wood or iron(or a combination of both) are fastenedat each side of the joint. In a scarf jointall surfaces are flush. In Fig. 217 thebeams are butt-jointed and secured bywooden plates and iron bolts. Theupper plate is let into each beam, andthe lower plate is provided with twowooden keys to prevent the beamssliding (or "creeping") upon the lowerplate. Iron nuts, bolts, and washers areused to complete the joint.

Fig. 217.—Fished Joint.

In the case of the scarfed joint at Fig.218 (used for purlins) the length of thescarf is usually made about four timesthat of the depth of tie beam. It has twohardwood keys which force the piecestogether and thus tighten the joint.

Fig. 218.—Detail of Scarfed Joint inPurlins.

The methods of scarfing and fish-jointing are many and varied, and, inselecting a joint, the nature of thepieces to be joined and the directionand the amount of the load should becarefully taken into consideration.

The above joints come under theheading of carpentry, and the ordinarytools such as the saw, plane, boring-bitand chisels are all that are requisite andnecessary to produce a sound andserviceable joint. Scarfed joints aregenerally of large size, and they areusually made by placing the work uponsawing trestles owing to the benchbeing too small to accommodate thelarge timbers.

Fig. 219.—Example of Tabled Jointwith Straps.

Fig. 220.—Lapped Scarf Joint withBolts for Heavy Timber.

Fig. 219 is a tabled scarf joint whichadmirably resists tension andcompression. It is very easy to makeand fit, and is not materially affectedby shrinkage. The rectangular wrought

iron straps are knocked up over thejoint after the two pieces engage. Thelength of the joint should beapproximately five times its thickness.

Fig. 220 is an example of a lappedscarf joint which is secured with nutsand bolts. It effectively resistscompressional stress in vertical postsand it may, if required, be strengthenedby the addition of wrought iron fishplates. It is quite a serviceable joint forall general purposes, such as shed orgarage building where fairly heavytimbers are used.

THE HINGED JOINT

One of the most common forms ofhinged joint in use to-day is thatformed by using the "butt" hinge, andmany troubles experienced by theamateur, such as "hinge-bound," "stop-bound," and "screw-bound" doors, etc.,are due to a lack of knowledge of theprinciples of hingeing. Hinges call forcareful gauging and accurate fitting,otherwise trouble is certain to occur.

A "Bound" door or box lid is said tobe hinge-bound when the recess whichcontains the hinge is cut too deep. The

frame and the body portion engage tootightly when closed, the result beingthat the door has always a tendency toopen a little. This fault may be in manycases remedied by packing behind thehinge with one or two thicknesses ofgood stiff brown paper. For packingpurposes such as this paper will befound to be of much more value thanthin strips of wood or knife-cut veneer,the latter always having a greattendency to split when a screw orbradawl is inserted.

A stop-bound door is the name appliedwhen the door is not finished to exactlythe same thickness as originallyintended. This causes the door to bindon the stops at the back, as shown at

Fig. 221. The difficulty may beremedied by thinning the door a littleat the back, or slightly rounding awaythe portion which binds.

Screw-bound is a common fault oftenoverlooked by the amateur. It is causedby using screws of which the heads aretoo large for the countersunk holes inthe hinge, and may be avoided byslightly sinking the holes in thebrasswork with a countersink or rose-bit.

Fig. 221.—Stop-bound Door.

Fig. 222.—ButtHinge.

Fig. 223.—Gauging.

Fig. 224.—Marking forRecess.

Fig. 225.—

Sawingfor theRecess.

Alignment.—Another fault that isfairly common is having the axes of the

hinges out of alignment. Especially isthis the case when three hinges areused to hang a wardrobe or other largedoor. It is absolutely necessary in allcases that the exact centres of thepivot-pins of the hinges should be in astraight line.

Particular attention to alignment isnecessary when the body and the doorframe are shaped on the face side. Afamiliar example that every reader mayinspect for himself is the curved side ofa railway carriage body and railwaycarriage door, where he will notice thata specially wide hinge has to be used atthe bottom of the door to give thenecessary alignment. Hinges fixed onwork with their centres out of truth are

often overlooked by the inexperiencedworker, and this is a frequent cause ofcreaking.

Gauging.—Fig. 222 is a sketch of abrass butt hinge, open. Fig. 223illustrates a similar hinge closed, andshows the gauge set so that the point ofthe marker is exactly to the centre ofthe pivot-pin. This distance we will callC. Now turn to Fig. 224. The distance Chas been gauged from the face side ofthe frame. The gauge is then set to thethickness of the hinge at its thickestportion, and to prevent "hinge-bind"see that the gauge is set on the fineside. Remember that the tapered pointof the steel spur or marking awl willpart the fibres of the timber a little

more than the fine point, and give youa wider gauge line than was anticipatedwhen you set the gauge. Theinexperienced worker nearly alwaysoverlooks this. The result is a hinge-bound door, the cause of which is notdiscovered by the worker because he isso sure that he has set the gaugecorrectly. The distance B, Fig. 226,shows the line gauged for the thicknessof the hinge.

Position of Hinges.—Anotherdifficulty to the beginner is theposition for his hinges, and it may herebe stated that the general rule is tocarry a line across the face of the workfrom the inside of the cross rail andplace the hinge at E, as Fig. 224.

Fig. 226.—Tool Operation whenParing Out the Hinge Recess in the

Door.

Sawing for the Recess.—Aftermarking out for the hinge, as shown atFig. 224, take a fine-toothed saw (adovetail saw is considered the best) andsaw down as shown at Fig. 225, care

being taken not to cut beyond the gaugelines. In this sketch three intermediatesaw kerfs are shown, but if the hinge isof great length, say 5 or 6 ins., theremoval of the waste wood will begreatly facilitated by the addition ofmore intermediate saw kerfs. Thesecuts sever the cross fibres and allowthe timber to be easily pared away inshort lengths.

I n Fig. 226 we see the tool operationwhen paring out the hinge recess. Atthe left of the drawing the recess isshown marked. Take a 3⁄4 in. chisel and,using it as a knife (see A), deepen thegauge lines. Then stab the chiseldownwards, as at B, to deepen the endlines. Next, take the chisel and pare

away the back of the recess as at C. Thework may then be completed by paringneatly till the bottom of the recess isflat.

Fig. 227. Fig. 228.

The Hingeing of a Box Lid.

Stopped Hinged Joints for BoxWork.—Fig. 227 is a section through a

small box similar to a lady's work-box(the back of the box in the illustrationis enlarged in thickness to clearly showthe position of the hinge). In this casethe knuckle of the hinge is let into thewoodwork until it is flush with theback of the box, and the gauge wouldhave to be set to the total width of thehinge. The back edges of the lid and theback edge of the lower portion of thebox are planed away at an angle of 45degrees as indicated by the dottedlines.

Fig. 228 shows the same box with thelid open, and it will be observed thatthe chamfered edges come together andform a stop which prevents the lidfalling backwards and breaking the

box. This method of letting-in theknuckle flush is a useful one for boxwork because the ordinary stock brassbutt hinge can be used. Attention may,however, be called to the "stopped butt-hinge," which is specially made toanswer the above purpose; in its actiona similar mechanical principle as theone applied to the box is used.

Fig. 229.—Strap Hinge.

Fig. 230.—

Reversibleor

Double-foldingScreenHinge.

Fig. 231.—Pivot Hingefor Screens.

Fig. 232.—Non-reversible Screen

Hinge.

Types of Hinges.—Fig. 229 is an

elongated variety of the butt hinge,known in the trade as "strap hinge,""desk hinge," or "bagatelle hinge." Asits name indicates, it is used on foldingbagatelle tables, small writing desks,and other types of work that have but anarrow margin on which to fix thehinges. The long, narrow plates aresunk flush into the wood, the knuckleor rounded portion projecting.

Fig. 233.—Back FlapHinge.

Fig. 234.—Card Table

Hinge.

Fig. 235.—PivotHinge.

Fig. 236.—RisingButt Hinge.

Fig. 230 is an illustration of thereversible or double-folding screenhinge. Half the thickness of this hingeis let into each wing of the draughtscreen, allowing the screen to be foldedeither way. The hinge is costly, but

effective in use.

Fig. 231 is a type of pivot hinge whichis used to fix at the top and bottom of ascreen.

Fig. 232 is the non-reversible screenhinge and, as its name implies, willonly fold in one direction.

Fig. 233 is a back flap hinge with aspecially wide wing, used for the fall-down leaf of small tables and similararticles.

Fig. 234 is a card table hinge. This islet into the edges of the table, so thatall is flush or level both above andbelow the surface.

Centre or Pivot Hinges.—Fig. 235 is acentre or pivot hinge, used on the topand bottom of wardrobe doors, moreparticularly the interior door of a three-winged wardrobe where the method offixing is confined to the cornice andplinth. The flange carrying the pins orpivot is let into the top and bottom ofthe door, the remaining flange being letinto the cornice and plinth respectively.

Rising Butt Hinges.—Fig. 236 is therising butt hinge, used on dining anddrawing-room doors, so that when thedoor is opened the door risessufficiently to clear the thickness of thecarpet. This hinge has also anadvantage over the ordinary butt hingein that it is self-closing, i.e., the weight

of the door plus the bevel on the hingejoint causes the door to close. Band andhook hinges and other ordinaryvarieties are too well known to requireillustrating.

Acute Angle Hingeing.—Fig. 237 is asectional plan of a corner cupboardshowing a good method of hingeing thedoor. The inset a shows an enlargedview of the corner carrying the hinge,also the adaptor piece c, which is fittedto the inside edge of the cupboard sothat the hinged edges are at 90 degreesto the face. This is a far better andstronger method than that shown at b,which is often attempted withdisastrous results. The incorrectmethod b allows insufficient wood for

fixing purposes, and in nearly all casesthe thin edge of the door breaks awayduring the making and fitting, or soonafter completion. The adaptor piecemay have a face mould worked upon itto give a pilaster-like appearance iffancy so dictates.

Fig. 237.—Hingeing Door of CornerCupboard.

Fig. 238.—Inside Hingeing: Methodof Letting Butt Hinge into Door

Frame and Carcase.

Inside Hingeing.—When a door isbeing hung inside the carcase (that is,not hinged over the ends) it ispermissible, in the case of light work,to let the whole thickness of the hingeinto the door; and when screwing thedoor to the carcase it is usual to fix the

knuckle of the hinge flush with the faceof the carcase, thus allowing the doorframe to stand back, making a break ofabout 1⁄8 in. with the face. The markinggauge should be set to the full width ofthe hinge; the mark, gauged on theinside of the carcase end, thus forms aline to guide the worker whilst fixingthe door. To successfully fix a door itgenerally requires two persons, one tohold the door in position, whilst theother bores the holes and fixes thescrews.

Fig. 239.—Showing Top and Bottomof Carcase Cut Back to allow Door to

Close.

Fig. 240.—Outside

Hingeing.

Fig. 241.—Section.

Fig. 238 shows the correct method offitting butt hinges on high-class work.One wing of the hinge is let into the

door, and the other wing is let into thecarcase or door jamb, thus distributinga proportion of the weight to thecarcase end instead of allowing thewhole of the weight to be carried by thescrews as would be the case in a, Fig.237. The method of sinking eachportion of the hinge into the door andcarcase respectively is costly; hence itis not the general practice in cheapwork. In Fig. 239 the top and bottom ofcarcase (T and B) are shown set back toallow the door to close.

Outside Hingeing.—Fig. 240illustrates the portion of a door frameand carcase end when the door is hungon the face of the carcase. The correctmethod of letting in the hinge is shown

in the enlarged section (Fig. 241), but,as previously mentioned, the hingemay have its entire thickness let intothe door frame where it is of a lightcharacter. The door frame projectsslightly over the carcase end, andoccasionally a bead mould is workedon the edge of the door so as to give afinish and partly hide the joint. Thebead would, of course, be the same sizeas the diameter of the knuckle of thehinge; and the knuckle, therefore, willform a continuation of the bead andgive a workmanshiplike finish.

Fall Fronts.—Fig. 242 is a sectionalview of a fall front writing bureaufitted with centre or pivot hinges andarranged so that the edges form a stop

when the desk front is turned to ahorizontal position. The position forthe fitting of the brass plates carryingthe pivot-pin is somewhat awkward;but, by first sinking the plates into thecarcase ends, and then slotting theedges of the fall, it will be found thatthe fall front may be put in from itshorizontal position, and that sufficientroom is left to enable the screwdriverto be manipulated withoutinconvenience.

Fig. 242.—Fall Front of WritingBureau.

Fig. 243.—Revolving Fly Rail forTable. See Pivoted Fly or Front Rail.

Fly Rail.—Fig. 243 is a sketch of asmall table with the top removed. Arevolving fly rail is shown pivotedupon a piece of 1⁄4-in. wire. The objectof this fly rail is to form a support tothe small hinged drop-leaf of the table.This method is suitable for smalloccasional tables and similar articles.

Draught Screens.—Fig. 244 illustratesthe end elevation and plan of a draughtscreen which is constructed of a lightframework and covered with baize or

American cloth. The reversible double-folding hinge (Fig. 230) would answeradmirably for such a screen. Casesoccur, however, where it is desired tohinge a screen to be used for aninvalid's bedside, and it is thenimportant that all draught should beexcluded through the jointed edges.The double reversible hinge will notfulfil these conditions, and thefollowing method is therefore adopted.

In the plan, Fig. 244, A and B, twolaths of hardwood (beech, birch ormahogany answer splendidly) areshown. They are made the same lengthand the same width as the edges of thescreen, the corners being slightlyrounded away.

A double-folding, draught-proof hingeis then made as follows: Procure goodfine webbing, about 11⁄4 in. wide, andthe necessary large-headed tacks. Laythe laths side by side as shown in Fig.244, and proceed to web them asshown. Commence with the web underthe lath A; bring it between the lathsand over B; now take it round the left-hand edge of B, and round the back andbetween the laths and over A,continuing this method of wrapping thelaths until the lower end is reached, andthen fastening the webbing as indicatedby the dotted lines which represent thetacks. This self-contained hinge is thenfixed to the edges of the screen byboring suitable holes through the laths

and using countersunk screws. This is acheap and efficient method ofovercoming the difficulty. A similarmethod is used for the householdclothes horse.

Fig. 245.—Finger Joint Hinge.

Fig. 246.—The Knuckle Joint Hinge.

Finger Joint Hinge.—Fig. 245 is afinger joint—a movable interlockingjoint used to support the leaf of aPembroke table. The small portion isscrewed to the table rail and the shapedbracket swings out to support the dropleaf. The shaded portion of the bracket

shows the timber chamfered away sothat the fingers may be easily putbehind the bracket to manipulate it.Note that the corners are slightlyrounded off, as indicated by the blackportion of the sketch, and that themortises are cut about 1⁄4 in. deeperthan the thickness of the timber used.This joint has now been almostsuperseded by a cheap stampedgalvanised iron bracket of exactly thesame pattern. The joint, however, isstill used for repair work and in caseswhere a stamped metal bracket has notsufficient overhang.

Fig. 247.—Open Joint Hingeing.

Knuckle Joint Hinge.—Fig. 246 is asimilar type of joint to the above, andis called the knuckle joint. Thisarrangement of hingeing allows thetable leg to swing in an angle of 180degrees and is much neater in itsappearance. It is often used to connecta movable table leg to the framing,

where it is necessary for the table legand rail to swing outwards and supporta drop leaf. The pivot is formed by apiece of 1⁄8-in. or 1⁄4-in. round iron rodrunning through the centre of the joint.

Fig. 248.—Clearing the ArchitraveMould.

Open Joint Hingeing.—The next threeillustrations apply more particularly to

the hanging of the ordinary householddoor.

Fig. 247 is termed "open jointhanging," from the fact that when thedoor is open a certain amount of openspace exists between the edge of thedoor and the doorpost. This open spacevaries according to the position inwhich the butt hinge is fixed. A sectionis shown at which the pin of the hingeis let in level with the face of the door.This will allow the door to open asshown by the dotted line, and it will notclear the architrave moulding.

Fig. 249.—Close Joint Hingeing.

Fig. 248 indicates the position of thehinge fixed so as to allow the door toopen and lay flat back to the architravemoulding. In this instance the butts aremade with wider wings, and they aregenerally provided to take three screws( s e e Fig. 233, right-hand wing ofhinge).

To determine the position of the centre

pin of the hinge the following rule isobserved. The centre of the pivot pin ofthe hinge must be half the distancebetween the face of the door, whenclosed, and the outside of thearchitrave moulding.

Close Joint Hanging.—The methodknown as "close joint hanging" ensuresthe joint at the hanging stile being inclose proximity to the hanging rail; thisis shown at Fig. 249. The first memberof the architrave moulding is generallya bead of the same diameter as theknuckle of the hinge. The butt hinge islet in as shown in the illustration, andthe door when opened forms a close-fitting joint.

Fig. 250.—Rule Joint Hinge, withLeaf Open.

The Rule Joint Hinge is used toconnect the top and the drop leaf of atable in cases where continuity ofdesign is desired, so that the edge ofthe top and the leaf will show an ovolomoulding when the table is either openor closed. To the inexperienced workerit presents several difficulties and, if itis a first effort, it is advisable to try outa sample joint on a couple of oddpieces of timber.

Fig. 250 illustrates the joint when theleaf is opened or in a horizontalposition. At Fig. 252 we have the jointwhen the leaf is let down to a verticalposition. It should be observed in thelatter figure that the edge A of the dropleaf is in alignment with the axis of thehinge. Steel or brass back-flap hinges(Fig. 233) are generally used and theyare sunk into the table as suggested.

Set out the work full size as at Fig. 251,and mark point 1, which is to be theposition of the joint. Draw 1, 2, at rightangles to the table top. Mark point 3 onthe vertical line for the centre of thehinge, and mark point 4 approximatelyas shown.

Fig. 251.—Setting Outfor Rule Joint Hinge.

Fig. 252.—The RuleJoint with

Leaf Down.

With compass point on 3 and radius 3to 4, describe an arc 4 to 5. This givesus the true joint line (1, 4, 5). Thedistance 0 to 3 is usually determined bythe hinge. The knuckle of the back flaphinge is always let into the under sideof the wood and the further it is

inserted into the wood the more thejoint will overlap at A (Fig. 252) whichshows the joint when the flap or leaf isdown.

SHUTTING JOINTS

This chapter deals with the joint madeby the upright rail of a door framewhich carries the lock, or handle,generally called the "slamming stile."Many and varied are the methods usedto make a draught and air-tight joint atthe meeting of the slamming stile andthe carcase end, and our sketchesillustrate some of the simplest and alsosome of the best and most expensivemethods.

Fig. 253.—Shutting Stileof Cupboard Door.

Fig. 254.—Showing

CupboardEnd

Thicknessed(see B).

Fig. 255.—Dust-proof CupboardDoor.

Fig. 253 is a part plan of the end of asimple cupboard of which the carcaseend is all of one thickness (i.e., not

lined up in thickness). A small strip ofwood (A) is glued and screwed on theend to form a stop to the door and toprevent the access of dust to theinterior of the cupboard.

Fig. 254 illustrates a similar method;the stop (C) is seen, as in the previousillustration, but it will be noticed alsothat the carcase end in this case is linedup (see B) to give a pilaster-likeappearance to the end, and themoulding is selected on account of itssuitability to hide the joint of the liningpiece.

Fig. 255 is of a more intricate type, andis often used on jewellers' showcases.The end at the right hand is slightly

rebated to receive the frame, and boththe rail and the end are grooved with aplough plane. A separate bead is madeand glued into the groove of the doorframe (D), engaging the groove in thecarcase end when the door is closed.The shutting stile and the end areworked with a hook joint (E), and ifcarefully made they are practicallydust-tight.

Fig. 256.—Meeting Stiles withrebated Astragal.

Fig. 258.—Door

Fig. 257.—Door Rebatedfor Astragal.

withBrass

Astragal.

Fig. 256 shows the meeting of twodoors which open outwards, a separatepiece of timber being made to form arebated astragal mould (F) and glued tothe right-hand door. This method givesa neat and effective finish.

Fig. 257 is similar to the above, withthe exception that the rail of the door isrebated (G) to receive the astragalmoulding. This method is preferred onthe best class of work, because it showsno unsightly joint at the inside of thedoor frame.

Fig. 258 illustrates the type of jointmade by using a brass astragal mould(H) as employed on high-class work,frequently seen on French furniture ofthe Louis periods. In Fig. 259 is showna piece of brass astragal moulding,which may be procured from anycabinetmaker's ironmonger in suitablelengths. It is fixed in position byslightly rebating the edge of the doorand fastening with ordinarycountersunk brass screws.

Fig. 259.—Brass

Astragal.

Fig. 260.—CurvedCupboard Doors with

Rebated Meeting Joint.

Fig. 262.—

MeetingJoint

Fig. 261.—RebatedMeeting Joint.

withapplied

Astragal.

Fig. 260 is a rebated joint, broken atthe front by a bead moulding. Theillustration shows its application to acircular-fronted cupboard, and it willbe noticed that the hinged rails arereceived in a rebate which is worked onthe carcase ends. The rebated joint atthe centre of the two doors is workedslightly on the bevel, so as to allow forclearance when opening the door.

Two of the commonest meeting jointsof doors are seen in Figs. 261 and 262.In the former case the stiles are rebated

(as already shown in Fig. 260), whilstat Fig. 262 an astragal bead is glued tothe right-hand stile. In Fig. 261 a beadis worked on the right-hand stile tomask the joint.

Fig. 263 is the hook joint used on good-class joinery and cabinet work. A pairof special wood planes are required tomake the joint in a cheap and efficientmanner. The cost of a pair of 5⁄8-in.hook joint planes is from 6s. to 8s.They are of similar size and generalappearance to the ordinary ovolomoulding plane.

Fig. 263.—The Hook Joint.

Fig. 264.—Hook Joint with looseTongues.

Fig. 265.—Rebated Joint withTongue Slip.

Fig. 264 is a special type of hook jointas used on larger work. The joint maybe made by using the plough plane, therebate plane and a suitably-sized beadplane, the loose tongues being insertedas shown and fastened by screws andglue.

Fig. 265 is a rebated joint with loosetongue-slip and astragal mould,

suitable for frames over 11⁄4 in. inthickness. The loose tongue-slip isglued into the right-hand door frame.

Fig. 266 shows a shutting joint used toprevent permeation of dust to theinterior of a drawer. The drawer frontis grooved and engages a suitably-formed slip which is screwed to thebearer as indicated in the illustration.Occasionally some difficulty isexperienced when fitting the slip to anarrow drawer, but this can always beovercome by putting in the screwsfrom the top of the bearer instead offrom underneath.

Fig. 266.—Dust-proof Drawer,showing the Front grooved to engagea Slip which is screwed to the Bearer

Rail.

Shutting joints which are required to be"light-tight," such as those used inphotographic work, are generallyformed by slightly grooving the frameand inserting a strip of black velvet.The friction of the high pile of thevelvet prevents the filtration of light

through the joint.

When making air-tight showcases, oneof the best and simplest tests is to placea lighted candle in the case and closeall the doors; if the candle goes outwithin three minutes you haveaccomplished your object.

THE DOVETAILJOINT

Nothing definite is known as to theorigin of dovetailing, but a quaint andpleasing little story which is well worthrepeating runs as follows: A farmer hadcalled in the local "joyner" to dosundry repairs at the homestead. Oneday, whilst enjoying a humble meal, hesat watching some doves as theyhopped about the yard. Struck by themovement of their wedge-shaped tails,it occurred to him to joint his timber bythe interlocking method; hence we

have dovetails.

Fig. 267.—ASingle

ThroughDovetail.

Fig. 268.—ThroughDovetails on Carcase

Work (P, Pins; T,Tails).

Through Dovetailing.—One of the

simplest forms of the dovetail joint isshown in Fig. 267, where two pieces oftimber are joined by the method knownas "through" dovetailing. This methodis used in everyday practice for joiningthe corners of frames, bracket trusses,and a hundred and one other articles.

Figs. 268 and 269 show the method ofthrough dovetailing as applied to themaking of boxes, plinths, and generalcarcase work; it is used in positionswhere no objection can be taken to theend grain showing on each side of thefinished work. In the case of plinthsand furniture cornices the foundationframe is made of yellow pine or othercheap wood, and the more expensiveand rare timbers are glued and mitred

around in various thicknesses andshapes, thus saving the more costlymaterial and strengthening theconstruction by the method known aslaminating. In many cases all that isnecessary is to veneer the face sides,thus covering and hiding anyunsightliness.

Fig. 269.—Dovetails for

Fig. 270.—Lap-

dovetailingfor

Drawers.

Boxes, etc.

Lap-dovetailing.—Fig. 270 is anexample of lap-dovetailing, such as isused where a drawer side joins with thedrawer front. It is not permissible toallow the end grain of the timber toshow at the front of a drawer, and thisis why resort is had to the lap-dovetail.As the most general use of the dovetailis for this and similar purposes, weshall therefore deal fully with themethods of marking out and themaking of this class of joint.

Angles.—A most important point inthe construction of a dovetail is toavoid having the angles of the pins and

tails too acute. An inclination of one ineight is considered correct; no hard andfast rule need be obeyed, but thevariation should on no account be lessthan one in six.

Fig. 272.—Squaringand use ofTemplate.

Fig. 271.—Howto obtain

Correct Anglesfor DovetailTemplate.

Fig. 271 shows a simple method toobtain the correct angle. Take a pieceof timber and plane up the face edge(A, B) true and straight; mark out a line(C, D) at right angles to the face edgeand space off 8 ins. as shown; nowmeasure a distance of 1 in. (D, E), andjoin E to point eight. This will give thecorrect angle for the dovetails, and itmay then be transferred to the joiners'

bevel. Many workers who areconstantly on dovetail work make azinc template to the exact angle andkeep it specially for the purpose (Fig.272).

Squaring.—Another important point toremember is that the drawer sides mustbe true and squared to an exact lengthand planed up to thickness; otherwisethe finished drawer will be in windingand out of truth.

To true and square the ends of drawersides, drawer backs and drawer front, amost useful little machine is the mitretrimmer; failing this, excellent resultscan be obtained by using the shootingboard.

Fig. 273.——Method of Markingwith Cutting Gauge.

Gauging.—After squaring up thetimber accurate gauging of the ends isanother important point. The gaugeused should be a cutting gauge, so thatthe line is incised about 1⁄32 in. indepth, thus effectually cutting the crossfibres of the timber.

Fig. 273 shows the method of using thecutting gauge. The stock of the gaugemust be held well up to the end of thetimber. The gauge is a most difficulttool for the novice to use, and histrouble is generally caused by holdingit too flat. Tilt the gauge a little so thatthe thumbscrew shown in theillustration goes nearer to the floor; theblade will then not bite so keenly, andbetter results will be obtained. Thedotted lines indicate the positionswhich the dovetails will occupy whenmarked out.

The gauge is set a trifle less than thethickness of the drawer sides to allowfor the thickness of the steel cutter, anda gauge line is marked on the inside of

the front and all round the drawer back.The gauge is now readjusted so as toleave a 1⁄4-in. lap on the front, and aline marked on the ends of the frontand all round the ends of the sideswhich will engage the drawer front. Aglance at Figs. 270 and 273 will makethis clear.

Fig. 274.——Removing the WasteWood.

The dovetail pins on drawer part andback are spaced out and marked on theend with the aid of the joiners' bevel,the lines being then squared down to

the gauge line by the method shown atFig. 272—that is, by using the try-square and marking awl.

The drawer front is now put into thebench vice, and the pins are cut asindicated in Fig. 274. The drawer backis treated in a similar manner, but ofcourse in this case it is not "lap" but"through" dovetailing, and the saw kerfgoes through the timber and down tothe gauge line.

Fig. 275.——Cutting away the HalfDovetails.

We now come to the point where it isnecessary to remove the superfluousmaterial. Fig. 274 shows a methodcommonly adopted and known assawing out the waste; the saw is held at

an angle and part of the inside portionof the dovetail is cut away as shown.This is a good plan for the amateur,because it shows him at thecommencement of his chopping outwhich will be the pin and which thetail.

Fig. 276.—Showing the Vertical andHorizontal Chisel Operations in Lap-

dovetailing. A: The PreliminaryRoughing-out. B: Vertical Chiselling;note that the first stab should be justoutside the Gauge Line. C: Marking

the Horizontal Cut.

Fig. 276 (A) shows another method thatanswers well for soft woods such aspine, American whitewood and satinwalnut. The drawer front is laid flat onthe bench after it has been sawn, andwith a mallet and sharp chisel thecorner of the dovetail is knocked off asshown. This takes the bulk of thematerial away and the dovetail is thenpared out square in the usual way. Theillustration (Fig. 276) also shows howthe chisel is held for vertical paring (B)and for horizontal paring (C).

Fig. 277.—Roughing-outby Boring.

Fig. 278.—MarkingPins onDrawer

Side.

A third method is shown at Fig. 277.With hard, curly timbers, such astobacco mahogany and satinwood, it isa laborious process to carefully chopaway the timber in small pieces, and toovercome this difficulty we

occasionally see the workman take atwist-bit and bore a series of holes asshown. A great portion of the timbermay then be split away by inserting thechisel end-way into the grain, afterwhich it is pared to a finish.

As dovetailing is chiefly used fordrawer making, it will be of interest togive several illustrations of variationsof the joint and its uses.

Fig. 278 indicates the method ofmarking the position of the holes in thedrawer side. When the paring out of thedovetails is completed the drawer frontis turned over on to the side as shown,and the position of the recesses whichwill engage the pin portions are marked

with the marking awl as illustrated.

Fig. 279.—Marking by means ofSaw Blade.

280.—GaugeLines,Scores

Cuts.

Fig. 281.—Sawing theDrawer Side.

Fig. 282.——

Position ofChisel forCutting

Channel.

The completed drawer back is markedon the sides in an exactly similarmanner.

Another method of marking through

dovetails is shown at Fig 279. The sideis held in position on the end, and thedovetail saw is inserted and drawn outof the saw kerf, thus leaving the exactmark on the drawer-back.

Other workers prefer a pounce-baginstead of a saw. A pounce-bag consistsof a piece of fairly open woven muslinfilled with a mixture of French chalkand finely-powdered whiting; themuslin is tied up with a piece of thintwine like the mouth of a flour sack.All that is necessary is to place thetimber in position and bang the bag onthe top of the saw-cuts, when sufficientpowder will pass through the bag anddown the saw kerf to mark the exactpositions of the lines.

Sawing the Dovetails.—After markingout the pins on the drawer sides, weproceed with the next operation, that is,sawing the dovetails ready forchopping out the waste material. Thedrawer side is taken and firmly securedin the bench screw and sawn as at Fig.281; it is most important that the sawkerf is kept inside the line which hasbeen scratched by the marking awl. SeeFig. 280, where the dotted linerepresents the gauge line and theoutside lines indicate the scores of themarking awl. Failure to observe thiscondition will result in faultydovetailing, and it will also prove thenecessity for using a finely-toothed andthin-bladed dovetail saw.

To cut out the waste wood (or core),the usual procedure is to saw away thehalf-dovetails as at Fig. 275. With care,this can be accomplished with thedovetail saw, thus avoidingunnecessary labour and the use of theparing chisel.

After sawing, the drawer side is placedflat upon the bench, one end in contactwith the bench to prevent the drawerside from slipping away; a chisel(preferably bevelled edged) of suitablewidth is now taken and a small channelis cut as at A, Fig. 282. The method ofcutting this channel is shown in thesame illustration. The chisel-cut isstarted about 1⁄8 in. from the gauge line;the cut is made right up to the gauge

line, which (when gauging) was made1⁄32 in. deep so as to cut the cross fibresof the timber. A small piece of wastewood will therefore come away as at A.

The object of cutting this small channelis so that, when the chisel is heldvertically on the gauge line and struckwith the mallet, the chisel will have notendency to force its way backward andovershoot the gauge line. The waste orcore is now removed by holding thechisel approximately vertical andapplying sufficient power to drive ithalf-way through the timber. Thedrawer side is now turned over, theoperation repeated, and the core pushedout. Care must be exercised whilstcutting away the core to ensure the

chisel being held nearly perpendicular;if too much lead (or bevel) be given, afaulty and undercut dovetail will be theresult. Undercut dovetails prevent aproper grip of the glue; they give aweak joint, and often cause the face ofthe drawer side to be splintered whilstdriving up the joint. If it be necessaryto ease one or two shavings from offthe drawer side whilst fitting thecompleted drawer in the carcase, thejoint will show a greater gap as eachsucceeding shaving is removed.

In common work, especially in softtimbers, many workers allow the pinsof a drawer back to run through thesides about 1⁄16 in. and hammer downthe pins of the dovetail. This is called

"bishoping the dovetails," and isunnecessary if the work be properlymade and fitted.

An alternative method of dovetailing isthat of cutting the dovetails first, asshown at Fig. 283. Four or six drawersides are placed in the vice and thedovetails are sawn at one operation. Alittle lead (or bevel) from front to backis given whilst sawing, and if thismethod be used care must be taken tosee that the parts of the drawer sideswhich will be on the inside of thecompleted drawer are towards theworker, or the lead will be given to thedovetails in the wrong direction.

Fig. 283.—Cutting several Dovetailsat once.

After sawing the dovetails in thismanner the sides are placed in theirrespective positions on the drawerfronts or backs, and marked with apounce-bag or by using the saw-blademethod. The pins are then cut in theusual way, care being taken that the

saw kerf be on the outside of themarks, otherwise the pins will finishtoo slack to engage with the tails.

Frame Dovetails.—Fig. 284 is asketch of a constructional frame suchas is used for building up a cornice orplinth. At the joint marked A an edgebarefaced dovetail is shown. From theseparated sketches of the joint (B) itwill be seen that the dovetail can be puttogether either from the top or thebottom of the framing as all its edgesare parallel; glue is relied upon to holdit in position. The centre stretcher raila t Fig. 284 is similar, except that inthis case it is a complete dovetail inplace of a barefaced one.

Fig. 284.—Constructional Frame (asfor Plinth or Cornice) showing

application of the Dovetail Joint.

Some workers, when making either ofthe above joints, prefer to give a slightbevel to the dovetail, so that it drivestightly into the housing when puttogether.

A variation of this type of dovetail isfrequently used to joint internaluprights to the horizontal shelves of

writing desks, cabinets, and bookcases,etc. The dovetailed portion is parallelfor about three-fourths of its width; theremaining part is tapered towards thefront edge and notched away at the faceso as to conceal the method ofconstruction. An illustration of the topportion of a division 14 ins. wide isshown at Fig. 284, C. The other portionis of course dovetailed to fit it.

Blind Lap-Dovetailing.—At Fig. 285is shown a type of blind lap-dovetailing. This makes a good, soundjoint, but it has the disadvantage ofshowing a small portion of the timberof the front rail end-way of the grain.Joints of this kind are used forcornices, boxes, etc., and also for

painted furniture.

Fig. 285.—Blind Lap-Dovetailing.

Fig. 286.—

Housedand

MitredDovetail.

Housed and Mitred Dovetail.—Fig.

286 is another form of dovetail—commonly called a housed and mitredor rebated and mitred dovetail. In thisinstance we see that a small portion ismitred at top and bottom edges, andwhen used in plinth or cornice work, orfor making tea-caddies, etc., the edgesare (when completing the work)covered either with the moulding,which is planted on the cornice orplinth, or with the top and bottom ofthe box or tea-caddy.

The method of making a housed andmitred dovetail joint is seen in Fig.286. The ends to be joined are planedup true and square and then rebated asshown. The dotted lines indicate theportion which has been worked away.

The dovetails are now sawn and paredout in the usual way and the partdenoted by the arrow is afterwards cutaway with a chisel and finally finishedto a smooth surface with a rebateplane; the method of working is shownat Fig. 287, where the dovetail pins areseen with the waste portions cut away.

Fig. 287.—Working a Housed and

Mitred Dovetail Joint.

Fig. 287 also shows the method ofcutting away the mitred part. Atemporary piece of wood is planed to atrue mitre and placed underneath thedovetailed piece to form a template.Both pieces of the timber are nowsecured to the bench with a handscrewor cramp; the template A will form aguide for the chisel and rebate planeand allow a sharp edge or arris to beworked on the mitre.

A Secret Mitred Dovetail joint isillustrated at Fig. 288; it is used in allthe better class of cabinet and boxw o r k . Fig. 288 shows the piecesseparated; note the mitre at the top and

bottom edge.

Fig. 288.—Secret Mitre Dovetailing.

Fig. 289.—Dovetailed Keys for WideSurfaces.

Dovetail Keying.—Fig. 289 is amethod used to prevent wide boardssuch as signboards, wide and shapedpediments, etc., from casting orwarping. It is called dovetail keying.Beyond calling attention to the fact thatthe angles at the edges of the keys,

where they are bevelled, should be at orabout 75 degrees, nothing further needbe said, as the drawing is self-explanatory. Angle dovetail keying isshown at Figs. 290 and 291.

Fig.290.—

DovetailKey.

Fig. 291.—Dovetail Keyingon the Angle.

Fig. 292.—Bow-fronted DoorDovetailed Edgeways.

Other Varieties.—At Fig. 292 we havean everyday method of jointingcircular-fronted cabinet door frames.Great care must be taken in setting outand making, or a twisted frame willresult.

Then at Fig. 293 are shown twofamiliar examples of dovetailing thebearer to the carcase end of a dressingtable or washstand.

Fig. 294.—Lap-dovetailing the top of awardrobe to the carcase end. Otherexamples, such as the top of a bookcaseto the sides, will suggest themselves.

Fig. 295.—Side view of a jewel drawerwith a moulded drawer front as used ondressing tables, etc. This shows thenecessity of bevelled dovetailing inorder that the drawer front may be keptas thin and light as possible.

Fig. 293.—Carcase Work, showingBearer Rails Dovetailed.

Fig. 296.—Bevelled dovetailing whenpins are at right angles to the end cut.

Fig. 297.—Bevelled dovetailing whenthe centre line of the pins is parallel tothe edges of the work, used for making

"hoppers," food troughs, knife boxes,etc. One corner of the box shows thejoint separated.

Fig. 294.—Lap-Dovetailing.

Fig. 295.—JewelDrawer

Side.

Fig. 297.—Bevelled and DovetailedBox, showing the Jointing of One

Corner Separated.

Fig. 298.—An example of obliquedovetailing, as used on "hoppers" when

one piece is vertical and the other pieceis inclined.

Fig. 299.—Method of dovetailingsmall boxes. The box is dovetailed inone width and the top and bottom gluedon; the sides and ends are then cutalong the dotted line, thus forming thelid. It will be noticed that a speciallywide dovetail pin must be left so as toform part of the lid and part of thelower portion.

Fig. 298.—Oblique Dovetailing.

Fig. 299.—Dovetailing for Small Box.

Setting out the Joint.—Forconstructing a dovetail joint at thecorner of a frame, as Fig. 300, it isnecessary at the outset to trim up theends of the timber square and true. Thismay be accomplished by neatly sawingto the line and paring the end of thewood with a sharp chisel, or bybringing the wood to a finish with a

finely-set plane, such as an iron-facedsmoothing plane. The ends of the woodmust be perfectly square when testedfrom either the face side or from themarked edge.

Fig. 300.—CornerDovetail.

Fig. 301.—

Squaring.

Take a cutting gauge and set it to equalthe thickness of the timber, and,holding it as already shown at Fig. 273,strike the gauge lines on the wood asillustrated at Fig. 302, G. Proceed tomark out the dovetail pins, as at Fig.303; in this illustration G again showsthe gauge line. The inclination of thelines across the end of the wood shouldnot be too great, or the joint will be aweak one, and the edges of thedovetails will be liable to crumbleaway when the work is knockedtogether.

Dovetailing Template.—Many

workers who are constantly engagedupon dovetail joints make a smallwooden template, as shown at Fig. 304.This template is generally ofhardwood, such as beech or walnut.The method of obtaining the correctangles of such a template has alreadybeen given on p. 134. Notice that thelines bb (Fig. 303) of the dovetail pinsd o not bevel; they are parallel to thesides of the wood and at right angles tothe end of the wood as shown.

Fig. 302.—Gauging.

Fig. 303.—Marking the Pins.

Chisel Work.—After marking out, asshown at Fig. 303, place the wood onthe bench and proceed to chop away thecentre portion in the following manner.

Hold the chisel on the bevel and cut outa small piece to form a channel at thegauge line. Now hold the chisel in avertical position, and with a malletstrike it so as to make a cut about 1⁄8 in.deep. Then hold the chisel on the bevelagain and cut away more waste wood;proceed alternately, first forcing thechisel down vertically, and then paringthe wood away with the chisel heldobliquely, until you have cut half-waythrough the thickness of the wood.

Fig. 304.—Hand-made Template forMarking Dovetails.

Fig. 305.—Testing.

Fig. 306.—TheMarked Piece.

Turn the wood over and repeat thevarious operations until the core, orwaste piece, is removed. Pare away anylittle irregularities which may be left in

the corners with an 1⁄8-in. chisel, thusleaving all smooth and neat. Lay thepiece of wood which is to have thedovetail marked on it flat upon thebench, and take the piece with thedovetail pins cut upon it and place inthe position shown at Fig. 305.

Saw Work.—Take a marking awl, or aknitting needle which has had its endsharpened, and mark the lines of thedovetail in a similar manner to thatshown at Fig. 307. Remove the piece A,Fig. 305, and the lower piece shown atFig. 305 will clearly show the marks aaas they appear in Fig. 306. Place thepiece (Fig. 306) in the vice, and sawoutside the lines AA, as shown in Fig.308.

Fig. 307.—Marking Dovetails withMarking Awl.

After sawing down the lines AA, Fig.308, place the wood in the vice and,guiding the saw blade with the index

finger of the left hand, cut away thesmall piece at the side (see Fig. 275).Repeat the operation as may benecessary, and the completed joint willbe similar to that shown at Fig. 300. Ifthe sawing is not neatly done it may befound necessary to pare the shoulderwith a sharp chisel.

Drawers.—When dovetailing drawersor boxes it is necessary to square up theends of all the stock and gauge them, asshown at Fig. 273. This illustrationshows how to gauge the lines on adrawer side; the dovetailed joint in thiscase, however, does not run through thedrawer front and leave the workunsightly, as the joint at Fig. 300 woulddo. The method used is shown at Fig.

309, and it is commonly known as lap-dovetailing. Most workers cut thedovetail pins on the drawer fronts andthe drawer backs first, after which theymark the drawer sides with the markingawl. The dovetailing of the drawer backis shown at Fig. 310. This is the typeknown as "through dovetailing," themethod being similar in regard to tooloperations as the single joint shown atFig. 300.

Fig. 308.—Sawing the Dovetails.

Fig. 309.—Lap-dovetailing DrawerFront to Drawer Side.

Fig. 310.—ThroughDovetailing.

Fig. 311.—Chipping

Waste of LapDovetail.

When the pins on the drawer front have

been sawn, the waste material is cutaway, as at Fig. 311. First stab downwith the vertical chisel, which mustmake the cut about 1⁄32 in. in front ofthe gauge line (see illustration). Thiscommencing of the cut slightly in frontof the gauge line is a very importantfeature. The chisel may be likened to awedge, and if the chisel edge be placedexactly upon the gauge line and forcebe applied to the handle, it will forcethe timber away equally on each side ofthe gauge line, and the finished depthof the hole will therefore be too deepfor the thickness of the drawer side; inother words, it will press itself over thegauge line on both sides.

By taking the first vertical cut on the

waste side of the gauge line, and thenremoving a small piece with the chiselheld obliquely, as at Fig. 311, the woodis removed and less resistance isoffered to the chisel when the nextvertical cut is made. This overshootingthe gauge line is a common fault withthe beginner, who is puzzled at theresult because he is certain he had hischisel exactly on the gauge line whenhe commenced his vertical cut. It isespecially noticeable in soft-grainedwoods.

To cut away the waste of a lap-dovetail(Fig. 311), the vertical and oblique cutsare repeated until the final trimming upis required, and now is the time tofinish both the vertical and the

horizontal cuts exactly on the gaugelines.

Some workers prefer to cut the drawersides first, and if this method ispreferred (and it has its advantages forcheap work) several drawer sides arecut at once by placing four or sixbehind one another in the vice andsawing them all at one operation.

The drawer front is placed in the vice,and the drawer side held upon it, whilstthe saw blade is placed in the saw kerfand drawn smartly forward. This willgive the required marks at the exactposition desired. It must beremembered, however, to saw justinside these dovetail-pin lines,

otherwise the finished joint will be tooslack, owing to the removal of thesawdust, which is practically equal tothe thickness of the saw blade.

Machine-made Dovetails.—As ageneral rule machine-made drawer andbox dovetails show both the pins andthe tails of exactly the same size. Thereason is obvious after an inspection ofFig. 314, which shows the position inwhich the pieces are held during themachining operations. In spite of acertain amount of prejudice they aresatisfactory and thoroughly reliableand have their place in modern shopand office fittings.

Fig. 312.—Machine-made DrawerFront and Side, Apart.

Fig. 313.—The PartsTogether.

Fig. 314.—Position

whenMachined.

DOVETAILGROOVING

The dovetail housing joint shouldfirst be carefully marked out with amarking knife, so as to cut across thefibres of the wood. For obtaining thebevel on the edge of the wood a joiner'sbevel may be used, and the angleshould not be too acute. (See previouschapter.) Take a chisel and pare away asmall channel as at A, Fig. 315, to forma small shoulder to guide the saw.

Fig. 315.—Paring away Channel forDovetail Grooving.

With a fine tenon or dovetail saw, cutthe saw kerf as at Fig. 316. If anydifficulty is experienced in cutting thekerf true and square, you may resort tothe method shown at C, Fig. 315; asmall temporary piece of timber hasbeen screwed on the top of the work toform a guide for the saw.

Fig. 316.—Cutting the Saw Kerf.

Woman's

Fig. 318.—Guide Block for Bevelling.

Fig. 315, B, shows the small channelformed by the chisel prior to thesawing operation. The sawing of thebevelled side is worked in a similarmanner; but occasionally we findamateurs who adopt the method shownat Fig. 318. A block of wood (H) is firstmade by boring a 11⁄4-in. hole throughits entire length, and afterwardsmaking a saw cut at the desired bevel.The object of this block, which is keptspecially for the purpose, is to form aguide for those who have not fullcontrol of the dovetail saw; the back ofthe saw clears the hole, and therequired bevel is obtained. When a sawcut has been made at each side of thegroove, the surplus timber is pared

away in the following manner: Cutaway portion E, Fig. 319; then cut awayportion F, and lastly cut away the apexportion marked G. Continue by thismethod of paring until the approximatedepth is reached. To ensure a correctdepth throughout the entire groove, therouter plane (or, as it is often called,"the old woman's tooth plane," Fig.317) is used.

Fig. 319.—Showing Method ofParing.

Fig. 320.—Channelling the AlternatePiece.

With regard to cutting the alternatepiece, it is necessary to first plane theend of the shelf true and square. With acutting gauge strike the line K, Fig.320; the required bevel on the edge (J)is then set out, and with the chisel asmall channel is again formed. Withthe tenon or dovetail saw cut down theline K to the required depth, and

carefully pare away the wood with asharp chisel to the correct shape.

THE MITREDJOINT

Although mitreing is used ineveryday woodwork, it comes last inour list of regular joints simplybecause it has been partly dealt with inalmost every previous chapter. Forexample, we have mitre halving in Fig.34, a mitre bridle joint in Fig. 74, atongued and grooved mitre in Fig. 116,mitred mortise and tenon joints in Figs.148 and 159, a dowelled mitre frame inFig. 202, and a mitred dovetail in Fig.286.

Fig. 321.—Mitred

Skirting.

Fig. 322.— CurvedMitre.

Mitreing.—The term mitreing isgenerally used to denote the type ofjoint used at the corner of a pictureframe; or where two pieces of wood arebevelled away so as to fit each other, as

the skirting or plinth mould at Fig. 321.In these cases the timber is cut so thatthe joint is at 45 degrees to the face,and the two pieces, when placedtogether, form an angle of 90 degrees(a right angle).

The term mitreing, however, is notconfined to the fitting of timber arounda right angle; it may be justly appliedto the fitting of a moulding around anangle irrespective of the number of itsdegrees.

One often hears such terms as "a halfmitre," used to denote the fitting of amoulding around an octagonal columnor pedestal, and probably it would bemore correct to describe the joint as a

mitre cut at 221⁄2 degrees. Mitreingconsists of halving the angle andmaking each piece to fit the line ofbisection. Should the angle be boundedby straight lines, as at Fig. 321, thenthe mitred joint will be a straight line,but should the angle be bounded by acurved and a straight line, as at Fig.322, A, or by two curved lines, then themitred joint will have to be a curvedline if the mouldings are to be of thesame section.

Fig. 324.—Sawing Block forMitreing.

Finding the Angle.—For straightmitres, the mitre joint line is found bybisecting the angle, as shown in thevarious examples, and the followinginstructions are given to enable thereader to follow the diagram (Fig. 323).Take a pair of compasses, or dividers,and with any convenient opening strikeout the arc A, B. Put the point of the

compasses on A, and mark another arcC; then, without altering the distancebetween the points of the compass, putthe point on B, and mark the arc D.Draw the line E from the corner, so thatit cuts through the intersection made bythe arcs C and D. The angle A B is nowhalved by the line E, and this methodmay be applied to any angle.

Sawing Block.—For sawingmouldings, etc., to their approximateshape, a home-made sawing block isgenerally used, as shown at Fig. 324.Two pieces of wood are glued one onthe top of the other, the required angleis transferred thereto, and the saw kerfmade. In the sketch the saw kerfs areshown at 45 degrees, right and left, and

other angles and kerfs may be madewhere desired.

Planing.—After sawing the piece toapproximately the correct angle, it isnecessary on high-class work to planethe cut end so as to give a perfect finishand enable a glued joint to be made.This may be accomplished by using theplane on the shooting board, as showna t Fig. 325, and, if the worker isconstantly using mitres of variousangles, it is an easy matter to makenew angle blocks and fix them on tothe board. Other workers prefer thescrew mitre trap shown at Fig. 326.This apparatus takes wide plinth orcornice moulds, and the angle may bealtered by fitting temporary packing

pieces under the work so as to tilt themoulding to the desired angle. Themethod of using the plane is indicatedin the illustration.

Another method in everyday use bythose workers who are constantlymitreing wide pieces of stock at 45degrees is the "donkey's ear" shootingboard illustrated at Fig. 327. The planeis laid on its side on the surface of theboard marked A, and used in a similarmanner to that shown at Fig. 325.

Fig. 325.—Use of Plane and ShootingBoard for Mitreing.

Fig. 326.—The Screw Mitre Trap.

A simple method and one that shouldalways be remembered because it ishandy when working without ashooting board is shown at Fig. 328.Set the marking or cutting gauge to thethickness of the wood to be mitred at

45 degrees; then gauge this distance onthe wood, as shown at B; draw from theline to the edge, as shown, and saw andplane to a finish. The diagonals of asquare give 45 degrees, and this is themethod used to mark out the work. Theend of the wood must, of course, besquare with its edges before markingout in this manner.

Fig. 327.—"Donkey's Ear" ShootingBoard.

Fig. 328.—Gauging for

Mitres. Fig. 329.—Narrow Inner

Moulding.

Fig. 330.—WideMitred

Moulding.

Fig. 329 shows a bevelled framing intowhich has been mitred a narrowmoulding M so as to show a correctmargin around the panel.

Fig. 331.—Door with Curved Mitres.

Fig. 332.—Method of Setting out fora Curved Mitre.

Fig. 330 shows a similar framing, butwith a wide moulding M mitred aroundit. To obtain a correct intersection of

this moulding, the angles A and B arebisected. The bisection of the anglesmeets before the width of the mouldingis cleared, therefore the angle C willagain have to be bisected, and thefinished joint will appear as shown.One of the simplest of mouldings witha large flat face has been chosen toillustrate this. The moulding could beall in one width, as shown, or it couldbe built into the framing in separatepieces, the wide flat and the piececarrying the mould.

Curved Mitres.—We now come towhat are probably the most difficult ofall mitres, viz., curved mitres, and thewriter well remembers in hisapprenticeship days his first experience

of attempting to fit the mouldingsaround the door shown at Fig. 331 byusing straight mitres at A. This, ofcourse, is impossible if the mouldingsare of the same section and it is desiredto make all the members correctlyintersect. If straight mitres are used thesection of the curved moulding willhave to be of a different shape from thesection of the straight moulding, and inthese days of machine-made mouldingsthis method is seldom resorted to. It isbetter, cheaper, and easier to makecurved mitres when the necessarymachinery is at hand.

To Set out a Curved Mitre (see Fig.332).—Draw a section of the mouldingfull size, A, as shown at the left hand of

the illustration, and project lines roundthe framing, as shown V, W, X, Y andZ. Where the lines V, W, X, Y and Zintersect at the corner D, it clearlyshows that a straight mitre will not cutall the points of intersection. A curvedline will cut all the intersections, and atemplate made of cardboard, sheetzinc, or veneer, should be made to thisshape. At the left-hand side thegeometrical setting out is shown forobtaining the curve without having toresort to drawing it freehand.

Take half the width of the moulding, asshown by dotted line A, and where itcuts the approximation of the curvedmitre place the point of the compassesand strike out a circle as shown; with

the same radius place the compasspoint on B—that is, the inside point ofthe mitre, and cut the circle on the rightand left with the small arcs shown ataa. With the same radius put thecompass point at the junction of thecircle and mitre line, C V, and cut thecircle at right and left, viz., ee.

Fig. 333.—Template for Mitreing.

Now rule a line through aa, and another

line through ee, and where these linescut each other it will give the correctradius of the curved mitre. Theadvantage of knowing the correctradius of a curved mitre is of greatbenefit to the skilled machinist, as itenables him to set up his machine so asto give a definite result.

Mitreing a Moulded DoorFrame.—Fig. 333 illustrates themethod of mitreing the mouldedportion of a door frame where the jointis dowelled, not tenoned. A smallwooden template is made out of beechor other hardwood, having its ends cutat 45 degrees. This template is placedon the rail, as shown, and held inposition by placing both the rail and

the template in the vice. The face of thetemplate forms a guide for a widechisel, and enables the worker togradually pare away the moulding tothe correct angle.

Fig. 334.—Using Panel Saw in MitreBox.

For sawing the mitres on largemouldings such as are used on the lidof a gramophone or wireless cabinet, amitre sawing box and a panel saw may

be used as indicated at Fig. 334.

JOINTS FORCURVED WORK

Fig. 335 shows a circular frame madeup in two thicknesses, the segmentsbeing screwed to each other and thejoints crossed in two layers. This is avery strong method, and it is used formaking circular frames and curbs up to15 ft. in diameter. The segments can beeither long or short, the only importantcondition being that they must bemarked out and sawn to the correctradius. Fig. 337 shows a board markedout in segments for this class of work.

The longer the boards the better willthey cut up, as it gives moreopportunities of cutting one piece outof the other as at A A.

Fig. 335.—Circular

Fig. 336.—CircularRim inHalved

Segments.

Frame in TwoThicknesses.

Fig. 338 shows how to begin to put thework together. To continue this, fitother segments in position and screwthem to D and E respectively. Thecompleted work is illustrated at Fig.335.

Fig. 337.—Board Marked

Fig. 338.—

PuttingCircular

Work

for Circular Jointing. Together.

Fig. 339.

Fig. 340.

Method of Building up Semicircular

Head of Door Frame.

Fig. 336 shows a circular rim, or curb,made of segments which are halvedtogether. This method is suitable forheavy work, where the timbers are ofconsiderable size. The halvings are cuton the ends of the segments to anyconvenient shape or bevel, each onebeing marked so as to fit its fellow.

Fig. 341.—Part of Laminated TableFrame.

Fig. 342.—Half of Laminated CoreBox.

When extra length is required,semicircular or circular work is builtup out of four or five thicknesses ofwood, and the method is called

laminating. The method of building upthe semicircular head of a door frameby this method is shown at Figs. 339and 340.

The shaped framing for kidney-shapedwriting tables and similar classes ofwork is built up by laminating piecesof 3⁄4-in. or 1-in. wood, after which theface side is veneered so as to hide theglued joints. Fig. 341 shows a sketch ofone quarter of an elliptical table framelevelled up and ready for applying theveneer.

Lamination.—If we apply to thedictionary for the word "lamination,"we find that lamellar structure is thearrangements in thin plates or layers

one over the other, usually having theend joints alternating, and it is acondition which allows of cleavage inone direction only. This method is usedfor nearly all descriptions of free orirregular curves, such as sweeps, bends,ogee shapes, and segments of circles.The timber is marked out in suitablelengths, rough-sawn and then planedtrue on the face, glued together, andwhen set the sides are cleaned up to therequired shape. It is one of thestrongest methods of construction, andnecessarily costly. Pulleys, pulley rims,and a hundred and one other jobs arebuilt by this method.

Fig. 342 shows one half of a core boxbuilt by this method, ready to be

worked to the required shape.

MISCELLANEOUSJOINTS

Weather boards.—For outdoorbuildings, such as garages, gardensheds, toolhouses, etc.,"weatherboarding" is often preferred toordinary matchboarding, chieflybecause of the facility with which itthrows off the rain. The boarding canbe bought ready prepared. Threemethods of jointing are shown in thesections at Fig. 343. The methodindicated at A shows one of the mostsatisfactory types, its boards being

planed and moulded as shown. Theother two examples are more common.The boarding at B is rebated, whilst atC each board overhangs its lowerneighbour. The boards for C and D arealways cut tapered as indicated.

Fig. 343.—WeatherBoards.

Fig. 344.—LadderRungs.

The end grain is usually protected bynailing on a strip of timber, chamferedon both edges.

Ladders.—Fig. 344 illustrates themethod of fastening the rung (or stave)of a ladder to the side. At A thecommon method is shown, the stavebeing simply driven into the hole andwedged. At B a much better but moreexpensive method of construction isgiven. The stave here is socketed andthe pin turned to a smaller diameter. Inboth cases the rung, or stave, is paintedbefore being driven into the side andwedged.

Fig. 345.—Cornice PoleJoint.

Fig. 346.—

VeneerKeying.

Ladder sides are made in two distinctways. One method is known as "a plankside," the side being cut from a plankas shown at the section D; the othermethod is called "a pole side," and isconstructed by cutting a straight larchpole in half and using half of the polefor each side of the ladder, as at sectionC.

Hinged Cornice Poles.—Fig. 345shows a hinged joint for cornice polesand should be of interest to those whoare frequently removing from house tohouse. The joint will adapt itself to fitany bay window (even a square bay)and it is formed by turning and cuttingthe two pieces shown. To fix a cornicepole to a bay window one of thesejoints is required for each angle of thebay, the pole being cut into suitablelengths and fixed to the hinged jointsby the use of the dowel screw and alittle hot glue. It is perhaps needless toremark that the diameter of the jointshould be of the same diameter as thecornice pole, to enable the rings toeasily slide over the surface.

For fastening a turned ornament (or"finial") to the end of a cornice pole adouble pointed screw (known in thetrade as a "dowel screw") is used, onehalf of which is screwed into each partof the pieces to be joined.

Veneer Keying.—Fig. 346 illustratesthe method of strengthening thecorners of boxes which are made of 1⁄4-in. or 3⁄8-in. timber, by securing thecorners with veneer keys. The box ismitred and glued in the usual manner,and after allowing sufficient time forthe glue to set, saw kerfs are made asshown at a a. A piece of thin saw-cutveneer is afterwards glued into the sawkerfs, and when dry the face is levelledoff flush. This method is often used

previous to veneering the face side ofthe box with rare veneers, and it is alsouseful for repair work. Note that thesaw cuts are made at an angle. Smallpicture frames are sometimes keyedinstead of nailed.

Muntin and Skirting Joint.—In thecase of panelled rooms it is usuallynecessary to scribe the muntins (oruprights) to the skirting. The method isshown in Fig. 347. The bead mouldingof the skirting is only partly removed,as indicated, leaving a solid portion towhich the muntin is skew-nailed.

Cot Joint.—At Fig. 348 is shown aninteresting joint used largely in themaking of Indian cots. The illustrations

indicate how the cross bar and end barare mortised into the leg. A turnedhardwood peg fits into a suitablyprovided hole and locks the tenons,which are dry jointed (not glued) inposition. The head of this peg forms anornament (A) at the top of the leg andshould fit tightly in position. At B areseen the end and cross bars in theirrelative positions when apart from theleg. C shows the end bar and cross barwhen the cot is fixed, but in thisillustration the leg is purposely left outof the drawing for a clearrepresentation. D shows the joints ofthe leg portion when the part of the legabove the line at A is sawn off. Thehardwood peg is shown at E.

Fig. 347.—FixingMuntin to Skirting.

Fig. 348.—Joint forHome-

made Cot.

Sideboard Pillars, etc. (Fig. 349).—For economy, sideboard pillars aresometimes built up as indicated, the

"shaft," the "base," and the "swell"being made up of three distinct pieces.Turned pins are left on the shaft andthe base, and these are secured at thejoint by the use of a double-pointedscrew called a dowel screw. This doesaway with the necessity of reducing thesquares at the top of the wood and thusgetting the turning out of a large pieceof wood.

Notched Joints.—Fig. 350 is a"notched joint," where two joists, orscantlings, cross each other, the objectof the joint being to prevent the joistsmoving from their position withoutmaterially weakening them. For an endnotch, see Fig. 352.

Fig. 349.— Method of Building upTurnings.

Fig. 350.—Notched Joint.

Fig. 351.—TheSaddleJoint.

The "saddle joint" (Fig. 351) is used forconnecting upright posts to heads or

sills of framing, and undoubtedly takesits name from its similarity to the wayin which the saddle fits the horse. Itdoes not weaken the framing as does amortise and tenon joint, and shrinkagehas little effect upon the joint. The"cogged joint," used for connectingpurlins to rafter and joists to girders, isillustrated in Fig. 353.

Fig. 352.—End

Notch. Fig. 353.—Cogged Joint.

Fig. 354.—BirdsmouthJoint.

Fig. 355.—Anothertype of

BirdsmouthJoint.

Birdsmouth Joints.—Fig. 354 is a"birdsmouth joint," a simple joint

which can be readily made by thehandsaw, used when a spar fits on thewall plate. A nail is shown securing itin position.

Fig. 355 shows the birdsmouth jointwhere the spar runs over the outside ofthe wall plate, thus allowing a fixingfor an ornamental finish.

Fig. 356.—Rafter and Tie BeamJoint.

Rafter Joint.—Fig. 356 shows an

everyday joint, as used at the junctureof the principal rafter and the tie-beamin roof truss work. A sketch of piece Ais shown separated, and it should benoted that the depth of the cut portionB should not be more than one-fourthof the total width of the tie-beam.

Fig. 357.—Method of Pelleting theCorner of a Mitred Picture Frame.

Pelleting.—Fig. 357 indicates the

method of pelleting and screwing thecorner of a picture frame. The mitrejoint is first screwed and a pellet of thesame timber is made to fill the holewhich has been bored to receive thescrew head. The pellet is glued inposition and levelled off.

Fig. 358.—Patera Covers to HideScrews.

Patera Covers.—In cases where thestyle of ornament permits of it, pateracovers are used instead of pelleting.Fig. 358 shows the jointing of shapedspandrails, etc., to carcase ends of lightportable cabinet work, etc. A hole isbored about 3⁄8 in. deep into the end,and a screw is used to hold the shapingin position. After fixing the rail a smallturned button, called a turned patera, isinserted in the hole, thus giving anornamental finish, as shown in thefront view. The turned patera is drivenfairly tightly into the hole, but notglued. When it is required to take thearticle apart a chisel is carefullyinserted under the edge of the patera toremove it, and the screw can then be

taken out. This method is often usedfor the construction of light hangingbookcases and similar objects. For abookcase having an end 8 ins. widethree of these turned buttons and threescrews would be used to secure theshelf to the end. Pateras in differentstyles may be purchased from anydealer in woodworking sundries.

Buttoning.—The tops of tables,sideboards, etc., should not be fixedwith screws in the ordinary way. At thefront, screws can be driven upwardsthrough the top rail, but at the sides andback, buttons should be employed, asi n Fig. 359, so that the top is free toshrink. It is otherwise liable to split ifimmovably fixed. The tops of kitchen

tables are usually fixed in this way, toallow for shrinkage.

Fig. 359.—Method of Buttoning aTable Top.

Frames for Oil Paintings.—Themethod of making joints for frames onwhich the canvas is stretched for oil

paintings is shown at Fig. 360. Theyare generally mitred at the corners andfitted with loose wedges. The four partsof the frame can be held temporarily bya piece of thin board while the canvasis being tacked to the edges of theframe. In the accompanyingillustrations Fig. 360 shows the actionof the wedges when tightening up theframe, the result being to open themitre joint. Fig. 361 shows the positionof the saw cuts for receiving thehardwood wedges. Note that theparallel groove is carried the fulllength of the material for greaterconvenience in cutting. The othergroove is taken from the outer angle ofthe mitre joint inwards. The cut

finishes with due regard to thenecessary taper; see the dotted linesshowing taper in Fig. 360. The grooveswill be wide enough after being cutwith an ordinary hand-rip saw, but forlarge work they are usually grooved onthe circular saw bench.

Fig. 361.

Fig. 360.

Joint and Method of Wedging theFrames of Oil Paintings.

Corrugated Steel Fasteners.—It isnow many years ago since the steelsaw-edge fastener first appeared on themarket, but probably 80 per cent. ofamateur woodworkers have never yetsampled its advantages.

In appearance it resembles a miniaturecorrugated galvanised sheet such as isused for roofing purposes, with theexception, however, that thecorrugations are divergent instead ofbeing parallel and that one end is

ground down to a cutting edge (see Fig.363, A). They are made in various sizesfrom 1⁄4 in. to 1 in. in length, whilst inregard to width they are classed by thenumber of corrugations and not bytheir measurement.

Fig. 363.—Jointing a Frame.

Fig. 362.—Jointing Boards.

The Use of Saw-edge CorrugatedSteel Fasteners.

To use the fastener no special tools arerequired; it is simply driven in with ahammer exactly as though it were anail; once in position, however, to getit out is worse than drawing teeth. Thecorrugations add to the strength of thedevice, the wood fibres closing aroundthem, age and rust but emphasisingtheir grip.

Wall Plugs.—At Fig. 364 four types ofwall plugs are shown: a, the ordinary

rectangular tapered wall plug to drivebetween the joints of the brickwork; b,the circular tapered wall plug as usedto plug a wall after a star-shaped brickdrill has been used; d, a twisted wallplug used for similar purposes to thewedge a, but considered to be superiorin holding power owing to its twistedformation; c is another type of wallplug considered to have great tenacityby reason of its corrugations. Wallplugs are required in nearly all caseswhere it is necessary to joint woodworkto brickwork, as, for instance, heavily-framed silvered mirrors to the walls ofshops.

Fig. 364.—WallPlugs, Four Varieties.

Fig. 365.—Slot

Screwing.

Fig. 366.—Slot

Screwing

Bracket.

Slot Screwing, or Keyhole Screwing,is a most useful way of joining lightwoodwork in such a manner that thefixing method is not exposed to theeye. A stout screw is inserted to within3⁄8 in. of the head, as at Fig. 365. In theadjoining piece a hole is bored with a

centre bit and a slot is cut with an 1⁄8 in.chisel. The two pieces of timber areplaced together, and by sliding theupper piece forward the screw runs upinto the slot or keyhole and secures thejoint. Fig. 366 shows the application ofthe joint fixing a shaped bracket to theshaped shelf; the bracket and shelf areinverted in the illustration to clearlyshow the method of jointing. For heavywork special brass plates are obtainablefor this purpose; one plate is let flushinto the upper piece and the other plateinto the lower piece.

Battening (Fig. 367).—A good methodof joining cross battens to drawingboards and other wide surfaces isshown here. After boring for the

screws, slots are cut so as to allow thescrews to move along the slots whenshrinkage takes place. In Fig. 368 asimilar method is applied to secure thedrawer bottom to the drawer back. Ifshrinkage takes place in the drawerbottom and it leaves the groove in thedrawer front, the screws are slackened,the drawer bottom is knocked up intothe groove, and the screws againinserted. For drawing boards, etc.,specially made elliptical-shaped slottedbrass socket cups are made to receivethe screw heads.

Fig. 367.—Battening.

368.—DrawerBottomJoint.

PUZZLE JOINTS

Puzzle Joints are not only interestingin themselves, but are often excellentstudies in craftsmanship. The majorityof them, if to be satisfactory aspuzzles, call for very careful settingout and cutting, entailing the samedegree of skill that is demanded forhigh-class cabinet work. For thisreason several examples may well finda place in a volume dealing withwoodwork joints. As a rule, thesepuzzles should be made in hardwood,such as dark walnut or beech, as in

whitewood the joints are soon liable towear.

Fig. 369.—Sketch of the Completed

Chinese Puzzle.

Chinese Puzzle.—The ingeniouspuzzle of the Chinese type shown inFig. 369 is probably older than many ofus could guess, but as it is one that canbe made by any woodworker we givefull directions as to how it may beconstructed. The complete article maybe called, in form, a six-pointedpyramid. It is made up of twenty-onedifferent pieces, each cut from wood 1⁄2in. wide and 1⁄2 in. thick; 3⁄8 in. woodmay be used if preferred. For thepurpose either sycamore or whitemaple is the most useful.

Fig.370.

Fig.371.

Fig.372.

Fig.373.

The Three Cross Pieces. KeyPiece.

The pieces required are as follows:—

Fig. 370.—Six pieces, 31⁄2 ins. long,with a half slot cut in the centre asshown. This slot must be exactly thewidth of the wood's thickness, and cutexactly half way through, so that, iftwo pieces are placed across by meansof the halved joint, their surfaces willbe flush. The slot must also be exactlyin the centre.

Fig. 371.—Six pieces, size 21⁄2 ins.long, with a half-cut centre slot similarto that of Fig. 370.

Fig. 372.—Six required, these being11⁄2 ins. in length, and with slots in themiddle as before.

Fig. 373.—One of these last six

requires special treatment, as it formsthe key block of the puzzle. After itsslot has been cut, one half of thenarrow part must be sawn away, asshown in Fig. 373. The inner edge mustalso be gently rounded. The special useof this vital piece, which we will callthe "key," will be fully explainedpresently.

Fig. 374.—Then, in addition to these,there are three central bars to make.Like the other parts they are 1⁄2 in. by1⁄2 in., but are each 41⁄2 ins. long, andare cut as shown in Fig. 374. The endprojections a are 1⁄2 in. long, and thecut-away part is exactly half the depthof the wood. Two of the three pieces (Xand Y in Fig. 374) are similar, but the

slot b of the third one (Z) is only 1⁄4 in.wide instead of 1⁄2 in. As will benoticed, this 1⁄4-in. slot is not in thecentre, but corresponds with the right-hand half of the larger slots of X and Y.

Fig. 374.—The Central Bars.

In making these twenty-one pieces,what should be borne in mind is that

the different parts fit closely into eachother. Consequently the slots, in width,must be cut so as to grip the thicknessof the wood; in depth they must beexactly half this thickness.

Fitting the Puzzle.—The three centralbars must first be joined, as those formthe skeleton framework of thestructure. Fig. 375 shows them inposition, but as it is a puzzle in itself asto how they can be got thus someexplanation is necessary.

Fig. 375.—The ThreeCentral Bars in Position.

Fig. 376.—How to

Adjustthe Bars.

(Noteposition

ofprojectingends, a.)

First Stage.—First take the bars X andY (see Fig. 374) and arrange them as

shown in Fig. 376. It is most importantthat the projections a of X faceupwards, and that the projections a ofY face towards the centre. Then takethe bar Z and bring it flat into the slotof X. The little slot of Z, however,must remain above the slot of X. Thenslide the bar Y along to the centre, sothat the part lettered c slips into thelittle slot of bar Z.

This may seem confusing to read, but itis easy to follow when the pieces are inone's hand. The result of this ratherclever arrangement is that the six armso f Fig. 375 are all exactly the samelength, width, and thickness. They arealso arranged so that in each arm maybe clasped one piece each of Figs. 370,

371, and 372. The three central armsmay, of course, be set up in a differentorder, and here we have merely chosenthe way that is the most simple todescribe and illustrate.

Fig. 377.—Beginning to

Fig. 378.—Placingthe KeyPiece tooverlap

endprojectionof Central

Bar.

place on the Cross Pieces.

Second Stage.—In the remaining partof the work the chief difficulty is tokeep the puzzle from falling to piecesbefore the key finally locks it. Take thelonger cross parts, Fig. 370, and claspone to each arm. The six need not all beput on meanwhile, but only thosewhich are most easily handled. Thenext size (Fig. 371) may then be put on.

In the ordinary course each arm couldbe completed with its three crosspieces till the sixth was attempted, andhere the reader would find that, at thelast moment, his attempt wasfrustrated. He could not get the last

small piece in, as other bars lock thepuzzle. Here it is that the "key" comesin.

The Key Piece.—When the writer fitsup the puzzle he finds that three of thearms may straight away be fittedcomplete with their three cross parts.These are the ones where the longercross piece (Fig. 370) lies flush withthe back of the central bar (see Fig.377). This is easily found out when atwork on the puzzle. In the case of theother three arms there is, of course, agap caused by the long slots of thecentral bars. Adjust the parts on thefirst-named three arms, and then dealwith the fourth arm, putting in all threecross parts. For the little one here, use

the "key."

By placing the "key" so that it overlapsthe end projection of the arm (see Fig.378) a space is left at the centre, andmeans is thus afforded for getting inthe three cross parts on the remainingtwo arms.

This practically ends the puzzle. Whilethe "key" is in its overlapping positionthe parts may be separated, but if it isturned round on its narrow neck , sothat it is in exactly the same position asthe other five small cross parts, it locksthe whole thing so tightly that nothingbut sheer force could loosen thetwenty-one pieces.

So far as the order of putting togetheris concerned, there are many equallysatisfactory ways, these beingdetermined by the ease or difficultythat one experiences in holding thehalf-finished puzzle. It all comes to thesame in the end, and the "key" must beplaced on one bar before the last threearms can be completed. The "key,"moreover, must be on one of the barswhere a gap is left at the centre, andnot on one where Fig. 370 lies flushagainst the central arm as in Fig. 377.

Undoing the Puzzle.—To take thepuzzle to pieces all that is required isto turn the "key" half round and pushthe other two cross bars on that armtowards the outer point. The cross bars

below may then be removed, and thewhole structure falls to pieces.

The double dovetail puzzle (Fig. 379)consists of two pieces of wood (usuallyone dark and the other light) which,upon examination, appear to bedovetailed together from each face.This interlocking arrangement isobviously impossible, and the solutionof the puzzle is only apparent onexamining Fig. 380, where it will beseen that the joint fits togetherdiagonally.

At Fig. 381 are given the diagrams forsetting out. Draw the outline of theelevation, plan and end view. The endview in the first instance is indicated

by 3, 4, 5 and 6, and it measures 17⁄8ins. square. A 1 7⁄8-ins. square is simplyused because 2-ins. wood generallyfinishes this size after it is planed up.Set out a square (A, B, C, D) whichstands corner-ways in the larger square(3, 4, 5, 6). Project the lines D A and CB upwards as at 1, and on to thisdrawing (1), set out the dovetailaccording to your own idea of length,width and bevel. Project the four pointsof your dovetail downwards into theend view, and where these lines cut A,B, and D, C draw them downwards andrebate them into your original plan.This will give the true shape of the twodovetails and it is to this shape that youwill cut your joint.

The joint is in due course glued up, andnext day you will plane and waste offthe four corners of your model. Theend view shows one corner shaded D,3, A; this and the other three cornersare wasted away. The result is that thedovetails are thrown into a planedifferent from that in which they weremade, showing as Fig. 379.

Fig. 379.—Double Dovetail

Puzzle.

Fig. 380.— TheTwo PartsSeparated.

Fig. 381.—Elevation, Plan and EndView, showing how the Puzzle Joint

may be correctly Set Out.

Fig. 382.—Dovetail Puzzle. TheFinished Joint.

Fig. 383.—Sketch of Dovetail Piece.

(Note that dovetail is cut on slant, thethickness at front being less than at

back. See dotted line on plan below.)

Fig. 384.—Plan, looking upwards.

Fig. 385A.—Front Elevation. Fig.385B.—Back Elevation.

The model calls for very accurateworkmanship and the joints must notb e undercut during the sawing andchiselling operations. The completed

model measures 6 to 7 ins.

The Dovetail Puzzle joint illustrated atFig. 382 has perhaps caused moreargument and controversy amongstwoodworkers than any wooden joint. Itmay be neatly made in maple, walnut,or mahogany, and afterwards glued up.The question everyone asks is: Howwas it put together?

Fig. 386.—Variation of the DovetailPuzzle.

Take two pieces of wood such asmahogany, walnut or birch, about 6 ins.long by 17⁄8 ins. wide and 11⁄4 ins. thick.Truly plane them up and then set outand make the tenon and dovetailedpiece (Fig. 383). Next mark out and cutthe cross bar to fit its correspondingpiece. The joint will go together in asomewhat diagonal direction as it ispushed into position from the back;when closed it will appear as at Fig.382. For guidance, a plan, partelevation and back elevation are added.

An improvement after you have gainedexperience in the making of this joint

is to make a similar joint, leaving theface (B, Fig. 386) blind; it then doesnot show the bevelling of the dovetailat the end C. In other words, keep theline C, say, 1⁄4 in. back from the face ofB. The joint should be glued up and itwill then appear to the average workerthat it is an impossible proposition.(See Fig. 401, page 208.)

Fig. 387.—A Simple Variation of the

Dovetail Puzzle.

Carefully note that the edges A, A areparallel to each other in spite of thefact that they slope in one direction.

A further variation of the puzzle is seeni n Fig. 387. Here the joint is muchsimpler, and can easily be followedfrom the illustration.

Fig. 388.—Six-piece Joint Puzzle.

Cross Puzzle.—Fig. 388 illustrates asix-piece puzzle joint, similar in somerespects to Fig. 369, but very muchsimpler. Both a back and front view ofthe piece D is shown for clearness ofillustration. The method of assemblingthe pieces is as follows: Hold piece Bupright, and fit piece D across; at thesame time note that the small x marksare opposite each other. Take piece Eand, holding it as shown, slide it up thepiece B (see arrow) until E engages Dand the small o marks are oppositeeach other. Piece C is now fitted behindD, and then piece F will slide inposition and push downwards. The key-piece A is now put in position, and the

puzzle is completed.

Fig. 389.—Mortising Puzzle, showinghow the Parts Fit.

Mortising Puzzle.—The ordinarymortising exercise is, after the first twoor three attempts, generally voted asuninteresting, but, although the simplepuzzle shown in Fig. 389 is practicallyan exercise in mortising, yet, formingas it does a puzzle, it becomes afascinating piece of work.

The puzzle is composed of three piecesof wood, each 4 ins. long, 11⁄2 ins. wide,and 1⁄2 in. thick. In each piece a mortise11⁄2 ins. by 1⁄2 in. should be cut asshown at 1, Fig. 390. In one piece,marked 2, a groove is cut on one side,3⁄8 in. wide, and in another piece (3) asimilar slot, but 1⁄2 in. wide, is cut, andthis is continued on the other side ofthe groove to a depth of 1⁄8 in. The three

pieces should be set out on a 13-ins. by11⁄2-ins. by 1⁄2-in. length of wood, asshown at Fig. 391, and when readysawn apart.

Fig. 390.—The Three Parts, withSizes marked.

Fig. 391.—How to Cut the Parts.

The puzzle is put together as shown atFig. 389. In the first place, hold No. 1piece upright as shown at A, then takeNo. 2 piece with slot uppermost andpush it through the opening in No. 1piece until the nearest side of the slotprojects 1⁄8 in. as indicated at B. Nextplace No. 3 piece on with the slot at theback as shown at C, and push it downuntil it touches the bottom of theopening in No. 2 piece as illustrated atD. The only thing to do now is to pushNo. 2 piece as far as it will go to makethe figure as shown at E.

In this puzzle the parts should fittogether fairly tight, but should not betoo stiff.

Fig. 392.—ChineseCross Puzzle.

Fig. 393.—Method of

PuttingTogether.

Fig. 394.—The Six Pieces, each 4 ins.by 1 in. square.

Chinese Cross.—Fig. 392 shows avariation of the Chinese cross, which isperhaps the most fascinating of allwoodwork puzzles. Take six pieces ofhardwood (Fig. 394) and accuratelyplane and saw them so that each piecewill measure 4 ins. by 1 in. by 1 in.Bearing in mind that all the cuts aremultiples of 1⁄2 in., set out, saw andchisel five of the pieces to agree withthe sketches 1, 1A, 2, 2A and 3. Leavethe key piece intact. The puzzle is ofcourse to fit all the six pieces togetherso as to form the Chinese cross orblock given at Fig. 392. As a clue to themethod of assembly we give another

sketch (Fig. 393) showing four of thepieces fixed together. The reader can, ifhe so desires, make the puzzle to asmaller scale by using six pieces ofwood each measuring 2 ins. long by 1⁄2in. by 1⁄2 in.

Fig. 395.—Diagonal Chinese CrossPuzzle. (Two Pieces required of A,

Three of B and One of C.)

Diagonal Chinese Cross.—At Fig. 395

is given a sketch of a completedChinese block or cross puzzle in whichthe various pieces of wood go togetherdiagonally. Plane up a piece ofhardwood (which may be about 14 ins.or 15 ins. long) so that it measures onits end 1⁄2 in. square. Cut the wood intosix pieces which measure about 21⁄4 ins.long, and then proceed to mark out,saw and pare up with the chisel twopieces like sketch A, three pieces likeB, and one key piece as C. Now fitthese together to make the completedcross. The solution is left to the reader.

Fig. 396 shows a combination of sixpieces which, when fitted together, willmake the Chinese cross similar to Fig.392. Plane up the strip of hardwood

(birch preferred) so that it measures 1⁄2in. square at the end and proceed tomark out and make two pieces like D,two like E, one like F, and one piecelike G. Put the pieces together to formthe Chinese cross. Again the reader isleft to solve the problem of fitting.

Fig. 396.—Another Chinese Cross.(Two Pieces required of D, Two of E,

and One each of F and G.)

Square Puzzles are of endless variety.Four of these are shown, all simple to

make, but not equally simple to solve.The only material required for each is a5-ins. square piece of 1⁄8-in. fretwoodor plywood; or, if preferred, pieces ofdifferent colour may be used. Thediagrams are given exactly half size,and the lines may be set out direct onthe wood. It will be noticed that allfour puzzles are strictly geometrical incharacter.

Fig. 397.—Six-piece Square Puzzle.(For Guidance in Setting Out, the

Centre of Top Line is marked at A.)

Fig. 399.—Ten-piece Square Puzzle.(For Guidance in Setting Out, theCentre of the Four Outlines are

lettered at C, C, C, C.)

Fig. 397 is made up of six pieces and isthe simplest of the group to solve.Although containing only five pieces,Fig. 398 will be found to give moretrouble.

Fig. 399, with ten pieces, isundoubtedly the most trying puzzle,and will be found as baffling as manyjig-saw pictures. Fig. 400, again,presents only moderate difficulties.

If the reader prefers, he may cut thesquares to the size illustrated instead ofenlarging them.

Fig. 401.—Blind Dovetail PuzzleJoint (see page 199).

INDEX

Angle, mitre, 163, 164

Angles for dovetails, 134

Astragals, 128, 129

Back flap hinges, 115, 116

Barefaced (see under Tenon).

Barred door joint, 55

Barrow-wheel joints, 20

Battening, 188

Bevelled dovetailing, 149

Bevelling, guide block for, 161

Birdsmouth joints, 181

Blind lap-dovetailing, 145

Boards, weather, 176

Bolts for scarf joint, 107, 108

Boring away waste, 41, 42

Box, laminated core, 175

Box lid, hingeing, 113

Boxes, dovetails for, 133

Brace and bit, use of, 41, 42

Brass astragal, 129

Bridle joint, mitred, 36, 37

Bridle joint, oblique, 37, 38

Bridle joints, 35

Bridle joints, setting out, 39

Butt hinge, 110, 111

Butt hinge, rising, 115, 116

Butting mitred joint, 8

Buttoning, 184

Carcase work, dovetailing, 149

Card table hinges, 115, 116

Chair joint, interlocking, 91

Chinese cross puzzle, 203

Chinese cross puzzle, diagonal, 204

Chinese puzzle, 189, 190

Chisel used in dovetailing, 137, 138,153

Chiselling (bridle joints), 45

Chiselling (halved joints), 30, etc.

Chiselling (mortise and tenon joints),89, etc.

Circular frames, 172

Clamping, 80, 82

Close joint hingeing, 125

Cogged joints, 181

Column joints, 179

Combing joint, 55

Core box, laminated, 175

Corner dovetail, 152

Corner joints, halved, 14

Corner tongued joints, 55, 56

Cornice frame dovetailed, 143, 144

Cornice pole, dowelling, 97, 98

Cornice pole joints, 177

Corrugated steel fasteners, 185

Cot joints, 178

Countersink bit, 96

Cradle for planing, 52

Cradle for planing dowels, 94

Cramping glued joints, 11, 12

Cramping tongued and grooved mitrejoint, 56, 57

Cross halving joints, 18, 23

Cross puzzle, 200

Cross puzzle, Chinese, 203

Cross puzzle, diagonal, 204

Cross tongues, 51, 52

Curved work, joints for, 172

Diagonal cross puzzle, 204

Dogs, iron, 10, 11

Donkey's ear shooting board, 167

Door frames, semicircular head, 173,175

Door joints, barred, 55

Doors, "bound," 109

Doors, hingeing, 116-119

Doors, shutting joints of, 127, 129

Dovetail angle template, 134, 154

Dovetail, corner, 152

Dovetail grooving, 160

Dovetail halved joints, 17, 19, 20

Dovetail, housed and mitred, 145

Dovetail joint, the 132

Dovetail puzzles, 195, 196, 197, 198,199

Dovetail, secret mitred, 146

Dovetail-wedged tenon joint, 75

Dovetailed keys, 147, 148

Dovetailed scarf joint, 103, 104

Dovetailing, bevelled, 149

Dovetailing, blind lap, 145

Dovetailing, lap, 133

Dovetailing, oblique, 151

Dovetailing, through, 132

Dovetails, frame, 143

Dovetails, machine made, 159

Dovetails, sawing, 141, 155

Dovetails, setting out, 151

Dowel cradle for planing, 94

Dowel plate, steel, 93

Dowel rounder, 96

Dowel with groove, 94, 95

Dowelling frames, 100

Dowelling joints, 93

Dowelling table legs, 101

Dowels, making, 93

Drawbore pinning, 78

Drawer bottom joint, 188

Drawer joints, dust-proof, 131

Drawer ploughslips, 10, 11

Drawers, dovetailing, 133, etc., 156

Dreadnought file, 81, 82

Drop table joint, 20

Dust-proof drawer joints, 131

Fall fronts, hingeing, 119

Fasteners, corrugated steel, 185

Feather tongues, 51, 52

Fencing, joint for, 71

File, dreadnought, 81, 82

Finger joint hinge, 122, 123

Fished joint, 105, 106

Flap (back) hinges, 115, 116

Floor boards, 48

Fly rails, 120, 121

Fox-wedging, 76

Frame dovetails, 143

Frame joints, Oxford, 26, 27

Frame, mirror, with bridle joints, 37

Frames, circular, 172

Frames, dowelling, 100

Frames for oil paintings, 184

Gate joint, 68, 69

Gauge, marking, 28, 29, 40

Gauge, marking dovetails with cutting,135

Gauging boards for dowelling, 97, 98

Gauging for hinges, 110, 111

Glued joint, the, 1

Glueing dowelled joints, 97

Glueing rubbed joints, 2

Grooved joints (see Tongued andGrooved), 48

Grooves, ploughing, 58

Grooving, dovetail, 160

Halved and dovetailed joints, 17, 19, 20

Halved and mitred joints, 16

Halved joint, the, 13,

Halved joints, setting out, 28

Halved scarf joint, 103, 104

Halving joints, cross, 18, 23

Hammer head tenons, 80

Handscrews, 11, 12

Haunched tenons, 65

Hinge, butt, 110, 111

Hinge, finger joint, 122, 123

Hinge, knuckle joint, 122, 123

Hinge recesses, 112

Hinge, rule joint, 125

Hinged cornice pole, 177

Hinged joints, 109

Hingeing box lid, 113

Hingeing, close joint, 125

Hingeing doors, 116-119

Hingeing draught screens, 121

Hingeing fall fronts, 119

Hingeing, open joint, 124

Hinges, gauging for, 110, 111

Hinges, various, 110, 114, 115, 116

Hook joints, 130

Housed and mitred dovetail, 145

Interlocking chair joint, 91

Iron dogs, 10, 11

Japanese self-wedging tenon joint, 72

Joint, drawer bottom, 188

Joint, fished, 105, 106

Joint, interlocking chair, 91

Joint, tabled scarf, 107

Joint, tie beam scarf, 106

Joints,barefaced tenon, 64barred door, 55barrow wheel, 20battened, 188

birdsmouth, 181bridle, 35butting mitred, 8cogged, 181column and pillar, 179combing or locking, 55cornice pole, 177cot, 178cross halving, 18, 23dovetail, 132dovetailed and wedged tenon, 75dowelling, 93dust-proof drawer, 131fencing, 71for curved work, 172garden gate, 68, 69glued, 1halved, 13

halved and dovetailed, 17, 19, 20haunched tenon, 65hinged, 109hook, 130ladder, 177laminated, 10, 11, 172, 175lap, 13light-tight, 131meeting, 129miscellaneous, 176mitre-faced tenon, 77mitre bridle, 36, 37mitre halved, 16mitred, 163mitred and tenoned, 72, 73mitred and tongued, 56, 57mortise and tenon, 64notched, 180

oblique bridle, 37, 38oblique halved, 15, 23ogee-shaped, 8open slot mortise, 80partition, 24, 25ploughing for tongued and grooved,

58puzzle, 189rafter and tie beam, 182rafter (tenon), 77rebated door, 129roof, 34, 37, 38roof (tenon), 77rubbed, 1saddle, 180sash bar, 79scarf, 103screen, 114, 121

scribed and tenoned, 72setting out bridle, 39setting out halved, 28setting out tenon, 83shouldered tenon, 70, 71, 79shutting, 127skirting and muntin, 178T, 14, 18tie, 22, 23tongued and grooved, 48tongued corner, 55, 56trestle, 24tusk tenon, 74, 75weather board, 176wheelwright's self-wedging tenon,

75

Keyhole screwing, 187

Keying, dovetail, 147

Keying, veneer, 178

Keys, dovetailed, 147

Knuckle joint hinge, 122, 123

Ladder joints, 177

Laminated joints, 10, 11

Lamination, 175

Lap dovetailing, 133

Lap dovetailing, blind, 145

Lap joints, 13

Laths, winding, 3

Lid, hingeing box, 113

Light-tight joints, 131

Locking (inter) chair joint, 91

Locking joint, 55

Marking gauge, 28, 29, 40

Matchboarding, 49

Meeting joints, 129

Mirror frame with bridle joints, 37

Mitre box, saw used in, 171

Mitre bridle joint, 36, 37

Mitre, curved, 163, 164, 168, 169

Mitre faced tenon joint, 77

Mitre halved joints, 16

Mitre sawing block, 165

Mitre, setting out a curved, 168, 169

Mitre template, 170

Mitre trap, screw, 165, 166

Mitred and housed dovetail, 145

Mitred and tenoned joint, 72, 73

Mitred butting joint, 8

Mitred dovetail, secret, 146

Mitred frames, dowelling, 99, 100

Mitred joint, the, 163

Mitred tongued joints, 56, 57

Mitres, curved, 169

Mortise and tenon joints, 64

Mortise, open slot, 80

Mortising, 87

Mortising puzzle, 201

Mouldings, mitreing, 165, 171

Muntin joint,

178

Notched joints, 180

Oblique bridle joint, 37, 38

Oblique dovetailing, 151

Oblique joints, halved, 15, 23

Ogee-shaped joint, 8

Open-joint hingeing, 124

Open slot mortise, 80

Oxford frame, halved joints for, 26, 27

Partition joints, 24, 25

Patera covers, 183

Pelleting, 182

Piano front joint, 9, 11

Pinning, 73

Pinning, drawbore, 78

Pins, dovetail, 136

Pivot hinges, 114, 115, 116

Plane, old woman's tooth, 161, 162

Plane, the plough, 58, 59, 60

Planes, tongueing and grooving, 61

Planing, cradle for, 52

Planing mitred work, 165

Plinth frame dovetailed, 143, 144

Plough plane, the, 58, 59, 60

Ploughing for tongued and groovedjoints, 58

Ploughslips, glueing, 10, 11

Plugging, 186

Pole joints, cornice, 177

Puzzle, Chinese cross, 203

Puzzle, cross, 200

Puzzle, diagonal Chinese cross, 204

Puzzle joints, 189

Puzzle, mortising, 201

Puzzles, dovetail, 195, 196, 197, 198,199, 208

Puzzles, square, 205

Rafter and tie beam joints, 182

Rafter joint (tenon), 77

Rebated door joints, 129

Reversible screen hinge, 114, 115

Rising butt hinge, 115, 116

Roof joints, 34, 37, 38

Roof joints (tenon), 77

Roof work, scarfed joints used in, 103,104, 106

Rubbed joint, 1

Rule joint hinge, 125

Saddle joints, 180

Sash bar joints, 79

Sawing block for mitreing, 165

Sawing (bridle joints), 41, etc.

Sawing dovetails, 141, 155

Sawing for hinge recesses, 112

Sawing (halved joints), 30, 31, etc.

Sawing (tenons), 84, etc.

Scarf joint, fished, 105, 106

Scarf joint for heavy timber, lappedand bolted, 107, 108

Scarf joint, tabled, with straps, 107

Scarf joints, 103

Scarf joints, tie beam, 106

Screen hinges, 114, 115, 116

Screens, hingeing draught, 121

Screwing, slot or keyhole, 187

Screws, hiding with pateras, 183

Scribed tenon joint, 72

Secret mitred dovetail, 146

Setting out dovetails, 151

Shooting board, 7, 10, 11

Shooting board for mitreing, 165, 166,167

Shoulders, 14, etc., 19, 23

Shoulders of tenons, tongueing, 63

Shoulders, sawing, 45

Shoulders (tenon), 70, 71, 79

Shoulders, tenon with tongued andgrooved, 79

Shutting joints, 127

Sideboard pillar joints, 179

Skirting and muntin joint, 178

Skirting, mitred, 163

Skirting mould, double, 56, 58

Slot screwing, 187

Spandrel, jointing shaped, 9, 11

Spandrel with tongued joint, 52, 53

Sprocket wheel, 68

Square puzzles, 205

Steel fasteners, corrugated, 185

Stiles, shutting and meeting, 128

Stopped bridle joint, 37, 38

Stopped dovetail halving, 17

Strap hinge, 114, 115

Straps for scarf joints, 107, 108

Stump tenons, 65

T joints, halved, 14, 18

Table (card) hinges, 115, 116

Table frame, laminated, 174, 175

Table framing, 79

Table joint, drop, 20

Table leg with bridle joint, 36

Table legs, dowelled, 101

Table tops buttoned, 184

Table with circular rim, joint for, 25

Tabled scarf joint, 107

Template, dovetail angle, 134, 154

Template for mitreing, 170

Tenon (and mortise) joints, 64

Tenon joint, dovetailed and wedged, 75

Tenon joint, mitred and moulded, 72,73

Tenon joint, scribed, 72

Tenon joint, self-wedging, 72

Tenon joint with mitred face, 77

Tenon joint with tongued and groovedshoulders, 79

Tenon joints, barefaced, 64

Tenon joints, drawbore pinning for, 78

Tenon joints, setting out, 83

Tenon joints, shouldered, 70, 71, 79

Tenon joints, tusk, 74, 75

Tenoned scarf joint, 103, 105

Tenons, hammer head, 80

Tenons, haunched, 65

Tenons, inserted, 81, 82

Tenons, stump or stub, 65

Tenons, tongueing shoulders of, 63

Tenons, twin, 72, 73, 80

Through dovetailing, 132

Tie beam and rafter joints, 182

Tie beam scarf joint, 106

Tie joint, 22, 23

Tongue slips, 130

Tongued and grooved joints,applications of, 52

Tongued and grooved joints, 48

Tongued and grooved joints, ploughing

for, 58

Tongued joints, corner, 55, 56

Tongueing and grooving planes, 61

Tongues, cross and feather, 51, 52

Tongues, loose, 55

Toothing plane, 161, 162

Trestle joint, 24

Try square, 9, 28

Tusk tenon joints, 74, 75

Twin tenons, 72, 73, 80

Twist bit, 96

Vee'd matchboarding, 49, 50

Vee'd scarf joint, 105

Veneer keying, 178

Wall plugs, 186

Weatherboards, 176

Wedges for tenon joints, 67

Wedging, fox, 76

Wedging frames, 184

Wheel joints, barrow, 20

Wheel, sprocket, 68

Wheelwright's self-wedging tenonjoint, 75

Winding laths, 3

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