workbook - intelligence and learning - routledge

A2 Level Psychology Workbook. Copyright © 2009 Psychology Press INTELLIGENCE AND LEARNING 1

Learning ObjectivesIssues to ConsiderA key issue in the study of intelligence is how to measure it, and this is what we will look at firstin the psychometric approach. The information-processing approach that we will consider nextlooks at how cognitive processes such as working memory underpin intelligence.

The learning approach focuses on how intelligence is a skill and so, as such, is learned. Gardnercriticised the focus on IQ as oversimplified and proposed multiple intelligences to better accountfor intelligence. Another interesting area is the intelligence of non-human animals. This involvesvery simple learning through classical and operant conditioning. We will also consider whetherthey have more sophisticated indicators of intelligence such as the ability to recognisethemselves and to manipulate and deceive others.

In the last section we will consider the factors in our evolutionary past that may have causedhuman intelligence. We will also consider the relative contributions of genetic andenvironmental factors to intelligence test performance.

On completion of this topic you should be familiar with the following.

Use this list of learning objectives as a revision checklist. Cross-reference the objectives with theSpecification.

Theories of intelligenceOutline and evaluate the theories of intelligence, including psychometric, informationprocessing, and learning approaches.

Discuss Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences.

Animal learning and intelligenceCritically consider the nature of simple learning (classical and operant conditioning) and itsrole in the behaviour of non-human animals.

Discuss evidence for intelligence in non-human animals, for example, self-recognition, sociallearning, Machiavellian intelligence.

Evolution of intelligenceOutline and evaluate evolutionary factors in the development of human intelligence, forexample ecological demands, social complexity, and brain size.

Describe and assess the role of genetic and environmental factors associated withintelligence test performance, including the influence of culture.

INTELLIGENCE AND LEARNING

Theories of IntelligenceFor details, see Eysenck’s A2 Level Psychology (pages 265–284).

The Psychometric Approach


Fill in the blanks.

Intelligence tests have been developed to try to provide an accurate way of measuringint_________________e. Well known tests include the Stanford–Binet test, the WechslerIntelligence Scale for Children, and the British Ability Scales. These tests are designed tomeasure several aspects of intelligence and so include ma__________________________litems, vo________________ry tests, pr_____________s based on analogies, and itemsrelating to sp_________l ability.

The standardised intelligence quotient (IQ) tests were introduced so that scores could becompared to those of others. These were tested on large representative sa____________s toestablish the reliability and validity of the measures. The intelligence test is devised so thatthe scores form a normal di___________________n (see A2 Level Psychology page 266),which means that the majority of the scores cluster around the mean. The distance from themean is measured in standard dev_______________s, 68% of the scores fall within onestandard deviation of the mean, 95% fall within two standard deviations, and 99.73% arewithin three standard deviations. Intelligence tests are designed to produce a mean IQ of______ and a standard deviation of about 16.

Factor analysis is a statistical t____________ue used to assess how well factors correlate tohelp separate out different aspects of intelligence. If two items correlate highly with eachother, those who perform well on one item tend to perform well on the other one. The keyassumption is that two items correlating highly with each other assess the same factor ofint___________________e. Spearman (1923; see A2 Level Psychology page 267) suggestedthat there is a general factor of intelligence, which he called “g” because most of the itemswithin an intelligence test correlate positively with each other. However, most of these positivecorrelations are fairly weak and so Spearman argued there are sp______________c factorsassociated with each test. Thurstone (1938) also believed that intelligence was more specificthan general. He identified seven factors of intelligence, which he termed primary mentala_______________s: inductive reasoning (forming generalisations from examples), verbalmeaning, numerical ability, spatial ability, perceptual speed, memory, and verbal fluency.

RESEARCH EVIDENCE FOR THE PSYCHOMETRIC APPROACH

Summarise the research evidence below.

Ψ Intelligence test scores and academic performance. How can academic performancebe used to assess the tests?

Ψ Intelligence tests and work performance. What correlation did Hunter (1986) find?


EVALUATION OF THE PSYCHOMETRIC APPROACH

Summarise the evaluation points below.

Ψ The specific factors correlate. How does this challenge Thurstone’s specific approach tointelligence?

Ψ The hierarchical approach. How does this account for the structure of humanintelligence?

Ψ Culture bias. How does Williams (1972) demonstrate the culture bias of intelligencetests?

Ψ Strong research support. What is strongly supported?

Ψ Descriptive rather than explanatory. Why is the psychometric approach descriptiverather than explanatory?

Ψ Reductionist. Why is the psychometric approach very limited?


Ψ Emotional intelligence. How does this show the reductionism of the psychometric approach?

RESEARCH EVIDENCE FOR THEINFORMATION-PROCESSING APPROACH


Ψ Processing speed. Why is this studied?

Ψ A relationship between IQ and reaction time. How do Deary, Der, and Ford (2001)provide evidence for a relationship?

Ψ The inspection-time task. What is this and how is it related to IQ?

FIND OUT FOR YOURSELF: Complete an online IQ test to gain a better understandingof what these involve. Go to: http://www.iqtest.com/

Information-Processing Approach

Fill in the blanks.

The information processing approach tries to move beyond the de______________e accountof intelligence provided by the psychometric approach. This approach has tried to explainintelligence by looking differences in information-processing sp_________s and abilities.


RESEARCH EVIDENCE AGAINST THEINFORMATION-PROCESSING APPROACH


Ψ Early studies on processing speed. How do these provide evidence against?

Ψ The direction of effect. How does this question the relationship between IQ andinspection time?

EVALUATION OF THE INFORMATION-PROCESSING APPROACH


Ψ Sample bias. Why does the early research on intelligence and reaction time lack generalisability?

Ψ Reaction time task was too easy. How does this limit the usefulness of the test?

Ψ Direction of effect. Why is this not clear?


Ψ Usefulness of the findings. Why are the findings important?

Ψ Expands on the psychometric approach. How does the information-processingapproach improve on the psychometric approach?

Ψ Intelligence correlates with performance on nearly all cognitive tasks. How doesthis limit our understanding of intelligence?

Ψ Limited explanatory power. Why does the information-processing approach lackexplanatory power?

Short-term memory and working memory

Fill in the blanks.

The processing c__________________y of short-term memory has been shown in tests ofmemory span in which a series of random digits or letters is presented, after which theparticipant repeats back the items in the correct order. This leads to the prediction thatperhaps more int_____________nt individuals have a greater short-term memory capacitythan other people. Alternatively perhaps intelligence is related to the ability to storeinformation in short-term m__________y while at the same time processing otherinformation. This is wo___________g memory and so those who are intelligent may havehigher working memory capacity than those who are less intelligent.


RESEARCH EVIDENCE INTO SHORT-TERM AND WORKING MEMORY


Ψ Conway, Kane, and Engel (2003). What did they find?

Ψ Daneman and Carpenter (1980). What method for testing working memory did theydevise?

Ψ Conway et al. (2003). What correlation did they find between working memory capacityand general intelligence?

EVALUATION OF SHORT-TERM AND WORKING MEMORY


Ψ Usefulness of the findings. How does the research expand on our understanding?

Ψ Lack of explanatory power. Why are the findings not clear?


Ψ Direction of effect. Why is this not clear?

Fill in the blanks.

Learning from ex_________________e is assumed to play a crucial role in intelligence. Evenif one is naturally gifted in for example music, pr____________e would be needed to perfectthis ability. Howe (1998) identified two rather different kinds of learning:kn__________________e, which is often based on language; and skills, which take the formof a_____________s and are typically not based on language.

Ericsson, Krampe, and Tesch-Römer (1993) and Ericsson and Lehmann (1996) proposeabilities, and forms of exp_________________e are developed through deliberate practice.Deliberate practice has four aspects:

1. The task is at an appropriate level of di_____________y (not too easy or hard).2. The learner is given informative f__________________k about his/her performance.3. The learner has adequate chances to re__________t the task.4. The learner has the opportunity to c_____________t his/her errors.

Ericsson et al. (1993) controversially claim that deliberate practice is all that is needed todevelop expert pe_________________e. Thus, innate talent or ability has practically noinfluence on expert performance.

Learning Approach

RESEARCH EVIDENCE FOR THE LEARNING APPROACH


Ψ The case study SF. How does this support the role of learning?

Ψ Deliberate practice. How was the importance of this demonstrated by violinists in aGerman music academy?


Ψ Savants. How do they demonstrate the importance of learning?

Ψ Knowledge of harness racing (Ceci & Liker, 1986). How did this study support therole of learning over innate intelligence?

Ψ Adult tournament chess players (Grabner, Stern, & Neubauer). What was the bestpredictor of ELO ranking?

RESEARCH EVIDENCE AGAINST THE LEARNING APPROACH


Ψ Sloboda et al.’s (1996) study of successful young musicians. How does thiscontradict the role of learning?

Ψ The mean IQ of those in very complex occupations (e.g. accountants, lawyers,doctors). How does this challenge the learning approach?


EVALUATION OF THE LEARNING APPROACH


Ψ Applications. How can we apply what we know about the role of learning?

Ψ Cause and effect. Why is this not established?

Ψ Sample bias may minimise the effect of intelligence. In what way are the samplesbiased?

Ψ Reductionism. What factors are ignored by the learning approach?

Ψ Multi-perspective. How does this better account for the development of expertise?


Fill in the blanks.

Gardner (1983) proposed that we possess several intelligences that are relatively separate orind___________________t of each other. He criticised previous attempts to explainintelligence as too simplistic.

Any potential intelligence had to meet various criteria to become one of the multipleintelligences:

1. It should depend on identifiable brain str_________________s.2. Studies of brain-damaged patients should indicate that it could be impaired without

disrupting other int______________________s.3. It should involve the use of distinct c_______________e processes.4. There should be exceptional individuals showing a re_______________ble ability (or

deficit) with respect to the intelligence in question.5. In evolutionary terms the development of the intelligence should have improved

humans’ adaptation to the en________________________nt.6. There should be evidence for its existence from ps___________________c findings.

Based on the above criteria Gardner proposed seven intelligences:

Bodily/kinaesthetic Interpersonal Musical

Logical–mathematical Intrapersonal

Linguistic Spatial

In each case below, decide which of the seven intelligences is being described.

1. __________________________________ intelligence: the ability to handle abstractproblems of a logical or mathematical nature.

2. ___________________________ intelligence: the ability to navigate and manipulateobjects spatially, e.g. how to arrange suitcases in the boot of a car, and so on.

3. ____________________ intelligence: used both for active musical processes (e.g. playingan instrument, singing) and more passive processes (e.g. appreciating music).

4. ___________________________ intelligence: the ability to have fine control of bodilymovements in activities such as sport and dancing.

5. _____________________ intelligence: involved in language activities (e.g. reading,writing, speaking).

6. ___________________________ intelligence: the ability to understand one’s ownfeelings.

7. _________________________ intelligence: the ability to understand others’ feelings,beliefs, and intentions.

Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligences

RESEARCH EVIDENCE


Ψ Genius as evidence for multiple intelligences. How did Gardner (1993) use geniusabilities as evidence?


EVALUATION OF THE THEORY OF MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES


Ψ Offers a broader approach to intelligence. How does it expand our knowledge ofintelligence?

Ψ Educational applications. How can the theory be applied?

Ψ Support from further research. How does Goleman (1995) provide further support?

Ψ Lack of evidence. Why is the theory speculative?

Ψ Lisle’s (2007) research on adult participants with intellectual difficulties. What didLisle find?

Ψ Case studies. Which case studies provide some support for the theory?


Ψ The genius-based approach to identifying intelligences is flawed. Why does Jensencriticise this approach?

Ψ The criteria for multiple intelligences lack scientific validity. Why is subjectivity anissue?

Ψ Savants as evidence can also be criticised. What criticism can be made of usingsavants as evidence?

Ψ The multiple intelligences are not completely separate. How does this challengeGardner’s theory?

Ψ Descriptive not explanatory. What does the theory not explain?

Ψ Mixed evidence for the psychometric criteria of multiple intelligences. How welldoes the psychometric approach support Gardner’s intelligences?


FIND OUT FOR YOURSELF: Take an online test to find out more about multipleintelligences at: http://www.ldrc.ca/projects/miinventory/miinventory.php

CONCLUSIONS—SO WHAT DOES THIS MEAN?

Answer the following questions in your conclusions.

• How do the theories of intelligence take very different approaches?

• How are correlational criticisms relevant to much of the research into informationprocessing?

• Why does the learning theory not rule out the role of genetics?

• What are the strengths and weaknesses of Gardner’s multiple intelligences?

Using this in the exam

1 (a) Describe one theory of intelligence. (9 marks)

(b) Evaluate the theory described in part (a). (16 marks)

2 Discuss Gardener’s theory of multiple intelligences. (25 marks)


RESEARCH EVIDENCE ON CLASSICAL CONDITIONING (CC)


Ψ Pavlov’s (1849–1936) discovery of classical conditioning. How did he discover CC?

Ψ The law of temporal contiguity. How does this affect the learning process?

Ψ Generalisation. How does this explain further learning?

Ψ Experimental extinction. How does this occur?

Fill in the blanks.

John Watson established behaviourism, a psychological approach that seeks to study onlythat which is ob_____________le and measurable because it can be studied scientifically.The key assumptions are that it is important to study beh_____________r under controlledconditions and that learning can be accounted for by conditioning principles. He identifiedtwo major types of conditioning: cl______________l conditioning and op__________tconditioning. According to behaviourism, people are born as a tabula rasa (blank slate) andso the individual is solely a product of learning from the en_________________t.

Animal Learning and IntelligenceFor details, see Eysenck’s A2 Level Psychology (pages 284–304).

The Role of Classical and Operant Conditioning in Animal Learning


Ψ Higher order conditioning. What is this?

EVALUATION OF RESEARCH ON CLASSICAL CONDITIONING


Ψ Experimental extinction is contradicted by spontaneous recovery. What does spontaneous recovery reveal that is contradictory to extinction?

Ψ Reductionist. Why is CC oversimplified?

Ψ Learning is not always observable. How does this contradict the theory?

Ψ Deterministic. How does the theory ignore free will?

Ψ Ignores nature. Why is this a key omission?


EVALUATION OF THE ECOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE


Ψ Less reductionist. Why is biological preparedness less reductionist?

Ψ Not all learning is biologically prepared. Why not?

The ecological perspective

Fill in the blanks.

According to the ecological perspective, animals have in________________d behaviouraltendencies helping them to s____________e in their natural environment. Thus, certainforms of learning are more useful than others, and so are acquired more easily because theanimal is innately prepared to do so. This approach is very different from the conventionalbehaviourist one, which completely ignores the role of na_________re.

An example of le____________d preparedness is food-aversion learning. The Garcia effectinvolved three conditioned stimuli at the same time: saccharin-flavoured water, light, and sound(Garcia & Koelling, 1966). Rats learned to av____d either the l______t and s__________d stimulior the flavoured w________r based on them being paired with electric shocks and X-raysinducing nausea respectively. Thus, the animals learned to as_______________e being sick withtaste, and to associate shock with light and sound stimuli.

These findings show that animals are “bio__________________y prepared” to learn somebehaviours more readily than others. This has an ev_________________y basis because thereis an obvious survival value in learning rapidly to develop a taste aversion to any foodfollowed by illness.

Ψ Learning is limited. Why is learning through CC limited?


Operant conditioning

Fill in the blanks.

Operant conditioning is based on the law of re_____________________t, which means thatlearning is based on the co____________________s of behaviour. The probability of a givenresponse occurring increases if followed by a re__________d or positive reinforcer such asfood or praise. This is known as p______________e reinforcement. The behaviour is alsomore likely if followed by negative reinforcement as this is the avoidance of an unpleasantc_________________e and so it “stamps in” the behaviour. The probability of a givenresponse decreases if followed by pu_________________t. The original behaviour is calledthe operant, which is a voluntary behaviour that initially occurs at ra__________m.

RESEARCH EVIDENCE ON OPERANT CONDITIONING (OC)


Ψ The Skinner box. What did this research involve?

Ψ Shaping. What does this involve?

Ψ Chaining. What is this?

Ψ The same principles as CC. Which principles are the same across CC and OC?

Ψ Schedules of reinforcement. How do different schedules of reinforcement affectwhether behaviour will become extinct?


EVALUATION OF OPERANT CONDITIONING


Ψ Applications. How has OC been applied?

Punishment: positive and negative

Fill in the blanks.

Operant conditioning in which a response is followed by an aversive stimulus is known aspositive pu______________nt (often simply called punishment). If the aversive stimulusoccurs shortly after the response, it reduces the likelihood the response will be produced infuture. Learning to avoid making responses that are followed by the removal of somethingpleasant or re___________d (negative punishment) also occurs.

Skinner argued that pu___________________nt can suppress certain responses for a while,but it doesn’t produce new le____________g. Punishment often has a more lasting effectwhen animals can obtain positive reinforcement with an alternative response. Thus, if youwant to remove an undesirable behaviour then it is better to reward an alternativebe_________________r, so that the undesirable one is less likely to occur.

The ecological perspective

Fill in the blanks.

Skinner’s view was that virtually any response could be co_________________d in any stimulussituation—this is known as equipotentiality. In fact, this is not true as some behaviours areharder to l__________n than others and even harder to maintain because of “instinctive drift”,i.e. the preference for a behaviour that is inst_______________e may replace or modify theconditioned behaviour. This is shown in research by Gaffan, Hansel, and Smith (1983) in whichrats in a T-shaped maze had to decide whether to turn left or right. According to conditioning,if the rat was rewarded for turning left it should turn left on the following trial. However, inthe natural en________________t the rat would not return to where it had just removed food.Gaffan et al. found that early in training rats tended to avoid the arm of the maze in whichthey had previously found food as predicted from the ecological perspective. This shows theinfluence of their inst______________e behaviour.

Avoidance learning

Fill in the blanks.

Avoidance learning is when a new behaviour is sta____________d in because it stops aversivestimuli being presented. This is avoidance learning because the new behaviour is learned inorder to av_____d the aversive stimulus and this avoiding of an unpleasant consequence iscalled negative rei_________________nt. For example, a child who eats dinner so that he/shecan go out to play is an example of the desired behaviour (eating dinner) being stamped inso that the unpleasant consequence of not being allowed out to play is av_____________d.


Ψ Equipotentiality lacks validity. Why is this not valid?

Ψ Circularity. How is the theory circular?

Ψ Individual differences. How do these affect reinforcement?

Ψ Ignores other forms of learning. Which learning is not accounted for by OC?


Ψ Difficult to distinguish between CC and OC. Why is it hard to distinguish between thetwo forms of learning?


Ψ Scientific validity. Why does the research have scientific validity?

Ψ External validity. Why is the research artificial?

Ψ Ignores cognitive factors. Why is this a key omission?

FIND OUT FOR YOURSELF: Decide whether the following points relate to classical oroperant conditioning and organise in the table below.

Learning through consequences Avoidance learning

Pairing of two stimuli Behaviour shaping

Pavlov’s research with dogs Learning through association

Reinforcement Skinner’s work with rats

Higher order conditioning Schedules of reinforcement

Classical conditioning Operant conditioning


Fill in the blanks.

Among many species, what we could call “social in_______________e” is really important.Individual apes or monkeys need to co______________te effectively with other members ofthe same species to ensure they have enough food to eat and that they mate andreproduce. Such abilities are further evidence for intelligence in non-human a___________ls.

Self-recognition

Fill in the blanks.

The mirror test is used to assess self-re______________on. This involves placing a red dot onthe face of the animal during play so that it does not realise the dot has been placed there.The animal is then placed in front of a mirror and if it reaches to remove the dot then it hasself-recognition, as such behavior shows it re_________________s the image in them__________r as its own.

Evidence for Intelligence in Non-human Animals

RESEARCH EVIDENCE FOR SELF-RECOGNITION


Ψ Gallup’s (1970) research using a full-length mirror. How does this show self-recognition?

Ψ Gallup’s (1970) “mirror test”. What were the findings of this?

Ψ Gallup’s (1970) “mirror test” on monkeys. Did they have self-recognition?


RESEARCH EVIDENCE AGAINST SELF-RECOGNITION


Ψ Little evidence of self-recognition. Which species does not show self-recognition?

Ψ The association between success on the mirror test and possessing self-awarenessmay not be very close. Why has the association been questioned?

Ψ Some species occupy an intermediate position. How do the capuchin monkeys seemto do this?

Ψ The “mirror test” on dolphins. Did they have self-recognition?

Ψ The “mirror test” on elephants. Did they have self-recognition?


EVALUATION OF THE RESEARCH ON SELF-RECOGNITION


Ψ Concurrent validity. What is the mirror test concurrent with?

Ψ Self-recognition is a prerequisite of empathy. Why do these appear to be linked?

Ψ Anthropomorphism. What is this and how might it bias research?

Ψ Validity of the mirror test. How valid is the test?

Social learning

Fill in the blanks.

Many animals, particularly primate species, spend much of their time in social groups.Consequently, s__________l intelligence (i.e. intelligence applied to the social world) isespecially important. This is acquired through social le_____________g and can involvevarious processes (e.g. ob________________al learning; imitation). Such learning wouldmainly relate to the l________________n of food and avoidance of pr_________________s.Whiten and van Schaik (2007) claimed that some species (especially chimpanzees and otherprimates) can acquire traditions and even cu___________e, but only the human species hasdeveloped complex cultures. A culture develops when a social group possesses numeroustraditions and a tradition is the shared be______________r patterns of a particular culture.


RESEARCH EVIDENCE ON SOCIAL LEARNING


Ψ Social learning, innovation, tool use, and executive brain ratio. How are these related?

Ψ Observational learning in chimpanzees. What evidence is there for this?

Ψ Social learning in orang-utans on the Indonesian island of Sumatra. What did thisstudy find?

Ψ The abilities to solve problems involving their physical and social worlds in chimpanzees, orang-utans, and children aged 21/2. What differences in abilities werefound?

EVALUATION OF THE RESEARCH EVIDENCE ON SOCIAL LEARNING


Ψ Strong evidence. Why is the evidence strong?


RESEARCH EVIDENCE FOR MACHIAVELLIAN INTELLIGENCE


Ψ Deception over food. What evidence is there that animals deceive each other over food?

Machiavellian intelligence

Fill in the blanks.

One of the most influential approaches focusing on social abilities is the Machiavellianint_______________ce hypothesis (Byrne & Whiten, 1988, 1990). According to thishypothesis, members of species living in permanent social groups need to ev_______e anability to out-wit others within the group. This can be achieved by means of Machiavellianintelligence—the ability to ma_____________te the social environment through cheating(tactical de______________n) and detecting cheating in others. Machiavellian intelligence isfairly complex, because you can only successfully deceive others when you have areasonable understanding of what they are thinking and/or feeling.

Ψ Direction of effect. Why can we not be sure about the direction of effect?

Ψ May account for differences between species. How does social learning account fordifferences?



EVALUATION OF THE RESEARCH ON MACHIAVELLIAN INTELLIGENCE


Ψ Strong evidence. How strong is the evidence?

Ψ Generalisability. Why does the research lack generalisability to real-life behaviour?

RESEARCH EVIDENCE AGAINST MACHIAVELLIAN INTELLIGENCE


Ψ The argument against the use of tactical deception by primates. Why might thetactical deception not be intentional?

Ψ Chimpanzees can engage in intentional deception. How do Hare, Call, andTomasello (2006) provide evidence of this?

Ψ Non-human primates’ brain size. How is brain size linked to Machiavellian intelligence?


Outline and evaluate the role of classical and operant conditioning in animal learning. (25 marks)

Critically consider the evidence for animal intelligence (e.g. self-recognition, social learning, Machiavellian intelligence. (25 marks)


Ψ Subjectivity of the evidence. How does this affect validity?

Ψ Cause and effect. Why can this not be established?



• How well do classical and operant conditioning account for learning in non-human-animals?

• What important factors are ignored by the learning theories?

• Do non-human animals possess intelligence?


Evolution of IntelligenceFor details, see Eysenck’s A2 Level Psychology (pages 305–322).

Evolutionary Factors in the Development of Human Intelligence

RESEARCH EVIDENCE FOR ECOLOGICAL THEORY


Ψ The dietary hypothesis. How does this link brain size to food supply?

Ψ The mental maps hypothesis. How does this link brain size to food supply?

Ψ The extractive foraging hypothesis. What do species that have difficulty in extractingfood use and how does this affect brain size?

Ψ Digestive systems. How do these show the influence of evolution and what is theimplication for brain size?

Ecological selection theory

Fill in the blanks.

This is intelligence developed in response to en________________l demands. Foraging forf_____d, h_____________g, and tool use require intelligence. Obtaining food presents ac______________e challenge as the location and variations in sources of food must beremembered. Food supplies are often unpredictable and the capture of food may requirecomplex hunting str_________________es.


Social complexity

Fill in the blanks.

According to the social brain hypothesis, intelligence and brain size will tend to be greater inthose species having complex so_______l structures. Intelligence developed in response tothe demands of gr___p living. The social environment presents a cognitive challenge as aTheory of Mind is needed. That is, the individual must have self-aw______________s and anunderstanding that others’ intentions, viewpoint, thoughts, and emotions are different fromone’s own in order to predict the behaviour of others. They will also have an evolutionaryadvantage if they are able to use tactical de_______________n and detect ch____________gin others (Machiavellian Intelligence). Social complexity includes the need for deception, theformation of coalitions, co-operative strategies, and mating strategies.

RESEARCH EVIDENCE AGAINST THE ECOLOGICAL THEORY


Ψ Dunbar’s (1998) research on foraging and the size of the neocortex. How does thiscontradict ecological theory?

Ψ Social theory. Why might this provide a more convincing explanation?

Ψ There is not a clear association between tool use and intelligence. Why not?

Ψ Small-brained animals. How do these contradict ecological theory?


RESEARCH EVIDENCE FOR SOCIAL COMPLEXITY

Decide whether the following pieces of research provide evidence for or against the socialcomplexity hypothesis.

For Against

Schillaci (2006) found among several primate species that those having thelargest relative brain sizes had monogamous mating systems. Superficially, itlooks as if this finding doesn’t fit the social brain hypothesis. However, it can be argued speculatively that primate monogamy involves more complex social skills than alternative mating strategies.

Given that many apes do live in social groups, much larger brains should befound in apes and monkeys if intelligence had a social origin. Theencephalisation quotient (EQ) for primates is 2.34 and the EQ for humans is 7; the proportion of the cortex to the rest of the brain is 50% in primates and 80% in humans. Therefore we would expect primates’ brains to be 2–3times bigger if group living was the main factor in the development ofintelligence.

Dunbar (1998) correlated both environmental and social complexity with thesize of the neocortex, the area of the brain associated with higher orderthinking. No relationship was found between neocortex size and environmental complexity, whereas a strong positive correlation was foundbetween this and group size as an indicator of social complexity.

Research on self-recognition supports the Theory of Mind. The mirror testinvolves applying a red mark to an animal’s forehead. Animals with a self-concept should touch this mark when they look in the mirror. Chimps andorang-utans reliably demonstrate self-recognition, whereas lower primates and non-primates do not. Theory of mind develops in humans during infancy.

Social groups may exist without knowledge of others’ minds (e.g. ants) and sointelligence is not inextricably linked to social living as the Theory of Mind andthe Machiavellian hypothesis suggest.

There is great diversity in the social systems of primates with a Theory of Mind. Orang-utans have a Theory of Mind and are thought to be intelligent but do not live in large social groups, which challenges the social complexitytheory.

Another aspect of the Theory of Mind is the ability to deceive and recognisedeception in others. This is called Machiavellian intelligence and is adaptive asthe individual has much to gain from being able to deceive and cheat otherswithout raising suspicion. Observational evidence suggests that only the higherprimates show tactical deception. This supports the social theory thatintelligence is a result of social complexity.

According to Byrne and Bates (2007), we shouldn’t exaggerate social skills. The enlarged neocortex improves perception, learning in social contexts, andlong-term memory. Thus these may contribute more to social complexity thansocial skills.

Fossil records provide evidence that the size of the human social group hasincreased as we have evolved over time—from Homo sapiens co-habiting ingroups of 150, to the much larger villages and towns of agricultural man. Asthe social group increases, so does the need for more complex interpersonalskills, supporting the theory that intelligence is required for success and survival within the group.


EVALUATION OF ECOLOGICAL AND SOCIAL THEORIES


Ψ Face validity. Why do the explanations have face validity?

Ψ Anthropomorphic measures of intelligence. Why are there great difficulties in measuring and interpreting animal intelligence?

Ψ Neocortex size is not synonymous with intelligence. Why not?

Ψ Difficult to operationalise and so test foraging and social complexity. Why is it difficult to test ecological and social factors?

Ψ Cause and effect. Why is this not established?

Ψ Direction of the effect. Why is this an issue?


RESEARCH EVIDENCE FOR A RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN BRAIN SIZE AND INTELLIGENCE

Fill in the blanks.

Co-evolution: This refers to when two characteristics ev________e in tandem. Analogieshave been drawn where the brain growth is the “hardware” and the mental abilities the“so_________e”, and consequently they are interdependent. This suggests that there is ap_______________e correlation between brain size and intelligence.

The Triune Model: According to MacLean (1970), the brain consists of three main sections:

• The reptilian core. Inherited from our reptile-like ancestors, all animals have this primitive core, which is responsible for b__________c drives and simple behaviour.

• Old mammalian (limbic system)—the mid-section. This area of the brain isconcerned with fig____________g, feeding, self-preservation, s_____________y,attachments, and parental care. It integrates sensory perception with bodily functions.

• The neocortex—outer layer. The cortex is found only in m_______________ls and is responsible for higher order m___________________l processes. The cortex is the outerlayer of the cerebral he_________________s and is known as the grey matter comparedto the white matter of the hemispheres. The cortex is only 2 millimetres thick and has abumpy, folded appearance. These folds mean that the actual area of the cortex is large.

The Triune model shows the increasing growth and sophistication of the brain in animalshigher up the phylogenic tree (evolution hierarchy). It provides research evidence for are_____________p between brain size and in___________________e.

Measures of brain sizeThe question of whether size is a clear indicator of intelligence has been researched extensively through co________________e studies. Initially, crude measures of gross brainsize were compared. However, measures of brain size are over-simplistic as thee________________t’s brain is four times the size of a human’s and some species ofw___________e have brains five times human size, which is explained by their greater bodymass. The ratio of brain size to body mass was thought to be a better indicator. However,using this criterion the m___________e outclasses the human with a relative brain to bodysize of 3% compared to 2% for humans.

The relationship between brain size and intelligence

Fill in the blanks.

Humans have brains two to three times bi___________r than our closest related species andso finding the reason why the human brain is so large and if size is all important leads tointeresting debate.

Ψ A chance mutation. How might this account for human intelligence?


RESEARCH EVIDENCE AGAINST A RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN BRAIN SIZE AND INTELLIGENCE


Ψ Nurture. How does this contradict an innate basis to brain size and intelligence?

Encephalisation quotient (EQ)Consequently, the encephalisation quotient (EQ) was introduced. This is the calculation of thebr_____n size relative to b____y mass compared to what would be expected for a mammalof s________________r body size. An allometric line (allometry equals the relationshipbetween the size of a ma________________l and the size of its brain) can be constructed ona graph where those above the line have a positive en____________________________nshowing the brain size is greater than that expected of an animal of its body mass. Humanslie well above the allometric line as we have a high EQ—the human brain is twice the sizeexpected for an ape of similar size. This is shown by the amount of energy the human brainconsumes. A chimp devotes only 8% of its basal metabolic rate (i.e. number ofca______________s when resting) to maintaining the brain, whereas humans devote 22%.

Fossil recordsThe fossil records suggest that the human brain underwent rapid expansion about 2m____________n years ago, as Australopithecines possessed normal size brains for bodymass whereas Homo sapiens possess brains tw_____e the size. Thus, the Australopithecines’brain size falls on the allometric line, whereas the Homo sapiens’ lies above it, showing apositive encephalisation of 2.95. Seven million years ago our ancestors had a brain that wasonly about 400 cubic centimetres (cc). Brain size didn’t change much for millions of yearsafter that, but by 2.5 millions years ago with Homo habilis the br_____n size had almostdoubled to about 700cc. Homo habilis then evolved into Homo erectus who had a brainsize of about 1000cc. Over the past 500,000 years, human brain size increased again and isnow about 1350cc (Stewart, 1997).

The fact that the human brain has grown to a size that incurs great c______s (such as thedangers of childbirth and an extended period of parental care, as the human infant is nowborn at an earlier stage in development because the brain is larger) suggests that largebrains must have ad_____________e value so that the benefits outweigh the costs. Thissupports the argument that larger brains are linked to intelligence.

Brain size and IQInitial studies measured the head p______________r and correlated this with IQ score. Nocorrelation was found, however this is due to the crudeness of the me___________e ofbrain size! Today we can obtain good measures of brain size in living individuals by usingbrain-imaging techniques such as m_______________c resonance imaging (MRI). McDaniel(2005) reported an average correlation between brain size and IQ of +.33 across 37 samples


EVALUATION OF THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN BRAIN SIZE AND INTELLIGENCE

(a) Anthropomorphism. Comparative studies may be invalidated.(b) Validity of IQ tests. As these are culturally biased their meaningfulness as a measure of

intelligence is reduced, so provide only weak support to the relationship between brainsize and intelligence.

(c) Research evidence. Evolution is accepted by the scientific community as fact. There isevidence of the gradual change of evolution, such as changes in anatomy—in particularbrain size, that necessitated an increase in meat consumption.

(d) Scientific criticisms. The lack of evidence means that evolutionary explanations lackscientific validity because they can neither be verified nor falsified and so do not meetPopper’s criterion of science that the theory can be tested and rejected.

(e) Reductionism. Intelligence is extremely complex and so there is unlikely to be a simplerelationship between this and the EQ.

(f) Determinism. Evolutionary theories are considered deterministic because they suggestthat genes control behaviour, which ignores the free will of the individual, i.e. theirability to control their own behaviour.

(g) Correlational criticisms. The research evidences an association only between brainsize and intelligence.

(h) Direction of effect. Utilisation versus atrophy. Use it or lose it! The direction of effect isdifficult to establish, e.g. was Einstein’s prefrontal cortex the cause or effect of hisintellectual powers?

Ψ Not all parts of the brain are equal. How does this contradict overall brain size?

Ψ Gender differences. How does this show brain size is not the only determinant ofintelligence?

Ψ A post-mortem examination of Albert Einstein’s brain. What does this supportrather than brain size?


(i) Nature/nurture. The evolutionary explanations overemphasise the role of nature andignore nurture. It is not a question of nature or nurture, as indisputably an interactionistperspective must be taken. However, as the evolutionary explanations ignore nurture thisis a key weakness.

(j) Multi-perspective. Evolutionary explanations need to be considered in combinationwith other explanations.

So what? Don’t just state, elaborate!The above criticisms have only been identified, which of course will only receive minimalcredit in the exam. To receive full credit the points must be elaborated. Remember the threesteps: IDENTIFY, EXPLAIN, and CONCLUDE.

See if you can match each of the six elaborated points below to the correct evaluation pointabove.

(Note: only some of the points have been elaborated.)

1. The Triune model is very oversimplified given the brain’s overall complexity. The braincan’t really be neatly subdivided into just three parts. In addition, there are importantdifferences within the different parts of each layer. For example, within the neocortexthere are areas specialised for visual processing and other areas specialised for languageprocessing.

Evaluation point = _________________________

2. Thus, cause and effect cannot be inferred and so conclusions are limited to associationrather than causation. Furthermore, the correlation quotient of .33 is not a strongcorrelation. Another weakness is that correlations are reductionist because they onlyanalyse two factors when in reality the relationship is likely to be multifactorial, assupported by the identification of factors such as nurture and organisation.


3. Both biological and psychological factors interact in the development of intelligence andso a compromise position such as the diathesis–stress model is needed, which accountsfor the influence of genetic predisposition and environmental experience.


4. Whilst evolutionary psychologists do not usually take the view that we cannot escapeour genes, the theories themselves can appear deterministic, and so this ignores our freewill, which many do exercise in their development of their own intelligence.


5. Animals are usually tested and judged on tasks that are unnatural because they testhuman abilities. It is difficult for researchers to escape their own anthropomorphic bias.


6. However, we cannot be sure of the exact processes of evolution because the theory ispost-hoc (made-up after the event) and so we have to rely on fossils and other sourcesof incomplete evidence. This means we cannot be entirely sure of the evolution of brainsize and in particular intelligence, because judgments about intelligence are made based on our knowledge of our ancestors behaviour which may not be verycomprehensive.



ROLE OF GENETIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS ININTELLIGENCE TEST PERFORMANCE

Fill in the blanks.

Individual differences in intelligence can be linked to either h__________y oren_______________t. Heredity consists of each person’s genetic inh________________e, theinstructions that tell your body to produce hair of a particular colour, etc. Environment consistsof the situations and ex_________________s encountered by people during their lives.

Many psychologists have studied the relative contributions of genetics versus environmentand this leads to the conclusion that individual dif____________s in intelligence depend ondifferences in g__________tic endowment or differences in the environment.

Those who believe in the importance of heredity draw a distinction between the genotypeand the phenotype. The genotype is the genetic inheritance whereas the phenotype consistsof an individual’s observable cha____________________s. So far as intelligence isconcerned, we can’t assess the genotype. All we can do is assess the phenotype byadministering an intelligence test.

However, the reality is we cannot separate out the effects of hereditary and environmentbecause our genetic makeup influences the types of en_____________________alexperiences we have.

Plomin (1990) identified three types of interdependence between genetic factors andenvironment:

1. Active covariation: occurs when children of differing genetic ability look for situationsreinforcing their genetic dif______________es (e.g. children of high genetic abilityreading numerous b_________s).

2. Passive covariation: occurs when parents of high genetic ability provide a moresti____________________g environment than parents of lower genetic ability.

3. Reactive environment: occurs when an individual’s genetically influenced behaviour helpsto determine how he/she is tr___________d by other people.

Twin studies are a useful way of assessing the relative importance of genetic factors andenvironment by comparing mo_____________c twins (100% same genes) and dizygotic(also known as fraternal) twins (approximately 50% of the same genes). If genetic factorsinfluence individual differences in intelligence, id______________l twins should be morealike in intelligence than fr_____________l twins. In contrast, if environmental factors areall-important, identical twins should be no more alike than fraternal twins. The degree ofsimilarity in intelligence shown by pairs of twins is usually reported in the form ofco_________________s. A correlation of +1.00 would mean that both twins in a pair haveessentially the same IQs, whereas a correlation of 0.00 would mean there is no relationshipbetween the IQs of twins.

Adoption studies provide another way of assessing the relative importance of geneticfactors and env__________________t in determining individual differences in intelligence. Ifgenetic factors are more important than environment, adopted children’s IQs will be moresimilar to those of their bi_________________l parents than their adoptive parents. Theopposite pattern will be found if environment is more important.

Heritability is a population measure that provides an estimate of the importance ofg____________c factors in determining individual differences in intelligence. If everyone in agiven population were exposed to precisely the same environmental conditions then allindividual differences in intelligence would be due to genetic factors and sohe_________________y would be extremely high. Whereas in societies with enormousenvironmental differences the role of genetic factors in producing individual differences inintelligence would be small and so heritability would be low.


RESEARCH EVIDENCE FOR GENETIC FACTORS


Ψ Bouchard and McGue’s (1981) review of twin studies. What did they find?

Ψ McCartney, Harris, and Bernieri’s (1990) review of twin studies. How does thissupport reliability in the findings on twin studies?

Ψ Identical twins brought up apart. How does this support genetic and environmentalfactors?

Ψ Bouchard et al.’s (1990) findings. How do these support the reliability and validity of agenetic basis of intelligence?

Ψ Mackintosh’s (1998) heritability measures. How much does he attribute intelligenceto genetic factors?


RESEARCH EVIDENCE AGAINST GENETIC FACTORS AND SO FOR ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS


Ψ Identical twins are treated similarly. How do Loehlin and Nichols (1976) point to therole of environmental factors?

Ψ The prenatal environment may also explain the differences in intelligence between MZ and DZ twins. What evidence is there for this?

Ψ The heritability of intelligence depends on environment. How do Brace’s (1996)findings demonstrate this?

Ψ The Texas Adoption Project. How does this support hereditary, albeit weakly?

Ψ Loehlin, Horn, and Willerman’s (1989) follow-up of the Texas Adoption Project.Why does this provide stronger support for the role of hereditary?


EVALUATION OF THE ROLE OF GENETIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS IN INTELLIGENCE TEST PERFORMANCE

Decide which evaluation point goes with each of the elaborations below.

Difficult to interpret the findings from adoption studies.Strong empirical support.Validity of IQ tests.Adoption studies do not isolate genetic factors.Correlational evidence.Impossible to establish that environmental risk factors cause lower intelligence.Sample bias.Genetic and environmental factors are positively correlated.

Ψ Comparisons between adopted and non-adopted children. How do these supportthe role of environmental factors?

Ψ Comparisons between identical twins brought up together with those broughtup apart. How do these support the role of environmental factors?

Ψ The Flynn effect How does this support the role of environmental factors?

Ψ Risk factors related to lower IQ. What are these?


Culture

Fill in the blanks.

Culture has an effect on intelligence test performance because the co_________________eskills that are important vary from one culture to another. Thus, for example, language skillsincluding re___________g and wri____________g are very important within most Westerncultures, but more practical skills are emphasised in other cultures.

Culture is an issue in terms of IQ tests because the tests have been devised by psychologistsworking in the U___________d States or in E_____________e. It has sometimes beenclaimed that American and/or Europeans are more intelligent than people from most otherparts of the world. However, this is simply not true. The problem is that the IQ tests areeth_________________c, i.e. biased to favour the c____________e in which they weredevised, and so they are not a v_________d measure of intelligence in other cultures.

Ψ ________________________________________________ Identical twins are relatively rare,and identical twins brought up in separate families are obviously even rarer.

Ψ ___________________________________________ Many identical twins brought up apartwere brought up in separate branches of the same family, and so their environments mayhave been fairly similar. Other identical twins were brought up together for several yearsbefore being separated. Note Bouchard’s later study addressed this as it only involvedtwins separated before 5 months of age.

Ψ ____________________________________ It is very hard to interpret the findings of manyadoption studies because of selective placement, which is where children are placed inhomes similar to those of their biological parents in educational and social backgrounds.Thus, the correlation between adopted children and their biological parents may be dueto selective placement rather than to genetic factors.

Ψ ________________________________________________________ Sameroff et al.’sfindings don’t show that the environmental risk factors they identified were actuallyresponsible for low IQs. It is also likely that the parents of the high-risk children were less intelligent than those of the low-risk children and so there are differences in genetic potential between the low-risk and high-risk groups of children. It seems likelythat the adverse environmental factors have some negative effects on children’sintelligence, but it is, as always, impossible to separate out the influence of genes versusenvironment.

Ψ _____________________________ Twin studies provide convincing evidence because they allow us to observe the effects of varying degrees of genetic similarity onintelligence, and so provide strong support for both the influence of genetic andenvironmental factors.

Ψ ______________________________________________________ Individuals with thegreatest genetic potential for intelligence tend to find themselves in environmentsfavourable for the development of intelligence (e.g. staying at school until the age of 18,going to university). This makes it hard to disentangle the effects of genetic andenvironmental factors.

Ψ ____________________________________ Research into environmental factors iscorrelational because the environment cannot be manipulated. This means cause andeffect cannot be established and so we cannot conclude that environmental factors causechanges in intelligence.

Ψ ________________________________ Intelligence tests are not necessarily a valid measureof intelligence. They are culture biased and narrow in scope because they fail to assesssocial or emotional intelligence. Consequently, the evidence is on differences inintelligence as assessed by intelligence tests, which is not necessarily a valid measure ofintelligence.


RESEARCH EVIDENCE OF CULTURAL DIFFERENCES


Ψ Okagaki and Sternberg’s (1993) study of ethnic groups in San Jose, California.How does this show evidence for cultural differences within a culture?

Ψ Grigorenko et al.’s (2004; see A2 Level Psychology page 320) study of traditionalintelligence versus practical intelligence in Yup’ik Eskimo children. What did thisstudy find?

Ψ Sternberg et al. (2002) and dynamic testing. What does this involve and how does itimprove on traditional single testing?

EVALUATION OF THE RESEARCH INTO CULTURAL DIFFERENCES


Ψ Validity of intelligence tests. Why is this an issue?

Ψ Dynamic testing is less biased. What are the implications of this?




• How well do ecological and social factors account for the development of human intelligence?

• Is there a relationship between brain size and intelligence?

• What is the relative contribution of genetic and environmental factors in intelligence test performance?

• How does culture influence intelligence test performance?

FIND OUT FOR YOURSELF: Imagine you have been stranded on a remote island afteryour aeroplane crash landed. There is no hope of rescue so how will you and the othersurvivors develop a new culture? Which forms of intelligence will be most important inyour new world? How might this be affected by your previous life experiences? Nowimagine you find a tribe indigenous to the island. How will their intelligence differ fromthat of the survivors’?


Critically consider evolutionary factors in the development of human intelligence. (25 marks)

Critically consider the relationship between brain size and human intelligence. (25 marks)

Example Essay Plan

Critically consider the evolutionary factors in the development of intelligence. (25 marks)

The marking is broken down into three sets of criteria, AO1, AO2, and AO3, but this is not howyou should write your essay. The essay should include all these criteria in a holistic way—e.g. asyou write about each explanation then write about the research studies supporting andchallenging the theory, and comment on the validity of the factors as an influence onintelligence.

AO1 (9 marks)A general but accurate description of the evolutionary factors is needed, more than just anoutline, and including descriptions of relevant research studies. The question does specifyfactors plural so more than just one must be considered—don’t get caught up in ecological andso not have time for social complexity.

AO2 (12 marks)Commentary and evaluation of the factors is needed. Consider the strengths and weaknesses ofthe evidence.

AO3 (4 marks)Evaluation of the factors could include considering the weaknesses of the evolutionary approachsuch as it being reductionist and deterministic; it lacks scientific validity. Also consider the issueof operationalisation of the factors.

So the essay could be structured in the following way.

Outline the ecological explanationsThese include the dietary hypothesis, the mental maps hypothesis, and the extractive foraginghypothesis. Also describe how humans’ diets are more varied and complex than the herbivorousgorillas and orang-utans and consequently the digestive systems differ, which may be similar interms of the brain.

Counter the evidence for with evidence againstThis could include Dunbar’s (1998) research, which contradicted all three hypotheses. The socialtheory may provide a more convincing explanation of the development of human intelligence asdealing with social problems probably provides more of a cognitive challenge than finding food.Also there is not a clear association between tool use and intelligence. Furthermore, a keyweakness of the foraging theory, as a basis on which to judge intelligence, is that animals withbrains much smaller than humans’ successfully use cognitive maps and hunt.

Outline the social explanationInclude the Theory of Mind and Gallup’s (1970) research using the mirror test and Machiavellianintelligence as support.



Use Dunbar’s (1998) research on the correlation between the neocortex and intelligence to supportsocial complexity as the more valid theory. Include fossil records as evidence and that Schillaci(2006) found that species with the largest relative brain sizes had monogamous mating systems.

Consider the challenges to the social complexity hypothesisInclude the fact that orang-utans have a Theory of Mind but do not live in large social groups.Also, social groups can exist without knowledge of each other’s minds. Furthermore, given thatmany apes do live in social groups, much larger brains should be found in apes and monkeys ifintelligence has a social origin. Further evidence against is provided by Byrne and Bates (2007)who suggest we shouldn’t exaggerate social skills.

Discuss the scientific weaknesses of the research evidence.Consider limitations such as the fact there are great difficulties in measuring and interpretinganimal intelligence. Assess the difficulty we have in creating a culturally fair test of IQ in humansto appreciate the even greater difficulty in devising a species-fair test of intelligence acrossanimals and humans. Thus, the measures of intelligence may lack accuracy due toanthropomorphism. Also consider that neocortex size is not synonymous with intelligence, andthat there are also difficulties with operationalising (i.e. measuring) environmental and socialcomplexity. Consequently the data inputted into the correlations may not be valid.

Consider the correlational weaknesses such as cause and effect, direction of effect, and role ofother factors.

Discuss criticisms of evolutionary theoryUse these to assess the validity of the factors, e.g. reductionism, determinism, scientific validity,unfalsifiable or verifiable because they cannot be tested as they are post hoc (made up after theevent). They are also selective in the behaviours they choose to explain, ignoring the ones theycan’t or that have clearly better alternative explanations.

Relate to the factors as these weaknesses mean we cannot really be sure how our ancestorswere shaped by ecological and social factors because the fossil evidence does not show howtheir intelligence evolved.

Conclude that a multi-perspective is neededThe factors in the development of human intelligence identified thus far offer no conclusiveexplanation for why human brains grew so large. A combination of ecological and social factorsseems the most comprehensive account. However, these factors do not effectively pinpoint theorigin of intelligence. The mutant gene that led to bipedalism may be the origin, and so thedevelopment of intelligence may be due to random genetic mutation! Human intelligence maybe the result of a chance mutation that resulted in bipedalism and so freed our hands to forageand create tools. Brain size and intelligence would be a consequence of better diet.

workbook - intelligence and learning - routledge

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