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Running head; The value of Personal Professional Theories

The Value of Personal Professional

Theories for Vocational Education**

H. Schaap, E. de Bruijn, M.F. van der Schaaf & P.A.

Kirschner

Utrecht University, Open University of the Netherlands

Paper for the ECER Conference 2008, Gteborg, Sweden.

Draft; July 17,2008.

Total amount of words; 6821

**This is work in progress. If you would like to make a reference to this paper, please contact

the first author for permission.


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The value of Personal Professional Theories2

Abstract

Vocational Education aims at developing professional competences. Professional

competence implies an integration of knowledge, skills and attitudes, where

knowledge refers to formal knowledge, work process knowledge, shared knowledge

in a specific occupational domain and beliefs towards professional behaviour.

However, how a student can internalise these different types of knowledge and

beliefs is still unknown. We therefore denote these specific types of knowledge and

beliefs with the concept of Personal Professional Theories. A Personal Professional

Theory is a personal knowledge base which directs on the one hand professional

behaviour and serves on the other hand as a frame of reference for interpreting (new)professional situations and experiences. The development of a Personal Professional

Theory implies growing into an occupational domain, which means internalising the

shared knowledge of professionals and at the same time adapting to the collective

norms and values. In this article, the concept as well as the development of students

Personal Professional Theories will be clarified. Also, some major learning aspects that

can stimulate the development of students Personal Professional Theories are

presented.

Keywords: Personal Professional Theories, Vocational Education, professional

development, beliefs, negotiation of meaning.

1. Knowledge in Competence Based Vocational Education

Vocational Education is subject to constant social changes, technical developments

and organizational demands. The increased use of for example new information-

and communication technologies and the changing perspective on employees as

flexible and employable professionals, have caused many countries to redefine the

key competences which are necessary for adequate professional behaviour

(Achtenhagen & Grubb, 2001). In the current knowledge-based societies and labour

markets professionals not only need specific technical and formal knowledge, but

Schaap, De Bruijn, Van der Schaaf & Kirschner ECER 2008


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they also need well developed professional skills and attitudes for lifelong learning

(Maes, 2004). As a response to these changing professional and educational

demands, a competence based qualification structure is adopted in Vocational

Education and Training (VET), for example in the Netherlands, Germany, France

and Great Britain (Achtenhagen & Grubb; Nijhof & Van Esch, 2004; Weigel, Mulder

& Collins, 2007) but also in Australia (Billet, 2000).

The main aim of a competence based structure in VET is to reduce the gap

between training programmes in vocational colleges and the labour market. The

underlying idea is that in competence based VET students develop competences

needed in their (future) profession, but also in perspective of their lifelong learning

(Biemans, Nieuwenhuis, Poell, Mulder & Wesselink, 2004). Competences are

conceived as more or less organized wholes of knowledge, skills and attitudes (Lizzio

& Wilson, 2004; Van der Sanden & Teurlings, 2003), which are needed for the

adequate fulfilment of professional tasks in work related situations (Gonczi, Hager

& Oliver, 1990). In competence based VET the development of different professional

competences, concerning for example social competencies, reflection competencies

and competencies for lifelong learning, is central. Furthermore, competence based

VET is aimed to integrate authentic key issues and problems which are relevant

and representative for a specific occupational domain in the training programmes,

so that students learn how to deal with these problems (Guile & Griffiths, 2003).

Another feature is that the educational programmes are tailored to students

specific developmental phases and learning questions.

However, a major problem in competence based VET is that it still remains

unclear how and when different kinds of knowledge should be integrated,

internalized and offered in the curriculum (Van der Sanden & Teurlings, 2003). For

example, for students in VET, explicit and codified knowledge are important for

working in a profession domain, while at the same time more situated and episodic

knowledge is important to work in specific professional environments as well as for

developing adequate professional behaviour (Guile & Young, 2003). Moreover, the

transfer of knowledge conceived in schools as well as in workplaces seems to be

problematic (Achtenhagen & Grubb, 2001; Boreham, 2004; Poortman, 2007).

Unfortunately, in competence based VET explicit links between different types of

knowledge and beliefs are still poorly elaborated. Also, it seems that in VET there is



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little explicit attention to the individual personification and internalization of these

different types of knowledge and beliefs (Van der Sanden & Teurlings, 2003). This is

remarkable, because knowledge is an essential part of professional competence and

an essential source in the process of making adequate professional decisions in

complex practical situations.

To increase the internalization of knowledge and beliefs, the concept Personal

ProfessionalTheory (PPT) can be used in VET. A PPT refers to a knowledge base

which serves as personal frame of reference during professional behaviour (Argyris

& Schn, 1974; 1978) and during the process of professional development. It is

postulated that becoming a professional means for students in VET growing into an

specific occupational domain, through the internalisation of shared knowledge and

collective norms, values and notions of professionals from the same occupational

domain in a PPT. The emphasis on the internalisation of different types of

knowledge can be useful for competence based VET, because students often learn

the norms and values of an occupational domain in a more implicit way, while there

is no explicit attention to the internalisation of these shared knowledge and

collective norms, values and notions with more formal knowledge and work process

knowledge (Achtenhagen & Grubb, 2001). In this article, the definition, features

and related concepts of PPTs will be clarified by answering four leading questions:

1. What are Personal ProfessionalTheories?

2. What is the value of the concept of Personal ProfessionalTheories for

VET?

3. How do Personal Professional Theories develop?

4. How can the development of Personal ProfessionalTheories be

stimulated?

In section 2, the nature and content of PPTs will be described. It will be

postulated that the nature and content of a PPT highly on the shared knowledge

and collective norms, values and notions of an occupational domain. In section 3,

the development of PPTs and the stimulation and facilitation of it will be described.

The article ends with a conclusion and a critical discussion about the definition of

the concept of PPTs. Also, some methodological implications of the concept will be

described.



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2. Personal Professional Theories: a conceptual analysis

A PPT is defined as a personal knowledge base which consists of (1) formal theories,(2) work process knowledge and (3) beliefs concerning professional attitudes (Argyris

& Schn, 1974; 1978; Kelchtermans & Vandenberghe, 1994). A PPT has two

different functions; a PPT is a frame of reference through which professionals

acquire and interpret new knowledge (Levin & He, 2008) and a PPT directs

professional behaviour (Argyris & Schn; Beijaard & Verloop, 1996). Professional

behaviour is then the result of more or less sustainable deliberate

considerations. Research in the novice-expert domain shows that the extent in

which professional behaviour relies on tacit knowledge and routines increase during

professional careers (see for example Benner, 1984; Berliner, 1995). Since tacit

knowledge and routines partly develop by (professional) experiences, it is assumed

that experts in general will employ more tacit knowledge and routines in their daily

work than novices. In contrast we assume that especially novices base their

professional behaviour on more deliberate considerations. Accordingly, in the

remainder of the article we concentrate on deliberate considerations of beginning

professionals.

In this article, the concept of PPT is based on research on the professional

development of teachers and the development of professionals in organizations.

There is a large number of concepts that are closely related to the concept of PPTs.

For example, craft knowledge (Beijaard & Verloop, 1996), personal practical

knowledge (Clandinin, 1986; Zanting, Verloop & Vermunt, 2003), practical

knowledge (Eraut, 1994; Beijaard & Verloop, 1996), subjective theories

(Kelchtermans & Vandenberghe, 1994), theory of action (Marland & Osborne,

1990), personal practical theories (Cornett, Yeoties & Terwilliger, 1990; Levin & He,

2008) and occupational action theories (Poell, 1998; Teurling & Van der Sanden,

2003) are used to describe underlying theories of professionals. These different

concepts and assumptions are used to elaborate the concept of PPT. However, with

the concept of PPT the internalisation of shared knowledge and collective norms,

values and notions of a specific occupational domain is more explicitly emphasized.



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In the previously mentioned concepts, this shared and collective perspective seems

to be less emphasized.

2.1 The nature of Personal Professional Theories

A defined in the previous section, a PPT is a personal knowledge base which

consists of formal theories, work process knowledge and beliefs concerning

professional attitudes. More in general, a PPT consists of knowledge and beliefs

(Argyris & Schn, 1974; Eraut, 1994; Kelchtermans & Vandenberghe, 1994; Van

der Krogt & Vermulst, 2000; Van der Sanden, 2004). Beliefs refer not only to

personal assumptions about adequate professional behaviour, relevant knowledge

and oneself as a professional, but also to professional values. It is through beliefs,which can be more implicit or explicit, that a PPT directs professional behaviour

and also directs situational judgements (Beijaard, Verloop & Vermunt, 2000;

Pajares, 1992; Van der Krogt & Vermulst). PPTs contain individual or collective

views and indicate how professional behaviour should be conducted adequately,

what norms and values are appropriate, which professional attitudes are important

and why some specific behaviour is more suitable in specific professional

situations.

It is assumed that there are similarities between the PPTs of professionals

working in the same occupational domain. These similarities can be explained by

the Collective Professional Theory (CPT). A CPT consists of shared knowledge and

collective norms, values and notions of professionals, working in a certain

occupational domain (De Bruijn & Nieuwenhuis, 1994; Wilensky, 1964). A CPT

distinguishes a professional domain from other professional domains (Guile &

Griffiths, 2003). As a CPT reflect a certain consensus among the members of a

community of professionals (De Bruijn & Nieuwenhuis; Wilensky), a CPT can beseen as the result of a collective process of negotiation of meaning (Wenger, 1998).

It has become widely accepted that knowledge, norms, values and notions are

shared by a community of practitioners at a certain time and place, and thus are

socially situated constructs. However, this combination of different aspects in a CPT

can only be formulated in a relative way. Within the CPT of a specific occupational

domain there is the possibility of several schools of thought. These different schools

of thought, which are appropriate in the same occupational domain, can occur for



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example between different organizations or between different regions (Wenger,

1998). However, without undermining the dynamic nature of professions -and

therefore the CPT of an occupational domain- we assume that there exist a CPT,

which refers to a shared understanding of knowledge, norms, values and notions

referring to collectively perceived adequate professional behaviour.

Another feature of the nature of PPTs is that a PPT can differ between novices

and experts. According to Van der Krogt & Vermulst (2000), experts or specialists

on a specific task or domain can have more systematised and well founded PPTs

then novices or non-specialists have. They do not say that novices do not use these

theories, but that these theories can be assumed to be less explicit, less coherent,

less well-founded and less focussed on their specific place in the occupational

system (p. 125). Experts work on the basis of relatively elaborated PPTs while for

novices it is less likely that they have such crystallised views on their professional

activities. However, it is assumed -as described in the previous section- that

experts PPTs have a more tacit nature. It is assumed that the PPTs of more

experienced professionals have a more tacit nature, and they have a more organized

and elaborated structure in their PPT (Van der Krogt & Vermulst, 2000). This is in

line with Buitink (2007), who assumes structure PPT is a good indication for a more

developed PPT.

To make these possible differences between the PPTs of professionals -which

can be for example between novices and experts but also between students in the

same professional domain- visible, four main variables will be clarified. The nature

category includes the variables (1) meaningfulness, (2) explicitness, (3) practicality

and (4) specification. These features are based on work of Buitink (2007), Huijts, De

Bruijn & Schaap (2008) and Van der Krogt & Vermulst (2000) and are described in

table 1.

-Insert table 1-

The way that a PPT directs professional behaviour and serves as frame of

reference, depends on the actual situation, the content of the interaction and the

social interaction itself (Van der Krogt & Vermulst, 2000). This implies that the way



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how a PPT directs professional behaviour and thus becomes explicit differs per

situation. Because of the implicit and sometimes tacit nature of PPTs it is assumed

that the development of PPTs is a relatively complex (learning) process, caused by

for example the process of internalisation of new knowledge and experiences in a

PPT, which can be seen as an explicit as well as an implicit process.

2.2 The content of Personal Professional Theories

The content of PPTs consists of three components. First, formal theories, which are

defined as explicit, coherent and systematic bodies of knowledge (Eraut, 1994).

Second, work process knowledge, which can be described as knowledge about the

organizational environment and the professional work context and work processes(Boreham, 2002; 2004). Third, beliefs concerning professional attitudes refer to

personal perspectives concerning adequate professional attitudes and professional

values. The actual content of PPTs is highly domain specific. For example, students

PPTs in the domain of Nursing contain different knowledge than PPTs of students in

the domain of Car Technique. The content of PPTs mentioned in this article is

described by means of different types or categories of knowledge (which will be

conceived as the different components of PPTs), without a domain specific

description.

The concept of theory is used to enclose theoretical insights, experiences, the

connection and internalisation of both and the way how a PPT guides action in

professional situations (Kelchtermans & Vandenberghe, 1994). More concretely,

theory refers to the connection and internalisation of different components of formal

theories, work process knowledge and beliefs concerning professional attitudes.

From this perspective, a PPT refers to an integrated system of personalized

assumptions about adequate professional behaviour, relevant knowledge andoneself as a professional. The connectedness of components implies that change in

one aspect of the theory entails changes in the theory elsewhere (Argyris & Schn).

A PPT depends on a set of stated or unstated assumptions concerning adequate

behaviour, required knowledge and conditions under which it can be expected that

certain behaviour leads to the desired outcome of that behaviour. According to

Argyris & Schn, a full schema for a theory of action, then, would be as follows: in

situation S, if you want to achieve consequence C, under assumption a 1 ... a n, do



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A (p. 6). The content of these schemas in a PPT depends largely on the CPT of a

specific occupational domain. To clarify the schema in a PPT, two different

examples of a PPT of two different professions will be described.

The first example concerns a part of an explicated teachers PPT:When I wantto achieve that a student reflects on her professional attitude while working at the

workplace, I need knowledge about reflection as well as on how to stimulate

reflection. I have to keep in mind that it is difficult to stimulate reflection of this

student, because she didnt see the relevance for reflection, although it is very

important in becoming an adequate professional to reflect on your professional

attitude. The second example concerns a part of a car mechanics PPT: I think, it

is not only important to know every technical detail of a car, it is also important to

be interested in costumers and to listen carefully to the wishes and preferences of

costumers, because a good relation with our clients is essential for our company. I

tell clients always what the alternatives and options are; Ill try to be as transparent

as possible. I think this affects the satisfaction of clients. Also I think it is important

that I keep up with new developments and that I keep learning (based on work of

Argyris & Schn, 1974). The examples show, from different perspectives, that

formal knowledge (theories of reflection, technical knowledge of cars), work process

knowledge (interaction with students and clients) and beliefs concerning

professional attitudes are components of a PPT. Therefore, beliefs refer to adequate

professional behaviour. For instance, the teacher thinks that reflection is an

important skill and activity in becoming a professional. The car mechanic believes

that not only specific technical knowledge is required in his work. This makes clear

that beliefs are relevant in professional behaviour (Argyris & Schn, 1978).

Furthermore, in both examples beliefs concerning adequate professional behaviour

can be recognised.

In the previous section it is described that becoming a professional means

adapting and internalising the shared knowledge and collective norms, values and

notions of a CPT (Lave & Wenger, 1991; Wenger, 1998). This process results in an

own professional theory -the PPT-, which exists of a personal interpretation of these

aspects of a CPT. Consequently, the CPT of a certain occupational domain can serve

as the basis for understanding the content and nature of a PPT. The extent in which

a PPT corresponds with the CPT can be seen as an important indicator for the



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adequateness of a PPT. To identify the adequateness of the content of a PPT

evidence is needed that a PPT for instance sufficiently covers the domain and

constructs intended and that the content of a PPT is relevant for the domain.

Therefore, three variables will be clarified (see table 1). These variables are (1)

relevance, (2) representative and (3) richness (see Buitink, 2007). In table 2, the

variables will be described by clarifying the specific features per variable.

-Insert table 2-

The variables relevance, representative and richness can be used to analyze the

extent in which students PPTs are adequate, seen from the perspective of the CPT.

It is assumed that the more relevant, representative and elaborated a PPT is, the

more adequate a PPT is for the specific occupational domain.

2.3 Personal Professional Theories and Professional Identity

The development of a professional identity is related to the development of

PPTs (Levin & He, 2008), because a PPT intermediates between professional identity

and professional behaviour (see figure 1).An essential aspect of becoming a

professional is the development of a personal professional identity (Beijaard, Meijer

& Verloop, 2004). A professional identity is a dynamic equilibrium between images

of oneself, the available roles -or the perception of them- in a certain occupational

domain and the meanings attributed by others concerning the particular roles in

professions (Geijsel & Meijers, 2005). According to Kelchtermans and Vandenberghe

(1994), a professional identity is a socially constructed, relational and dynamic

concept, whereby a professional identity can be seen as the result of the continuing

interaction between the person and the environment (Etelpelto, 2005).

-Insert figure 1-

PPTs are the explication of ones professional identity (Beijaard, Meijer &

Verloop, 2004; Beijaard, Verloop & Vermunt, 2000). This assumption does not refer



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to the explication of a PPT in professional behaviour; it refers to the more internal

nature of a professional identity and to the more direct relation between a PPT and

professional behaviour.

The development of a professional identity is conceived as a learning process;it is not something that happens to you, but something that you try to construct

with the help of culturally available building materials(Geijsel & Meijers, 2005; p.

424). This implies that a beginning professional must grow into an existing

discourse, in which concepts and more or less shared meanings are available in the

social environment (Bruner, 1990). Through negotiation of meaning a professional

tries to understand and interpret the language of a specific occupational domain.

The most important features of the process of negotiation of meaning will be

elaborated in the next section.

3. The development of Personal Professional Theories

In the previous sections, it is stated that the development of a PPT is important

in becoming a professional, because a PPT has two different functions; a PPT acts

as a filter through which for example beginning professional interpret new

information (Levin & He, 2008). Furthermore, it is assumed that a PPT directs

professional behaviour (Argyris & Schn, 1974; Beijaard & Verloop, 1996). However,

it is still unknown how the development of students PPTs can be stimulated and

facilitated in competence based VET. Therefore, in this section three relevant

aspects of a learning environment will be elaborated. These aspects are 1)

collaborative learning and negotiation of meaning, 2) coaching activities of teachers

and trainers and 3) reflection activities of students.

First, it is assumed that the development of an adequate PPT means

internalisation and personification of shared knowledge, collective norms, values

and notions the CPT- which are characteristic of a specific occupational domain.

For the development of PPTs it is important to create a learning environment in

which students and more experienced professionals explicate (e.g. teachers from

school, trainers at the workplace, experts from a specific occupational domain),

confront and articulate their PPTs with each other, in the context of the CPT (Van

der Sanden & Teurlings, 2003). Through collaborative learning, students can



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engage in sustainable dialogues concerning required formal knowledge, work

process knowledge and the shared knowledge, collective norms, values and notions.

Therefore, a specific activity within the context of collaborative learning is the

process of negotiation of meaning, which refers to the process in which participants

learn through dynamic participation and mutual engagement in the occupational

domain. Wenger (1998) distinguishes three basic elements of negotiation of

meaning; (1) reciprocal interactions and mutual engagement, (2) a joint enterprise

and (3) a shared history of engagement. Through negotiation of meaning students

can explicate and confront their PPTs with the PPTs of other students or experts. In

the end this might lead to the understanding of and adaptation to the shared

knowledge, collective norms, values and notions of an occupational domain. It is

assumed that through the process of negotiation of meaning, which takes place infor example group discussions, students learn from each others PPT. This

interaction includes for example learning from the implicit knowledge of experts,

which can be a teacher, a trainer or an expert from the particular occupational

domain, or confronting own ideas and conceptions with peers and/or experts.

Second, teachers and trainers in VET can stimulate the process of negotiation

of meaning -and therefore the development of students PPTs- by specific coaching

activities. Coaching of teachers and trainers seems to be important in the process of

development of PPTs, because coaching focuses on the integration and

internalisation of different types of knowledge in a PPT. Coaching includes giving

students direct suggestions, hints, reminders, specific feedback or more additional

information. The type of coaching activity depends then on the particular situation.

This implies that coaching can also include modelling and scaffolding activities

(Collins, Brown & Newman, 1989). For example, teachers and trainers can

stimulate the explication and articulation of students PPTs, by posing relevant and

critical questions, involving the way how students see themselves as professionalsand their own perspective of adequate professional behaviour. Furthermore,

teachers and trainers can stimulate the development of students PPTs by relating

professional behaviour of students while they perform at the workplace with the

PPT. The role of PPTs during professional activities can be explicated, prompted by

coaching activities. The main goal of coaching is that students become more aware

of the role of their PPT during professional activities and that students can reflect

on the development of- their PPT (see for example De Bruijn, 2007).



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are PPTs, (2) what is the potential value of the concept of PPTs in competence

based VET, (3) how do PPTs develop and (4) how can the development of PPTs be

stimulated?

A PPT is defined as an own theory concerning adequate professionalbehaviour, in which formal theories, work process knowledge and beliefs concerning

professional attitudes are internalised. A PPT is built upon personal professional

experiences and is seen as an explication of ones professional identity. The function

of a PPT is twofold; a PPT (1) serves as frame of reference for interpreting (new)

professional situations, information and experiences and (2) directs professional

behaviour. The development of a PPT means growing into the CPT of a specific

occupational domain, which exists of shared knowledge, collective norms, values

and notions within an occupational field. This implies that despite of the personal

nature of a PPT there are similarities between the PPTs of different professionals

from the same professional domain. To become a professional one has to internalize

the shared knowledge, collective norms, values and notions of a specific

occupational domain.

Taking the above into account, three relevant notions of learning processes to

stimulate the development of students PPTs are elaborated: 1) collaborative

learning and negotiation of meaning, whereby collaborative learning includesinteraction between students (peers) and in which teachers and trainers have an

important role in guiding these interactive processes and whereby negotiation of

meaning refers to the confrontation and articulation of PPTs, whereby students

internalize and personalize new knowledge and professional experiences, 2)

coaching activities of teachers and trainers in order to help students to explicate

and articulate their PPT and 3) reflection activities of students.

Though we thoroughly explained the concept of PPTs some remarks can be

placed by the concept of PPT that needs further research. A first remark concerns

the internalisation of knowledge and beliefs. The way how the internalisation of

formal theories, work process knowledge and beliefs concerning professional

attitudes takes place is still unknown (Eraut, 1994). A second remark concerns the

relation between PPT and professional behaviour. It is assumed that a PPT directs

professional behaviour. However, we know that interactive cognitions influence the

role of PATs in the actual behaviour of a teacher (Meijer, Verloop & Beijaard, 2002;



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Zanting, Verloop & Vermunt, 2003). Subsequently, Argyris & Schn (1974) have

described that there is a difference between the theory in use -which is comparable

to the concept of PAT- and the espoused theory of a professional. In further

-theoretical- research to the development of PPTs it seems to be relevant to pay

more explicit attention to these remarks.

The use of PPT seems to be fruitful for VET. However, it is still unclear which

methods which can be used for the measurement of PPTs in VET. A number of

issues are then worthy to mention. Developing and using valid and reliable

measurement and assessment tools in VET is crucial but complex (Baartman,

Bastiaens, Kirschner & Van der Vleuten, 2007; Biemans et al., 2004). Firstly, in

assessing PPTs, there can be a dilemma between on the one hand national

standards for assessment and on the other hand to specific, local work

environments. Secondly, to develop appropriate measurement and assessment tools

it is important to involve experts, which represent different professional

stakeholders. The decision of who are the experts that should participate in the

development process is not straightforward. Thirdly, to grasp the different

components of a PPT, it is necessary to use a multi-method approach in which

several methods are used and triangulated to elicit different types of knowledge and

beliefs (e.g. Meijer, Verloop & Beijaard, 2002). Examples of different suitable

methods are concept maps, stimulated recall interviews, interviews (i.e. Beijaard &

Verloop, 1996; Meijer, 1999) and more narrative self descriptions (i.e. Kelchtermans

& Vandenberghe, 1994). Fourthly, there can be a discrepancy between what

(beginning) professionals say about their PPT and their actual PPTs, for instance

because PPTs remain partly implicit. For further research it is recommended to

develop adequate methods which can be used to assess the development of

students PPTs.

Concerning the practical relevance of PPTs, mainly for students in VET, it is

important that they learn what is it means to become and to be a professional in a

particular profession. Therefore, this article underlines that not only formal theories

are important; to become a full-fledged professional it is necessary to grow into the

specific culture of a professional domain and to internalise the shared knowledge

and collective norms, values and notions of professionals in a specific occupational

domain in an own theory; the PPT.



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Figure 1 The relation of a Personal Professional Theory with Professional Identity

and Professional Behaviour

Professional Behaviour

PersonalProfessionalTheory

ProfessionalIdentity



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Table 1 The nature of the Personal Professional Theories

Variable Features (extremes) Description

1. Meaningfulness Superficial Personal meaning The variable meaning refers to the amount in which abeginning professional attach the knowledge andexperiences to him or herself. A PPT can be highly personal;a professional has then a strong personal view of adequateprofessionalism, which has personal meaning for theprofessional. This view is considered as the outcome of theprocess of negotiation of meaning.

2. Explicitness Implicit Explicit This variable refers to the extent in which the beginning professional can explicate his or her PPT. It is assumed thata PPT is an implicit concept, which becomes explicit inprofessional actions.

3. Practicality Practical Theoretical The variable practicality refers to the extent in which the PPTis based on more theoretical or practical assumptions.

4. Specification Situational General This contains the situational and general features in a PPT; it refers to the extent in which a PPT in pointed to specific,more practical situations or to more general assumptions.



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