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Working Together Manual for Sign Language Work within Development Cooperation

Working Together Manual for Sign Language Work within Development Cooperation

www.slwmanual.info

[email protected]

2015

© Finnish Association of the Deaf

Publication of the Finnish Association of the Deaf

ISSN 1457-1099

ISBN 978-952-5396-72-0 (ePub) ISBN 978-952-5396-73-7 (USB) ISBN 978-952-5396-74-4 (PDF)

© World Federation of the Deaf

Pictures: Petra Juva

Layout and design:

LLiisstt ooff CCoonntteennttss FFoorreewwoorrdd 55

Foreword 1/4 5 Foreword (continues) 2/4 6 Foreword (continues) 3/4 6

How was the manual created? 6 Foreword (continues) 4/4 7

Contributors to the manual in alphabetical order (by surname): 7 11.. IINNTTRROODDUUCCTTIIOONN –– WWHHYY HHAAVVEE WWEE MMAADDEE TTHHIISS MMAANNUUAALL?? 99 1.1 The framework of the manual – the UN CRPD and the policies of the WFD 9 1.2 Why do we need a manual for Sign Language Work? 9 1.3 Who is this manual for? 10 1.4 What are the key messages of the manual? 11

22.. SSIIGGNN LLAANNGGUUAAGGEESS AANNDD SSIIGGNN LLAANNGGUUAAGGEE WWOORRKK 1133 2.1 Communication and natural language 13 2.2 Signed languages 13 2.2a Signed languages and spoken languages 13 2.2b Deaf people and sign languages 14 2.2c Sign language use and variation 14

2.3 What is deaf culture? 14 2.4 What is Sign Language Work? 15 2.4a Training and information 15 2.4b Sign language documentation and description 17 2.4c Language planning 17

2.5 The goals and processes of Sign Language Work 18 2.5a Goal 1: To raise linguistic awareness within the Deaf Community 18 2.5b Goal 2: To start sign language documentation and research 19 2.5c Goal 3: To share and disseminate information about Sign Language Work 19 2.5d Goal 4: To develop skills for lobbying for human and linguistic rights 20 2.5e Long-term goals for Sign Language Work (10–20 years) 20

2.6 The UN and the CRPD 20 2.6a The United Nations (UN) 20 2.6b The UN Conventions 21 2.6c The UN Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (CRPD) 21 2.6d Deaf people and sign language in the UN Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (CRPD) 21

33.. SSTTAARRTTIINNGG SSIIGGNN LLAANNGGUUAAGGEE WWOORRKK 2222 3.1 Sign Language Work within the framework of development cooperation 22 3.2 Conducting an initial survey 23 3.3 Planning the Sign Language Work 23 3.4 The Balkan model of Sign Language Work 24 3.4a Sign Language Work conducted in Albania and Kosovo 24 3.4b Lessons from the Balkan model of Sign Language Work 24

3.5 Arguments for the Balkan model of Sign Language Work 25 3.5a A deaf-led approach 25 3.5b A community-based approach 25

44.. WWOORRKKIINNGG MMEETTHHOODDSS FFOORR SSIIGGNN LLAANNGGUUAAGGEE WWOORRKK 2277 4.1 The linguistic advisor 27 4.1a Characteristics of a good linguistic advisor 27 4.1b The linguistic advisor – starting the work 28

4.2 The recruitment of staff for Sign Language Work 28 4.3 The Sign Language Working Group 29 4.4 How to implement the training – notes on the use of time 29 4.5 Target groups for training given by the linguistic advisor 30 4.6 Training as capacity-building – sharing skills in a sustainable way 31 4.7 Teaching methods 31 4.8 Ensuring geographic coverage for Sign Language Work 32

55.. SSUUGGGGEESSTTEEDD CCOONNTTEENNTT AANNDD TTOOPPIICCSS FFOORR SSIIGGNN LLAANNGGUUAAGGEE WWOORRKK TTRRAAIINNIINNGG 3333 5.1 Deaf Awareness module 33 5.2 Basic sign language linguistics 33 5.3 Sign language documentation 33 5.4 Language description (including considerations for making a dictionary) 33 5.5 Training on ‘how to teach’ (‘pedagogy training’) 35 5.6 Training in human and linguistic rights advocacy 35

66.. BBEESSTT PPRRAACCTTIICCEESS AANNDD CCHHAALLLLEENNGGEESS IINN SSIIGGNN LLAANNGGUUAAGGEE WWOORRKK 3366 6.1 Communication 36 6.1a Communication between Sign Language Work staff and the Deaf Community 36 6.1b Communication between the advisor and the Deaf Community 36 6.1c The role of the advisor in fostering good everyday communication 37 6.1d Communication between deaf, hard of hearing and hearing people 37

6.2 Linguistic challenges – the desire for sign language change and standardisation 38 6.2a Sign language variation 38 6.2b Sign language variation and dictionary work 38 6.2c To impose changes and attempts to unify sign language 38 6.2d Sign language development within deaf education 39 6.3 Challenge – how to avoid (linguistic) colonialism and international pressure 39

6.4 Challenges in involving the Deaf Community 40 6.4a Planning Sign Language Work 40 6.4b Input during all stages of work 40 6.4c Participation on an equal basis 40

6.5 Challenge – motivation of volunteers 41 6.6 Cultural clashes in everyday work 41 6.7 Challenge – prioritising 42 6.7a Prioritising how to use the available funding 42 6.7b Which Sign Language Work topics should be prioritised? 42 6.7c The balance between learning new knowledge and skills, and putting them into practice 42

6.8 Challenge – setting the order in which topics should be covered 43 6.9 Challenge – the need for flexibility in implementing a plan 43 6.10 Challenge – an active dialogue with relevant stakeholders 43 6.11 Challenge of sustainability – project duration and ensuring funding 43

77.. SSUUMMMMAARRYY:: WWHHAATT NNOOTT TTOO DDOO,, AANNDD CCOONNCCRREETTEE SSUUGGGGEESSTTIIOONNSS FFOORR GGOOOODD PPRRAACCTTIICCEE 4455 RREEFFEERREENNCCEESS,, SSOOMMEE SSUUGGGGEESSTTEEDD FFUURRTTHHEERR RREEAADDIINNGG ,, AANNDD WWEEBB SSIITTEE RREESSOOUURRCCEESS 4477 1. General references relevant to empowerment and participation in development cooperation work 47 2. Academic references 49

Working Together Manual for Sign Language Work within Development Cooperation 5

FFoorreewwoorrdd FFoorreewwoorrdd 11//44

This manual on Sign Language Work is a result of a cooperation project between the Finnish Association of the Deaf (FAD) and the World Federation of the Deaf (WFD). FAD has implemented develop-ment projects with Deaf Communities in developing countries for more than 25 years. These projects have been funded both by FAD and the Finnish Government. During the last 15 years FAD has gathered experience of long-term Sign Language Work with Deaf Communities in Albania and Kosovo (part of the Balkan region). One of the results of the work has been a legal recognition of Albanian Sign Lan-guage and Kosovar Sign Language.

According to the WFD, the lack of recog-nition, acceptance and use of sign lan-guage in all areas of life is the major barri-er that prevents deaf people from enjoying full human rights, and this is especially true in developing countries1. This manual describes Sign Language Work following guidelines set out by the WFD, and in ac-cordance with the UN Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (see the IInnttrroodduuccttiioonn). Sign Language Work fol-lows the principle that to truly enhance human rights for deaf people the work must be sign language-based and it must include deaf people themselves – in ac-cordance with the philosophy Nothing about us, without us! In practice, this means that FAD has trained deaf people to conduct Sign Language Work themselves.

The manual is signed by Florjan Rojba (General Co-ordinator for the Albanian National Association of the Deaf, ANAD), a deaf man who has been involved in Sign

1 We are aware that the suitability of the terms ‘developing’ and ‘developed’ countries has been contested, and that some so-called ‘developed’ countries are behind ‘developing’ ones in terms of research, sign language recognition, service provi-sion and so on. We use ‘developed’ here to refer generally to countries where sign language docu-mentation is at a more advanced stage, and accord-ing to our definition of cooperation work, such countries work with ‘developing’ ones to share in-formation and skills.

Language Work in Albania since it began there in 2003. Florjan went on to support and advise the team that launched Sign Language Work in Kosovo in 2006.


FFoorreewwoorrdd ((ccoonnttiinnuueess)) 22//44

This manual includes many lessons learned by FAD over the years, and consists of eth-ical guidelines and examples of best prac-tice on how to implement Sign Language Work. The work has included testing and piloting the principles and guidelines in practice. As cooperation partners we faced many challenges, but we also realised the value of an appropriately phased, long-term, and community-based approach. This manual aims to share the insights and lessons that have been learned in these Balkan projects.

It is therefore important to be aware that the content of the manual is based on pro-jects that have been run by FAD. This means that the manual has its limitations – activities and methods cannot and should not always be applied in the same way to any Deaf Community. Even if there is no oonnee ‘right way’ to conduct Sign Lan-guage Work, we aim to contribute to the discussion by sharing our deaf-led, com-munity-based approach.

TThhiiss iiss nnoott aa mmaannuuaall aabboouutt hhooww ttoo ccoonndduucctt ssiiggnn llaanngguuaaggee rreesseeaarrcchh iinn iissoollaattiioonn . The manual is concerned with a particular way of doing research, with an emphasis on documentation and descrip-tion of sign language as tools for enhanc-ing human and linguistic rights. The pro-cess of Sign Language Work leads to community ownership of the Work, and to the empowerment of the Deaf Community at large. In order to get detailed infor-mation on how the linguistic work should be implemented – how to collect, process, analyse and describe sign data – you need to have a sign linguist involved in the Sign Language Work. Detailed linguistic infor-mation on that practical level is outside the scope of this manual.

Occasionally there are slight differences between the information in the signed text and in the written (English) text. This is because the two texts are likely to have different audiences: the signed text is tar-geted at deaf people in developing coun-tries, while the written text is primarily directed at a (non-signing) hearing audi-ence, including those who have no previ-ous knowledge of sign language.

We are very aware that signing in Interna-tional Sign is not accessible for all deaf people – especially in developing countries – and we encourage those who have skills in International Sign to discuss and share this information with deaf people using the sign language of their community. The translation of the signed text into other sign languages is also encouraged, and the written text can be freely translated from English into other written languages, to facilitate access.2

The introduction presents the framework, the target groups and the key messages of the manual. In chapter 2 basic information on sign languages and Sign Language Work is presented. Chapter 3 deals with the start of Sign Language Work – the need for an initial survey and planning of the work. It also introduces the Balkan model of Sign Language Work. Chapter 4 focuses on the elements needed in the work and on working methods, i.e. charac-teristics of a good linguistic advisor, re-cruitment of Sign Language Work staff and Sign Language Working Group mem-bers, and on information about how to conduct training. Suggestions for topics for Sign Language Work training are pre-sented in chapter 5. Chapter 6 is a collec-tion of best practices regarding communi-cation, involving the Deaf Community and implementation of Sign Language Work in practice. Chapter 7 is a summary; high-lighting some common basic mistakes, and how they can be avoided.


HHooww wwaass tthhee mmaannuuaall ccrreeaatteedd??

Florjan Rojba and Karin Hoyer (a sign lin-guist working at FAD who worked on the Albanian and Kosovar projects) drafted the first signed version of the manual con-tent. These signed texts were translated into English, and all the material was made accessible to relevant FAD person-nel, steering committee members, and members of the WFD Expert Group on 2 The manual is intended to be freely used but its contents cannot be altered or modified without the authors’ consent. In addition, when copying, trans-lating, interpreting or referring to the manual in part or as a whole, the source is to be mentioned.


Developing Countries through a closed website for their comments. Deaf people involved in Sign Language Work in Albania and Kosovo commented on the signed texts in a separate workshop.

These comments led to revisions, and the final video clips were filmed by Florjan with the support of FAD’s pedagogic advi-sor, Arttu Liikamaa, who has been in-volved in the Albanian and Kosovar pro-jects. The clips on the UN and its Conven-tion on the Rights of Persons with Disabili-ties are signed by the WFD President Colin Allen, and the video clips in chapter 7 are signed by Kosovar deaf people. The role play video clips clarifying the work pro-cesses were made by Albanian people3.

The signed text can be searched in two ways: either by using the written menu or by clicking on the video icons, which will take you to the next subchapter or to the next level.


FAD takes full responsibility for the con-tent of this manual, but we would like to express our gratitude to everyone involved (see below); we could not have created this manual without your support – thank you!

CCoonnttrriibbuuttoorrss ttoo tthhee mmaannuuaall iinn aall--pphhaabbeettiiccaall oorrddeerr ((bbyy ssuurrnnaammee))::

RRoobbeerrtt AAddaamm worked as a linguistic ad-visor in the Kosovar project and checked the video content. EEdduuaarrdd AAjjaass commented on the draft signed video clips and was an actor in the role play video clips. KKaaiissaa AAllaannnnee was a steering committee member representing FAD. CCoolliinn AAlllleenn was a steering committee member (representing the WFD), signed 3 NB! The actors performing as local deaf people and an international advisor in the role play videos are using International Sign. The use of Interna-tional Sign is chosen only for making the video clips easier to follow. In a real situation both the local deaf people and the international advisor should use local sign language for communication with each other.

video clips, and commented on the con-tent of the manual. DDoonniikkaa AAlllluusshhii was an actor in the role play video clips. VVaallmmiirraa AAvvdduullllaajj commented on the draft signed video clips and was an actor in the role play video clips. PPaaoollaa BBaasshhaa was an actor in the role play video clips. KKaassppeerr BBeerrggmmaannnn commented on the content of the manual. SSooppoott BBooggddaannii commented on the draft signed video clips. NNeebbiihh CCaakkaajj is a Kosovar Sign Language Work staff member who signed some of the video clips and commented on the content. MMuunniirree CCaannii commented on the draft signed video clips. LLiiddiiaa CCaappaa , BBeessiimm ÇÇeemmeerrii and JJeettmmiirr DDeekkoovvii commented on the draft signed video clips and were actors in the role play video clips. VViillssoonn DDeemmiirraajj was an actor in the role play video clips. HHaassaann DDiikkyyuuvvaa was a steering commit-tee member (representing the WFD), commented on the content, and checked the video clips. FFiissnniikk DDooddii was an actor in the role play video clips. BBeekkoo EEllsshhaannii , RRaammaaddaann GGaasshhii , RRuukkiijjee GGaasshhii , EEllmmaa HHaassaannii , EErrkkiidd HHaattiiaa and KKiimmeettee HHaazziirrii commented on the draft signed video clips, and Kimete also signed some of the video clips. JJuulliiee HHoocchhggeessaanngg commented on the content, and gave support with compiling the reference list. SSeellmmaann HHoottii and SShhppeenndd HHooxxhhaa com-mented on the draft signed video clips. KKaarriinn HHooyyeerr worked as a linguistic advi-sor in the Albanian and Kosovar projects, and is the main coordinator for the manu-al compiling and translating it. KKlliissmmaann IIbbrraahhiimmii and IIll iirrjjaannaa JJuuppaa commented on the draft signed video clips and were actors in the role play video clips.


PPeettrraa JJuuvvaa is the artist who drew the pic-tures. VVaalleennttiinnaa KKaalloo was an actor in the role play video clips. JJaaaannaa KKeesskkii--LLeevviijjookkii made comments on the content of the manual. SSaannnnii KKoossttiiaaiinneenn compiled a draft of the manual’s website. EEnnvveerr KKuurrttaallaannii commented on the draft signed video clips and signed some of the video clips. AAnnnneelliieess KKuusstteerrss commented on the content of the manual. IInnkkeerrii LLaahhttiinneenn is the FAD Balkan and manual project manager, co-planner and producer, and made comments on the content. AArrttttuu LLiiiikkaammaaaa works as pedagogic ad-visor in the Albanian and Kosovar projects, made comments on the manual content, checked the International Sign and filmed the final video recording, and was an actor in the role play video clips. HHyysseenn MMaahhmmuuttii commented on the draft signed video clips. HHaarrrryy MMaallmmeelliinn gave technical support for the manual-making process. EEuupphhrraassiiaa MMbbeewwee made comments on the content. DDeennaaddaa NNaannoo was an actor in the role play video clips. JJaarrii NNyybbeerrgg edited the draft video clips. IIrreennaa OOrruuççaajj was an actor in the role play video clips. LLaauurraa PPaajjuunneenn commented on the man-ual’s content. NNiicckk PPaallffrreeyymmaann did the English proof-reading and made comments on the con-tent of the manual. MMiikkkkoo PPaalloo worked on the lay-out, user interface and web design, edited the final video clips and prepared the website, the USB memory sticks, and the USB cover. FFaattoonn PPaarrdduuzzii commented on the draft signed video clips and signed some of the video clips. DDeenniiss PPllllooççaa was an actor in the role play video clips.

SSkkeennddeerr PPrreenniiqqii and BBeerraatt RRaasshhiittii commented on the draft signed video clips. FFlloorrjjaann RRoojjbbaa has previously been an Albanian Sign Language Work staff mem-ber, supported the launch of Sign Lan-guage Work in Kosovo, compiled and signed the video clips, and filmed the role play video clips. RRoovveennaa RRoojjbbaa was an actor in the role play video clips. JJuuhhaannaa SSaalloonneenn made comments on the content of the manual. LLiizz SSccootttt GGiibbssoonn proof-read the English and also commented on the content. KKlleeddiioo SSeejjddiinnii and KKllaauuddiiaa SShheehhuu were actors in the role play video clips. RRoobbeerrtt SSkkiinnnneerr worked as a linguistic advisor in the Albanian project and com-mented on the content. NNiikkoolleettaa SSppaahhii was an actor in the role play video clips. BBuurriimm TTaahhiirrii commented on the draft signed video clips. EEssmmeerraallddaa TTeerrzziiuu was an actor in the role play video clips. DDrriittaa TToopprrllaakk is a Kosovar Sign Lan-guage Work staff member who signed some of the video clips and commented on the content. RRiinnaa TToopprrllaakk signed some of the video clips. EEeevvaa TTuuppii commented on the content of the manual. AAlleekkssaannddeerr XXuukktthhii commented on the draft signed video clips and was an actor in the role play video clips.


11.. IINNTTRROODDUUCCTTIIOONN –– WWHHYY HHAAVVEE WWEE MMAADDEE TTHHIISS MMAANNUUAALL??11..11 TThhee ffrraammeewwoorrkk ooff tthhee mmaannuuaall –– tthhee UUNN CCRRPPDD aanndd tthhee ppoolliicciieess ooff tthhee WWFFDD

In this manual, we take a human rights approach, and the frame of reference that we use is the UN Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (CRPD). We also follow the policies set out by the WFD (see wfdeaf.org > Databank). The aim of CRPD is equal opportunities for all people, having respect for difference, and accepting people with disabilities as part of human diversity. CRPD includes a statement about what “language” is, and says that signed languages are equal in value to spoken languages.

According to the WFD, the human rights of deaf people depend upon access to sign language. If a deaf person has no access to a sign language (for example at school, or through a professional sign language in-terpreter), he or she cannot participate in society in the same way as other people. This is discrimination on the basis of disa-bility, and violates the human rights of deaf people.

Governments that have signed the CRPD must promote the participation of deaf people in society on an equal basis, and

facilitate the use of sign languages. In par-ticular, governments must:

• recognise sign languages and promote the use of sign languages

• provide education in sign language for deaf children

• provide professional sign language in-terpreters

• make sure that deaf people have access to information and services in sign lan-guage

• support deaf culture and the linguistic identity of the Deaf Community

When deaf people have full access to soci-ety without discrimination, society will benefit significantly from the input of deaf people. Rather than being passive recipi-ents of support given by hearing people, deaf people can become active contribu-tors to the development of society – by sharing skills, knowledge and ideas.

11..22 WWhhyy ddoo wwee nneeeedd aa mmaannuuaall ffoorr SSiiggnn LLaanngguuaaggee WWoorrkk??

Why do we need a manual for Sign Lan-guage Work? The UN CRPD recognises that equality and the human rights of deaf people depend upon access to sign lan-guage. The manual contains information about how this work could be conducted in practice, in an ethical and sustainable way.

Sign language documentation and re-search is the starting point for the em-powerment of the Deaf Community. This empowerment takes place when work is conducted by deaf sign language users themselves. Unfortunately there are (still) cases in the world where hearing people do not involve deaf people in sign lan-guage research, and do not respect or co-operate with the Deaf Community.


This manual emphasises the importance of a community-based approach. Sign Lan-guage Work is not conducted in isolation by a few individuals, but in close and transparent cooperation with the Deaf Community. The manual aims to share ideas about how Sign Language Work should be conducted – this includes raising linguistic awareness, and advocating for the human and linguistic rights of deaf people. Deaf Community members can acquire the knowledge and skills that they need to improve their situation in society with the support of an advisor. This hap-pens by learning basic facts about a sign language, participating in sign language research, and receiving training in human rights issues. Sign Language Work is a way to empower the Deaf Community.

Article 32 of the UN CRPD (‘International cooperation’) recognises the importance of international cooperation between dif-ferent countries. For Sign Language Work this means that those countries with a longer tradition and more experience of sign language research can support coun-tries with little or no sign language re-search, and assist with the documentation of sign language varieties in that country. This does not mean that concrete research materials are transferred, or that methods and results are ‘copied and pasted’ directly from one country to another. One of the aims of this manual is to support the lin-guistic advisor in her/his duty of advising the Deaf Community in a foreign country. This cooperation should take place in a respectful way – the advisor is also a ‘learner’, learning about the local sign lan-guage, deaf culture and history. In this way, Sign Language Work will have strong and positive outcomes for everyone.

11..33 WWhhoo iiss tthhiiss mmaannuuaall ffoorr??

1. The manual can be used by ddeeaaff ppeeoo--ppllee (e.g. in countries where Sign Lan-guage Work has not been conducted before) who want information about the processes of Sign Language Work. The manual discusses several topics, and affirms that all sign languages around the world are of equal value, and should be respected. We also make it clear that there is no reason to aban-don one sign language in favour of an-other. For example, a foreign sign lan-guage is no ‘better’ than a local sign language.

2. The manual is a resource for iinntteerrnnaa--

ttiioonnaall aaddvviissoorrss working in another country with local deaf people. The manual emphasises the responsibility of the advisor not to introduce her/his own sign language, but to work in close cooperation with the local Deaf Community, and to show respect by learning the local sign language, and by becoming acquainted with the culture and values of the local Deaf Communi-ty.

3. IInntteerrnnaattiioonnaall oorrggaanniissaattiioonnss im-

plementing or funding development cooperation projects that involve or target Deaf communities will benefit from learning about Sign Language Work through this manual. The manu-al can also be useful for llooccaall pprroojjeecctt mmaannaaggeerrss aanndd pprroojjeecctt ssttaaffff in the target country, assisting in Deaf-


Community related project planning and the resourcing phase.

4. The manual offers useful information

for stakeholders and actors connected and collaborating with local Deaf Communities, such as sscchhoooollss ffoorr tthhee ddeeaaff ,, ssiiggnn llaanngguuaaggee iinntteerr--pprreetteerrss ,, DDiissaabblleedd PPeeooppllee’’ss OOrrggaann--iissaattiioonnss aanndd ootthheerr NNGGOOss .

5. SSttaattee mmiinniissttrriieess aanndd ootthheerr ggoovv--

eerrnnmmeennttaall iinnssttiittuuttiioonnss can use the manual as a source of information about the Sign Language Work that is needed to guarantee the human rights of deaf people. The states parties have a duty to engage in direct dialogue and collaboration with the rights holders, i.e. the Deaf Community. IInnssttiittuuttiioonnss aanndd oorrggaanniissaattiioonnss tthhaatt pprroovviiddee ffuunnddiinngg for projects involving Deaf Communities can also learn why Sign Language Work needs to be considered a long-term endeavour if it is to be suc-cessful and sustainable.

11..44 WWhhaatt aarree tthhee kkeeyy mmeessssaaggeess ooff tthhee mmaannuuaall??

The key messages are as follows:

1. ‘Sign Language Work’ incorporates several important elements, and entails much more than compiling a sign lan-guage dictionary. The focus of Sign Language Work is to awaken the lin-guistic awareness of the Deaf Commu-nity, and to create opportunities for deaf people to learn about linguistics and research methods, which in turn raises their linguistic awareness, capac-ities and skills. Sign Language Work may eventually lead to a governmental or legal recognition of a sign language.

2. As active participants in training, Deaf Community members learn that they are fully capable of conducting basic sign language documentation and re-search themselves. This empowers the community and maximises deaf owner-ship of the Sign Language Work that is being done.

3. Respect the local sign language(s) and deaf culture. Minimise influence from International Sign, do not introduce a foreign sign language, and do not try to impose cultural changes.

4. The international advisor/partner should not be the one who does the work. This work should be conducted by the local deaf people themselves. The role of the advisor is to plan the Sign Language Work activities togeth-er with the community, to provide training, and to support the learning process in a subordinate role.


5. Sign Language Work is not a ‘quick fix’ and cannot be completed in a single year. It requires patience and will take several years, if it is to be successful and sustainable.

6. Although some principles of Sign Lan-

guage Work are universal and non-negotiable, the manual itself is not meant to provide rigid guidelines that should be applied absolutely to every Deaf Community. Instead it consists of guiding principles on a general level, in order to support implementation of Sign Language Work on a daily basis.

The information in this manual is mainly based on the experience from the Albanian and Kosovar projects4. It is important to remember that every community has its own unique history, culture, and mixture 4 Just to give one example of how this is reflected in the manual: the education systems in these countries did not result in bilingual deaf students, and therefore Sign Language Work needed to rely on hearing persons for the work on the written parts of the dictionaries compiled in Albania and Kosovo. One of the long-term goals of these Balkan projects is the development of education of deaf children – for deaf people to have a real possibility of becoming bilingual citizens.

of members/people, and also that the con-text of every country in the world is dif-ferent. The examples of best practice for how to conduct Sign Language Work are intended to highlight key issues that should be considered. Information in the manual should therefore be applied with a flexible attitude, in order to accommodate the context of the community in question.


22.. SSIIGGNN LLAANNGGUUAAGGEESS AANNDD SSIIGGNN LLAANNGGUUAAGGEE WWOORRKK 22..11 CCoommmmuunniiccaattiioonn aanndd nnaattuurraall llaanngguuaaggee

Communication might be linguistic, i.e. make use of a natural language, or non-linguistic. An example of non-linguistic communication is “body language”; the use of pointing, gesticulation/gesturing/ gestures, and facial expression that a hear-ing person and a deaf person use with each other when they do not have a language in common. Deaf persons from the same community, however, use a natural lan-guage for linguistic communication be-tween themselves. They rely on a shared signed language for interaction.

Linguistic communication occurs through natural spoken and signed languages that are used around the world. There are some criteria for what counts as a natural lan-guage:

• Languages rely on symbols for convey-ing meaning. Both words in a spoken language and signs in a signed lan-guage are symbols that relate to a spe-cific meaning. Perception of a sign is connected to a mental image of what that particular symbol stands for.

• Languages have grammar. The gram-mar of a language are rules on how to put the words or the signs together. The use of space and facial expressions are part of grammar in signed lan-guages.

• Languages emerge, change and evolve naturally – spoken languages within communities of hearing people and signed languages within communities of deaf people.

• Languages are passed from one gener-ation to another.

• The first language of a child is either a spoken or a signed language. Later it learns to write, i.e. written language is a secondary form of language.

22..22 SSiiggnneedd llaanngguuaaggeess

22..22aa SSiiggnneedd llaanngguuaaggeess aanndd ssppookkeenn llaanngguuaaggeess

Signed languages are obviously different from spoken languages in some ways, but both modalities are equally valid means of communication. It is not justifiable to re-gard one modality of language as inferior or superior to the other.

An unfortunate misconception about signed languages is that they only use ges-ticulation, or pantomime. This is not the case – as with spoken languages, signed languages draw from a conventionalised vocabulary, and have been shown to have complex grammatical systems. Natural signed languages are not invented by any-body, but have evolved among deaf peo-ple. Equally, a signed language is not a visual representation of a spoken lan-guage. Sign languages do not entail spelling all words on the hands letter by letter, and often use different orders to spoken language words. Signed languages are not lacking in anything, and can be used to express any conceivable concept or idea. In that sense, signed languages do not need to be developed.

Spoken languages and signed languages differ from each other in the modality that they use. Spoken languages use the audi-tory–vocal channel, while signed lan-guages are visual–gestural languages. Just as the words of a spoken language can of-ten be divided into smaller units (for ex-ample, the sounds of speech) signs are


made up of smaller structural units, such as the handshape, orientation, movement, and place of articulation of the sign, as well as non-manual elements such as facial expressions. The grammars of signed lan-guages make use of facial expressions and body movements, and use the space in front of and around the person who is signing in special ways. Signed languages should not be changed to fit into the structure of a spoken language. Signed languages should be respected as natural languages on their own terms.

22..22bb DDeeaaff ppeeooppllee aanndd ssiiggnn llaanngguuaaggeess

Sign languages are the natural first lan-guage of deaf people, and because of this, deaf people have the right to express themselves in signing, and should not be forced to use oral language. Some deaf people around the world do not know sign language, and those who do use sign lan-guage often lack information about their language since most deaf people have hearing parents who have no signing skills and no knowledge about sign languages. The deaf child might grow up without ac-cess to a sign language, and sign language may not be used or allowed in school. It may also not be taught as a subject in school. Through Sign Language Work, in-formation about sign language can be made accessible to the Deaf Community. Also hearing society gains from access to information about sign language and its importance for the Deaf Community.

The different sign languages used by Deaf Communities around the world are equally valid means of communication, and should therefore be used and respected (see wfdeaf.org > Databank > Policies / State-ments). This means that care should be taken not to import foreign sign languages or International Sign into a community

where indigenous sign language(s) already exists. The ownership of a sign language belongs to the Deaf Community where the language is used. This language has been transmitted from one deaf generation to the next – and therefore judgements about acceptable or intelligible usage of the language remain within the communi-ty. Deaf or hearing people from outside the community have no right to impose or suggest changes to these natural sign lan-guages.

22..22cc SSiiggnn llaanngguuaaggee uussee aanndd vvaarriiaattiioonn

Signed languages do not have a common written form – and it should be noted that the majority of spoken languages in the world also have no written form, and exist only as spoken languages. If a signing deaf child has access to education, s/he learns to read and write in school in a language other than sign language. For a hearing child, it is possible – though by no means necessary – that the language s/he speaks at home is the same as the language s/he learns to read and write in school.

Some hearing people have a signed lan-guage as their first language. Those are hearing children of deaf adults. The deaf parents’ choice to use sign language with their hearing children should be respected. Hearing children brought up using signed and spoken languages have been shown to benefit linguistically from their bilingual upbringing.

There are several countries that have more than one sign language. There might be a majority sign language and one or more minority sign languages. Furthermore, each sign community features linguistic variation. There are often several different signs that correspond to a single word in a spoken language. Sign language use may vary according to factors such as gender, age and region, as is the case with spoken languages.

22..33 WWhhaatt iiss ddeeaaff ccuullttuurree??

The world’s cultures differ from each other in many ways – communities may use dif-ferent languages, eat different food, wear different clothes and practice different re-ligions. Deaf Communities around the


world are defined by their cultural values, beliefs and practices, and there is an intri-cate relationship between deaf culture, sign languages and the identities of deaf individuals.

Communication using a sign language is characteristic of the culture of Deaf Com-munities. The use of sustained and unhin-dered eye contact during a discussion is crucial. Enough light is needed in order for a discussion to be unrestricted, and in the darkness the discussion might be done in tactile form – which also is the preferred communication form for some deaf-blind persons. When deaf people sign in larger groups, people often stand or sit in a circle to enhance visibility. Where deaf people gather at international events such as sports games (e.g. Deaflympics), and in-ternational conferences or congresses, there is often intense interaction, and when the event has finished, this transient ‘bubble’ of signed communication disap-pears, as people return to their home countries.

There are differences between the cultural practices of different Deaf Communities, but several practices are typical of many Deaf Communities, and this unites deaf people from around the world. Although sign languages are mutually unintelligible, they ‘look’ similar in certain ways – they use manual articulators, facial expressions and eye contact, and space is used for grammatical effect. Therefore, even though sign languages are different from each other, the use of a signed language unites deaf individuals from different parts of the world.

Deaf identity is linked to the shared expe-riences that deaf people have, and the sense of belonging to a sign community. This identity of course varies from one person to another, but culture, identity and language are elements that are an im-portant part of being human. Deaf culture is one of the building blocks of the founda-tions of a Deaf Community.

22..44 WWhhaatt iiss SSiiggnn LLaanngguuaaggee WWoorrkk??

22..44aa WWhhaatt iiss SSiiggnn LLaanngguuaaggee WWoorrkk –– ttrraaiinniinngg aanndd iinnffoorrmmaattiioonn

According to the WFD policy (see wfdeaf.org > Databank > Policies > Work Done by Member Organisations in Devel-oping Countries) cooperation between countries should prioritise the establish-ment and strengthening of an organisa-tion of the deaf, and Sign Language Work. Sign Language Work is linked to the ful-filment of human rights, since human rights for deaf people are realised through (access to) sign language.


Sign Language Work leads to linguistic awakening and raises the awareness of Deaf Community members about equality between spoken and written languages. This includes the notion that signed lan-guages are natural languages on their own terms, and do not need to be changed in order to resemble spoken languages. Rais-ing awareness of deaf culture and history is crucial in order for Deaf Community members to become proud of their identi-ty and who they are. The process of Sign Language Work leads to empowerment of the Deaf Community.

Sign Language Work includes training for community members in basic sign linguis-tics, language documentation and descrip-tion, and research methods. When real language data are collected, these data become the base for making dictionaries and for grammatical descriptions of the language. The products of sign language research are also tools for lobbying the government for the legal recognition of a sign language, and for developing other legislation.

A crucial part of Sign Language Work en-tails informing the Deaf Community, on a regular basis, of the work that has been done, and to keep relevant stakeholders updated on progress. These stakeholders may include government bodies, schools, disability organisations, and hearing par-ents and interpreters. As a result of Sign Language Work, the capacity of the Deaf Community is strengthened, and commu-nity members are empowered by the skills that they have acquired. The Sign Lan-guage Work conducted by Deaf Communi-ty members is concrete proof of what the community can achieve on their own. Training and sharing information are therefore essential elements in Sign Lan-guage Work.


22..44bb WWhhaatt iiss SSiiggnn LLaanngguuaaggee WWoorrkk –– ssiiggnn llaanngguuaaggee ddooccuummeennttaattiioonn aanndd ddeessccrriippttiioonn

In some countries there are several sign languages; a majority sign language with a larger number of signers, and minority sign languages with smaller numbers of signers. The aim of Sign Language Work is to document the sign language used by a particular sign community, and not to uni-fy different sign languages or to produce a single standard alternative to different variants.

Sign language documentation is not to be conducted by working through a list of words and asking Deaf Community mem-bers to provide a sign for each one. Instead it is necessary to record natural signing that is free of influence from spo-ken/written language – research is based on these data. Natural sign language ex-hibits variation, and the aim of Sign Lan-guage Work is not to standardise sign lan-guage by selecting and promoting a single variant. On the contrary, Sign Language Work should showcase linguistic variation and promote respect for the right to use different variants.

In terms of the concrete, visible results of Sign Language Work, a printed sign lan-guage dictionary with photos or drawings is somewhat limited, and cannot fully rep-resent visual languages that are expressed through movements. If dictionary work is to be conducted, it is recommended for the printed book to be accompanied by live video recordings of the language.

If the country in question does not have sign language linguists who can train deaf people to conduct Sign Language Work, it is necessary to identify a suitable linguist from abroad. Deaf Communities usually have strong networking skills, and interna-tional networks – e.g. by asking the WFD for advice – may reveal suitable candi-dates.

Sign Language Work is a tool both for supporting the vitality, use, and natural development of a sign language, and for enhancing its social status. When sign lan-guage use spreads into new domains, such as the media and higher levels of educa-

tion, signs for new concepts are needed, and as a result, the language undergoes natural development and natural stand-ardisation. As a result of Sign Language Work, the status of sign language in socie-ty also increases.

22..44cc WWhhaatt iiss SSiiggnn LLaanngguuaaggee WWoorrkk –– llaanngguuaaggee ppllaannnniinngg

Sign Language Work can be regarded as part of language planning, which consists of the four areas Attitude planning, Corpus planning, Status planning, and Acquisition planning (Reagan 2010):

• Attitude planning o Raising the linguistic awareness of

Deaf Community members, for ex-ample concerning equality between spoken and signed languages.

o Sharing linguistic information with hearing people, to replace miscon-ceptions with accurate information about sign languages – e.g. that there are many sign languages in the world and they are equal to spoken languages.

• Corpus planning o Sign language documentation, re-

search and description, with a view to publishing dictionaries, gram-mars and other material about the sign language.

• Status planning o Lobbying for legal recognition of

sign language, for the use of sign language as a language of instruc-tion within deaf education, and for sign language in new domains of


use, such as the media (TV, the in-ternet, etc.).

• Acquisition planning o Activities that increase the number

of sign language users. In addition to signing deaf members of the sign community, other groups need sign language skills, e.g. deaf persons not being exposed to sign language from before, hearing parents of deaf children, sign language inter-preters, and hearing teachers work-ing in deaf education.

As can be seen from the descriptions above, Sign Language Work is a complex and flexible set of activities that may shift over time in accordance with the needs of the sign community. Even if there is no strict order in which language planning activities take place, there is however sometimes a certain focus of the goals to be achieved that will influence the order of the activities.

When starting Sign Language Work, for example, it might be wise to begin with attitude and corpus planning activities. This training and information sharing will lead to raised awareness and new linguis-tic skills that are needed for the next phase. Once the skills and competence of community members has increased, and documentation has been conducted, lin-guistic status planning can begin. This in-cludes lobbying for a legal recognition of sign language, development of education and access to information in sign language in the media.

Similarly, before acquisition planning can take place, it is necessary to conduct re-

search and produce linguistic material (corpus planning) that can be used for language teaching. A language plan that covers a period of between five and ten years can help to identify the steps that need to be taken, and show how the focus of Sign Language Work may change over time.

22..55 TThhee ggooaallss aanndd pprroocceesssseess ooff SSiiggnn LLaanngguuaaggee WWoorrkk

Sign Language Work has short-term goals (three years) and long-term goals (10-20 years). The short term goals are:

• to raise linguistic awareness within the Deaf Community

• to start sign language documentation and research

• to share and disseminate information about Sign Language Work

• to develop skills for lobbying for hu-man and linguistic rights

More detailed information about the pro-cesses that can be used to obtain these goals are described in the following sec-tions.

22..55aa GGooaall 11:: TToo rraaiissee ll iinngguuiissttiicc aawwaarreenneessss wwiitthhiinn tthhee DDeeaaff CCoommmmuu--nniittyy

The first step is to convey adequate infor-mation about linguistic and cultural facts concerning sign language and Deaf Com-munities to Deaf Community members. As a consequence of this, the community members come to understand their right to use sign language, and the value of their own deaf culture and history, and become aware of their identity. This awakening can happen as a result of train-ing on deaf awareness and linguistics giv-en by an international advisor, infor-mation obtained through the internet, by visiting international events attended by deaf people, or by going for a study trip to another country to learn from their expe-rience.


This awakening process has a collective element – even if it is the individual who becomes aware of his/her rights and po-tential, the awakening happens in a com-munity context when the information is shared. This empowerment process may lead to a positive regard for deaf identity (‘Deaf pride’) and new knowledge of the potential of deaf people. The understand-ing that deaf people and sign languages are of equal worth to hearing people and spoken languages is an important basis for further learning. This awareness, along with the new linguistic skills that are ac-quired, will play a key role in sign language research.

22..55bb GGooaall 22:: TToo ssttaarrtt ssiiggnn llaanngguuaaggee ddooccuummeennttaattiioonn aanndd rreesseeaarrcchh

Sign language documentation can begin when two or three Deaf Community members receive basic linguistic training from an advisor. They learn about sign language structure and grammar, and how to conduct research and document sign language. They start to collect sign lan-

guage data by filming the signing of Deaf Community members. Linguistic findings are then processed together with a Work-ing Group consisting of representatives of the Deaf Community. The Working Group has a central role in compiling material from the collected sign language data – e.g. a dictionary consisting of both a print-ed publication and recordings with live examples of signs in use.

22..55cc GGooaall 33:: TToo sshhaarree aanndd ddiisssseemmii--nnaattee iinnffoorrmmaattiioonn aabboouutt SSiiggnn LLaann--gguuaaggee WWoorrkk

If Sign Language Work is to be sustaina-ble, information about the progress of ac-tivities should not be kept within a re-stricted group of a few deaf individuals. Information must be actively shared with the Deaf Community. Regular updates on progress is part of the process of raising the linguistic awareness of community members.

It is also important to deliver information about the progress of Sign Language Work to other relevant groups and stakeholders, such as governmental bodies and institu-tions, disability organisations, deaf schools, interpreters, and hearing family members. They need to understand why Sign Language Work is being conducted by deaf people themselves – since they are the native users with command of the lan-guage – and that deaf people are capable of conducting this kind of work. The sup-port of relevant stakeholders will be nec-essary if the results of Sign Language Work are to be accepted upon completion.

Project funders need regular updates on the progress and development of the work that has been done. Another important partner is the linguistics departments of universities. Even if sign language research begins at an organisational level, it is cru-cial to aim for cooperation with universi-ties, with the intention that research can be conducted at university level in future.


22..55dd GGooaall 44:: TToo ddeevveelloopp sskkiill llss ffoorr lloobbbbyyiinngg ffoorr hhuummaann aanndd ll iinngguuiissttiicc rriigghhttss

The advocacy of human rights derives from the participation of deaf people in Sign Language Work, together with their improved knowledge of linguistic issues and human and linguistic rights. By train-ing community members on human rights issues, such as the UN CRPD, deaf people are able to begin conducting advocacy work to further the rights of deaf people. Through discussions with government of-ficials, deaf representatives can raise con-crete facts about the barriers that deaf people face, and highlight areas where im-provements are needed.

The focus of the lobbying activities for im-proved legislation might be the following:

• legal recognition of sign language

• development of education for the deaf

• for the government to assume respon-sibility for funding sign language inter-preter services

• for the governmental authorities to provide information in sign language

22..55ee LLoonngg--tteerrmm ggooaallss ffoorr SSiiggnn LLaann--gguuaaggee WWoorrkk ((1100––2200 yyeeaarrss))

The long-term goal of Sign Language Work – 10–20 years – is the realisation of

human rights for deaf people, secured through the legal recognition of sign lan-guage. In practice this means significant positive changes in access to society; fund-ing interpreter services and information in sign language provided by the govern-ment, and the availability of bilingual edu-cation using sign language. Sign language research is ongoing and conducted at uni-versity level with deaf researchers and the close cooperation of the Deaf Community.

The Deaf Community is empowered and has increased skills and knowledge. Com-munity members contribute to society in many ways and are regarded as a resource and a model example for other (linguistic or disability) minority groups of how to challenge and remove discrimination.

22..66 TThhee UUNN aanndd tthhee CCRRPPDD

22..66aa TThhee UUnniitteedd NNaattiioonnss ((UUNN))

The United Nations (UN) is an inter-governmental organisation with 193 member states. The Headquarters of the UN is in New York, USA, and the organisa-tion was established in 1945.

The aims of the UN are to maintain peace throughout the world and to develop friendly relations among nations. UN ob-jectives include providing support to na-tions in conflict, improving the lives of people living in poverty, overcoming illit-eracy, protecting the environment, and encouraging respect for each other’s hu-man rights and freedoms.


22..66bb TThhee UUNN CCoonnvveennttiioonnss

The UN has approved several human rights conventions and treaties. Examples include:

• the UN Convention on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women, which focuses specifically on equality between women and men

• the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child, where the child’s right to ed-ucation is stated

• the UN Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (CRPD)

States parties that ratify these conven-tions are obliged to implement them by updating their national legislation as nec-essary in order to meet the articles of the convention.

22..66cc TThhee UUNN CCoonnvveennttiioonn oonn tthhee RRiigghhttss ooff PPeerrssoonnss wwiitthh DDiissaabbiill iittiieess ((CCRRPPDD))

The UN Convention on the Rights of Per-sons with Disabilities (CRPD) protects the rights of persons with disabilities and promotes their equality. The convention is

concerned with aspects of everyday life, such as employment and social equality. The CRPD aims to shift the focus from a medical conceptualisation of disabled peo-ple towards a human rights model.

22..66dd DDeeaaff ppeeooppllee aanndd ssiiggnn llaanngguuaaggee iinn tthhee UUNN CCoonnvveennttiioonn oonn tthhee RRiigghhttss ooff PPeerrssoonnss wwiitthh DDiissaabbiill iittiieess ((CCRRPPDD))

The UN Convention on the Rights of Per-sons with Disabilities includes the rights of deaf children as well as deaf adults. The Convention includes 50 articles that apply to all persons with disabilities, including deaf people. There are five particularly im-portant articles for the Deaf Community (and deaf people):

Article 2 – Definition. The definition of “language” states that there is equality be-tween spoken languages and signed lan-guages.

Article 9 – Accessibility. This article regu-lates the states parties’ responsibilities for guaranteeing access on an equal basis, e.g. by providing and financing professional sign language interpreters who offer an interpreting service of high quality.

Article 21 – Freedom of expression and opinion, and access to information. States parties have an obligation to recognise and promote the use of sign languages.

Article 24 – Education. Deaf children have the right to receive education in sign lan-guage. Teachers and other education staff must be qualified in sign language.

Article 30 – Participation in cultural life, recreation, leisure and sport. Deaf people are entitled to recognition and support of their cultural and linguistic identity, i.e. sign languages and deaf culture.


33.. SSTTAARRTTIINNGG SSIIGGNN LLAANNGGUUAAGGEE WWOORRKK 33..11 SSiiggnn LLaanngguuaaggee WWoorrkk wwiitthhiinn tthhee ffrraammeewwoorrkk ooff ddeevveellooppmmeenntt ccooooppeerraattiioonn

‘Development cooperation’ is a particular means of empowering a Deaf Community in a developing country. Development co-operation is a process with different stag-es. The first step in this capacity building process is usually organisational support – since a strong organisation of the deaf is a prerequisite for further (development) work. When the organisation is running and functioning well, it can then begin to facilitate Sign Language Work. This ar-rangement is important for ensuring that the Deaf Community has ownership of Sign Language Work. If the country does not have a national deaf association, Sign Language Work can be started in conjunc-tion with a local deaf club or in some disa-bility organisation that truly represents the Deaf Community. Even if a university later becomes involved as a partner in sign language research, it is important that the real ownership of sign language research remains in the hands of sign language us-ers.

Development cooperation programmes are based on training. In addition to train-ing in sign language research, Deaf Com-munity members need skills to lobby for

the fulfilment of their human rights, and so training on advocacy is essential. Lob-bying the government and cooperation with education authorities is often neces-sary in order to improve education for deaf children. Sign language interpreters are needed to facilitate communication between deaf and hearing persons, so in-terpreter training programmes also need to be established. Development coopera-tion activities may encompass several ob-jectives, and therefore might have a pro-gramme-like structure with various differ-ent elements.

Insights from Sign Language Work are crucial not only for the people who are conducting the concrete sign language ac-tivities. Those who manage projects, or project funding must understand how the empowerment of Deaf Communities de-pends upon linguistic concerns. Therefore, sign language linguists should be used as advisors in the planning of the project, to-gether with the Deaf Community and pro-ject or funding managers.

If the results of Sign Language Work are to be sustainable, clear long-term planning is required, and advisor input is needed for training Deaf Community members so that the community can develop.


33..22 CCoonndduuccttiinngg aann iinniittiiaall ssuurrvveeyy

Deaf Communities around the world differ in several respects, and before Sign Lan-guage Work can begin, it is necessary to conduct an initial survey of the target community.

The person conducting the survey must be deaf, because s/he needs to have in-depth knowledge of Deaf Community issues (cul-ture and identity) and excellent sign lan-guage skills. S/he must also have prior ex-perience of conducting such surveys. It might be necessary to find someone from outside the country to work with the Deaf Community on this survey.

Face-to-face interviews are more appro-priate for Deaf Communities than written questionnaires. Information should be ob-tained from several sources, for example the Deaf Community, deaf schools, gov-ernment officials and representatives for existing disability organisations.

This survey can provide information such as:

• the number of community members

• the number of sign languages in the country

• the living conditions and the barriers that deaf people face

• the legislation of the country concern-ing deaf people and sign languages

It is good to be aware of the challenges that may arise during the process of ob-taining this information. For example, sta-tistics on the number of deaf people might

not be available, so one might have to generate an estimate. It is not usually pos-sible to determine the number of sign lan-guages in a country before in-depth socio-linguistic research has been conducted. At this stage, it may be necessary to base the survey on the opinions of Deaf Communi-ty members.

Furthermore, it might not be possible, within the scope of the survey, to conduct a comprehensive study of the living condi-tions and problems that deaf people face. It might be that only limited descriptions or general comments can be made. As far as analysing legislation is concerned, this can be particularly challenging if the per-son conducting the survey does not have a high level of proficiency in the appropriate written language(s).

Despite such challenges, it is still im-portant to conduct an initial survey. The results of the survey will be crucial for planning and for deciding on the goals of Sign Language Work.

33..33 PPllaannnniinngg tthhee SSiiggnn LLaanngguuaaggee WWoorrkk

Once the relevant data have been collect-ed through an initial survey, an action plan for Sign Language Work can be made. This can be designed by the advisor and repre-sentatives of the Deaf Community. The planning is based on the needs that are identified through analysis of the survey data, and in this way the priorities of Sign Language Work can be determined.

Discussions between the advisor and Deaf Community representatives may cover which Sign Language Work activities should be conducted, and a time plan can be made to decide upon the order in which the activities should take place.

Activities contained in the plan may in-clude:

• training in linguistic awareness raising

• sign language research through lan-guage documentation and description


• interpreter training programmes (at a later stage)

• networking and cooperation with oth-er disability organisations, universities or other relevant institutions

It is important to have a flexible attitude when implementing the plan, – whenever the situation changes or new issues emerge, the plan must be revised and adopted to the new situation.

33..44 TThhee BBaallkkaann mmooddeell ooff SSiiggnn LLaanngguuaaggee WWoorrkk

33..44aa SSiiggnn LLaanngguuaaggee WWoorrkk ccoonndduucctteedd iinn AAllbbaanniiaa aanndd KKoossoovvoo

The model for Sign Language Work pre-sented in this manual is the one that has been successfully implemented in the Bal-kans, specifically in Albania and Kosovo. The deaf associations in these two coun-tries have cooperated with the Finnish As-sociation of the Deaf (FAD) in joint devel-opment cooperation projects for 10–15 years, and examples of best practice for Sign Language Work developed during these projects provide the basis for much of the information in this manual.

In both countries, the initial focus was on organisational support, with management training from an international advisor.

When the organisations were stable enough, Sign Language Work then began. In both countries, the work was imple-mented by a small team of two or three individuals, who conducted Sign Language Work on a daily basis. Since there were no sign language linguists in these countries, a linguistic advisor was recruited from abroad. The Sign Language Work staff re-ceived training from the advisor, and worked in close cooperation with the advi-sor. Later, training was given by other ad-visors, who gave training on teaching methods (‘pedagogy’), interpreter train-ing, lobbying techniques and the UN CRPD.

Throughout these projects, Albania and Kosovo worked in close South-South co-operation and shared experience and knowledge with each other. Sign Lan-guage Work first started in Albania, and one of the Albanian deaf staff members (who had already received training) sup-ported the Deaf Community in Kosovo with starting Sign Language Work. Kosovo was the first to have an interpreter pro-gramme, and so a Kosovar interpreter trainer was used to start interpreter train-ing in Albania.

33..44bb LLeessssoonnss ffrroomm tthhee BBaallkkaann mmooddeell ooff SSiiggnn LLaanngguuaaggee WWoorrkk

It is crucial that the Sign Language Work staff cooperate closely with a Working Group of representatives from the Deaf Community. This Group contributes to the ongoing linguistic work by representing variation in the sign language used by the target community. In the projects con-ducted in the Balkans, members of the Working Group offered their time on a voluntary basis, and met according to an agreed schedule.

The Sign Language Work staff were re-sponsible for collecting linguistic data by documenting the sign language used by Deaf Community members, and starting the analysis. The resultss of the data analy-sis were discussed further by the Working Group, and became the basis for the dic-tionary – both a printed and an electronic publication.


Members of the Working Group, and staff members who conducted Sign Language Work, were all deaf. This is because deaf people are the natural users of sign lan-guage, and should therefore exercise re-sponsibility for the data collection and the analysis of the video data. However, the linguistic input of bilingual hearing per-sons was needed in those stages of Sign Language Work, when translations into written language and work on spoken lan-guage equivalents were needed for the dictionary. In Albania and Kosovo there were no deaf bilingual persons with enough spoken/written language skills to conduct this work. However, deaf people should also participate in this final stage of the dictionary making process, so that there is genuine collaboration between deaf and hearing people.

The Working Group is not responsible only for dictionary work. The tasks of the Working Group can grow and change over time. Even if the Group begins as a sup-port forum for Sign Language Work staff, the objectives of the Group can become multifaceted as the linguistic awareness and skills of Group members develop. The Group can function as an advisory board in sign language matters by producing sign language material for the internet, and through involvement in interpreter train-ing programmes, the assessment of sign language skills, and so on.

33..55 AArrgguummeennttss ffoorr tthhee BBaallkkaann mmooddeell ooff SSiiggnn LLaanngguuaaggee WWoorrkk

33..55aa AArrgguummeennttss ffoorr tthhee BBaallkkaann mmoodd--eell ooff SSiiggnn LLaanngguuaaggee WWoorrkk –– aa ddeeaaff--lleedd aapppprrooaacchh

One of the arguments for the model im-plemented in Albania and Kosovo has to do with its deaf-led approach: the staff members who conducted Sign Language Work in Albania and Kosovo were all deaf, as were the members of the Working Group. Hearing people were included in the later stages of the work for specific tasks that required competence in both sign language and written language (i.e. translating from signing into writing) since no bilingual deaf people were availa-ble for this.

The core part of Sign Language Work (da-ta collection and analysis) must be con-ducted by deaf people themselves. This is because being part of a sign language community, sign language is the natural language of deaf people, and deaf people have access to intuitive linguistic knowledge and metalinguistic skills. There might also be hearing people who have deaf parents (Children of Deaf Adults, or CODAs) and are fluent signers with intui-tion about sign language. However, in or-der for the empowerment of deaf people to take place, it is crucial that deaf people realise they are fully able to conduct Sign Language Work. In this way the process contributes to undoing the effects of lin-guistic oppression. If the early stages of Sign Language Work are led by hearing people who don’t understand why the process should be deaf-led, there is a risk that they begin to dominate the process. This might lead to deaf people assuming the passive role of bystanders.

The ownership of sign language needs to remain with Deaf Communities. Both the development of linguistic awareness and the empowerment of the community de-pend upon deaf people having the oppor-tunity to take the lead in Sign Language Work. A deaf-led approach to Sign Lan-guage Work empowers deaf individuals and the community as a whole, because deaf people have the opportunity to be-come the acknowledged experts on their sign language.

When deaf people lead and participate in all phases of Sign Language Work, this also becomes a model for good ethical research practices that respect the community in question. Ethical research methods em-phasise respect for human participants, therefore Sign Language Work is to be conducted by Deaf Community members.

33..55bb AArrgguummeennttss ffoorr tthhee BBaallkkaann mmooddeell ooff SSiiggnn LLaanngguuaaggee WWoorrkk –– aa ccoommmmuunniittyy--bbaasseedd aapppprrooaacchh

A second reason for advocating this model is its community-based participatory ap-proach. Sign Language Work is not im-plemented by a few deaf individuals, but is conducted through a close relationship between Sign Language Work staff and


the Working Group that represents the Deaf Community.

There are several reasons for actively in-volving the language community:

• Community members embody linguis-tic variation in the language that they use, and their language skills are there-fore relevant to linguistic work.

• The ownership of language documen-tation and description starts and re-mains with the Deaf Community.

• The active involvement of the commu-nity during Sign Language Work guar-antees the commitment of community members to the work that is conduct-ed, and their acceptance of this work.

This community-based model of Sign Lan-guage Work has also proven to be success-ful because the training facilitates learning on a broad base reaching not only a few individuals but a wider audience. The ac-tivities of Sign Language Work have to be conducted by local deaf people, but they often lack the knowledge of linguistics needed to begin by themselves. That is why input from an advisor may be needed at the beginning of each new stage of work. Local deaf Sign Language Work staff can learn from the advisor, and after that can continue the work by themselves. They will also share the skills they have learned from the advisor with Working Group members and into the community at large on a peer-to-peer basis.


44.. WWOORRKKIINNGG MMEETTHHOODDSS FFOORR SSIIGGNN LLAANNGGUUAAGGEE WWOORRKK 44..11 TThhee ll iinngguuiissttiicc aaddvviissoorr

44..11aa CChhaarraacctteerriissttiiccss ooff aa ggoooodd ll iinn--gguuiissttiicc aaddvviissoorr

Whilst Sign Language Work is to be con-ducted by local deaf people, they may lack the linguistic knowledge necessary to start work independently if there is no external support. This is why input from an advisor may be needed. If there are no suitable trained sign language linguists in the country, an advisor should be appointed from another country.

The recruitment of the linguistic advisor needs to be done in cooperation with the organisation implementing and funding the project and the local Deaf Community. The linguistic advisor needs to be suitable and qualified for the task, and fulfil the following criteria.

She or he must:

• have a university education and a de-gree in linguistics

• be familiar with the process and meth-ods of sign language research

• be fluent in a sign language and pos-sess good communication skills

• be familiar with and have personal knowledge of deaf culture

• have an open attitude towards learning and acquiring a new sign language

If there are two equally qualified candi-dates for the linguistic advisor post, one hearing and the other deaf, the deaf can-didate should be preferred. This because a deaf advisor can serve as a role model to be copied by the local Deaf Community.

A significant benefit in recruiting a deaf advisors is that s/he can function as a role model for the Deaf Community. Although deaf people can achieve similar things to hearing people, such as university degrees or certain kinds of jobs, Deaf Community

members may only become aware of such potential possibilities by meeting the deaf advisor. Equally, the deaf advisor can be a positive model for hearing decision-makers and stakeholders who may never have met an educated deaf professional. A deaf advisor at a government meeting can make a big impact in challenging concep-tions and attitudes about what deaf peo-ple are capable of achieving, which may lead to a more sensitive and supportive attitude towards the Deaf Community.

The linguistic advisor also needs knowledge of issues such as organisational structure, development cooperation pro-ject planning and management, and budg-et processes, in order that Sign Language Work activities are seen as part of a bigger picture of development cooperation.


44..11bb TThhee ll iinngguuiissttiicc aaddvviissoorr –– ssttaarrttiinngg tthhee wwoorrkk

The first task of an international advisor is to become familiar with the conditions in the country and begin working alongside the Deaf Community, to learn the local sign language, the culture, and the values of that community. The advisor demon-strates respect through a willingness to learn the local sign language and to adapt to the cultural patterns of the Deaf Com-munity. When learning the local sign lan-guage, the advisor must avoid sharing signs from her/his own sign language.

Once the advisor has become familiar with the local sign language and the circum-stances of the community, the planning of Sign Language Work can begin. The advi-sor and the Deaf Community will discuss and decide together the priorities and the goals of the Sign Language Work, and make a timetable based upon the findings of the initial survey (See also CCoonndduuccttiinngg aann iinniittiiaall ssuurrvveeyy and PPllaannnniinngg tthhee SSiiggnn LLaanngguuaaggee WWoorrkk)) .

It is crucial that the advisor does not di-rectly copy and paste working methods and practices from her or his own home country. This may prevent the local com-munity from committing itself to the planned work. Instead, plans should be based upon facts from the survey, com-plemented by ideas from both the com-munity and the experience and knowledge of the advisor.

At a very early stage, the advisor should convey basic information to the Deaf Community about sign language research and the forthcoming Sign Language Work. This can be done through seminars, work-shops or at larger gatherings of communi-

ty members. In order for Deaf Community members to become interested in partici-pating in Sign Language Work, they need to understand why sign language linguis-tics and language documentation are rele-vant to them.

Advisors will need to offer not only lin-guistic input, but other kinds of support and advice in areas such as teaching (‘ped-agogy’), interpreter training, the UN CRPD and lobbying techniques. Additional advi-sors might need to be identified with the relevant skills and knowledge.

44..22 TThhee rreeccrruuiittmmeenntt ooff ssttaaffff ffoorr SSiiggnn LLaanngguuaaggee WWoorrkk

The recruitment process to find the most suitable local deaf people to conduct Sign Language Work should be one of the top priorities in the first phase. Finding skilled people with learning potential will ensure positive outcomes from the Sign Language Work. For the sake of transparency and in order to avoid favouritism, the recruit-ment process should be conducted in an open and democratic way. The deaf people who will be involved in Sign Language Work should not be hand-picked by the advisor or chosen by community members themselves from amongst their friends.

It is recommended that the recruitment process is implemented through an inter-view procedure. An interview panel of lo-cal deaf people should be selected and training in interview techniques provided by the advisor. Information about the forthcoming interviews (at the deaf asso-ciation) should be made widely known throughout the community. Interviews are then conducted by the panel with the advisor present as an observer only.


To find deaf signers who have a strong in-tuition about their language for this work, it is advisable to set tasks in the interview that require linguistic analysis. For exam-ple, applicants could be asked to watch signed video clips and answer questions about the content, and sign a story based on visual pictures. These kind of tasks re-veal the linguistic and communication abilities of the interviewees and show their potential for learning new skills.

In addition to assessing language skills, attention should be paid to gender balance – you should choose both male and female staff – and other factors such as age, eth-nicity and religion should be balanced as far as possible. The educational back-ground of applicants may vary, and some applicants might not have attended school at all. All applicants should be considered, regardless of such issues, in order to iden-tify deaf people who are fluent signers with strong linguistic intuition, good cul-tural knowledge, and who are actively in-volved in the Deaf Community.

44..33 TThhee SSiiggnn LLaanngguuaaggee WWoorrkkiinngg GGrroouupp

The Sign Language Work is conducted by a team of two or three deaf staff members. They are guided in their work by the lin-guistic advisor, from whom they receive linguistic training. However, Sign Lan-guage Work staff should not work in isola-tion but in conjunction with a Sign Lan-guage Working Group. This can be estab-lished by either 1) Each local deaf club sending a representative who is a fluent signer with good linguistic intuition, or 2) Working Group members being selected through open interviews.

The Working Group may consist of 10–15 deaf signers, and should be balanced as far as possible between men and women, rep-resenting different ages, ethnicities, reli-gions and geographical locations. It is im-portant that the members represent the diversity of the community, so that they are able to embody its sign language varia-tion.

Where there are several lexical variants for the same notion, the task of the Working Group is not to choose one variant in pref-

erence to others, but to discuss and docu-ment all variants that occur in the lan-guage. The order of the variants presented could then reflect their frequency in the language. The description of a sign lan-guage should demonstrate and respect the variation that exists in that language.

The Working Group will need to meet on a regular basis. This may mean, for example, at weekends, if that makes it possible for Group members to attend such meetings. Although the work of the Working Group members may be voluntary, those plan-ning the budget should remember to re-serve funds for local travel, meal allow-ances and possibly for accommodation ex-penses.

44..44 HHooww ttoo iimmpplleemmeenntt tthhee ttrraaiinn--iinngg –– nnootteess oonn tthhee uussee ooff ttiimmee

It is crucial to make sure that the advisor’s time is used efficiently. If possible, the ad-visor’s first trip should last for at least three months so that the advisor can:

• learn the basics of the target sign lan-guage and become accustomed to the context (the local way of life and the local deaf culture)

• draft action plans for Sign Language Work together with the community

• inform the community at large about what Sign Language Work is for, and to find deaf people who are interested in conducting the work

• facilitate the process of recruiting Sign Language Work staff, by giving train-ing to the interview panel on how to choose good candidates for the work


‘Interval training’ has been shown to be an efficient way of learning in this situation. After the initial three month visit, the ad-visor would then visit the country for a training period of one month or so, there-after leaving the Sign Language Work staff to work independently and practice the skills that they have learnt. After a few months the advisor would visit again for one month, evaluate the work that has been done, and teach new topics. The ad-visor can also identify any problems that have arisen, and aim to support the resolu-tion of these problems with new training and discussion with the Sign Language Work staff. Following this model, the ad-visor would visit the country an average of three times each year. This should contin-ue for at least three years.

It is recommended that the advisor is pre-sent in the country for longer periods of time at the beginning of the work. How-ever, if the advisor is present all the time, there is a risk of staff becoming dependent upon the advisor. Local trainees develop more confidence when working by them-selves, without the continual presence of the advisor, and the Sign Language Work is more likely to take place in a way that suits the local context.

The advisor should not attempt to share too much knowledge in a short space of time, and it is usually better to begin with the basics – the amount of information shared can be increased over time. The aim is for the advisor to share enough infor-mation with the trainees for them to con-tinue working independently when the advisor is away.

Sign Language Work itself must be con-ducted by local staff members, and the role of the advisor is to provide only train-ing and support. Since the advisor is not the one who conducts the work, the work itself will take longer, and the advisor must be patient enough to cope with this. Successful and sustainable outcomes will result when enough time is allowed for the learning process.

44..55 TTaarrggeett ggrroouuppss ffoorr ttrraaiinniinngg ggiivveenn bbyy tthhee ll iinngguuiissttiicc aaddvviissoorr

The training that the advisor gives should target at least three groups:

• the Sign Language Work staff mem-bers who are recruited for the day to day work

• the Sign Language Working Group that consists of volunteer members repre-senting the Deaf Community

• hearing staff from the deaf organisa-tion, and other hearing people who work closely with the Deaf Community

The advisor will work most closely with Sign Language Work staff, and also pro-vide the Working Group with basic train-ing. Over time, the advisor will withdraw from her/his role as an active trainer of the Working Group, and responsibility for this will be assumed by the Sign Language Work staff. Information shared by the ad-visor with the Sign Language Work staff will be shared with the Working Group by those staff. Through peer education, the Sign Language Work staff participate di-rectly in increasing the capacity of the community.

It very important that hearing people in the organisation working with deaf people have the opportunity to acquire basic training from the advisor. If hearing peo-ple do not receive similar information to deaf people, and at the same pace, the in-creased linguistic knowledge and skills of Deaf Community members can become a source of conflict. In order to promote re-


spect between hearing and deaf people, hearing people need access to basic lin-guistic information. They need to realise that ‘sign language’ is not one language, but that many different sign languages are used around the world. They must also realise that spoken and signed languages are natural languages, and that even though their grammar and structures dif-fer, they are equally valid.

44..66 TTrraaiinniinngg aass ccaappaacciittyy--bbuuiillddiinngg –– sshhaarriinngg sskkiill llss iinn aa ssuussttaaiinnaabbllee wwaayy

Sign Language Work is at risk of ending if the few deaf recruits who have been trained unexpectedly resign from their work. It is important to plan Sign Lan-guage Work to minimise the chances of this happening.

Firstly, training should be structured so that the outcomes of training are not lim-ited to only a few individuals. The empow-erment process becomes very vulnerable if the sharing of skills is focused on only a few individuals employed to conduct Sign Language Work. It is important to ensure that the Sign Language Work can be sus-tained by having a sufficient number of people involved at various levels. Whilst the advisor will be able to give some train-ing to the Working Group of Deaf Com-munity members, training will focus for the most part on the employed staff. It is essential that subsequently the staff will

be able pass on their own learning, knowledge and skills to the Working Group.

Another threat to the sustainability of the work is that as the skills of Sign Language Work staff increase, they may become overloaded with external requests. For ex-ample, the input of Sign Language Work staff might be needed urgently in many different situations, such as in teaching sign language to hearing parents, school teachers and potential interpreters.

In time it may be necessary to set up a separate sign language instructor training programme to give a wider group of deaf people the skills and knowledge needed to teach a signed language. In this pro-gramme the trainees will receive infor-mation about the linguistic structure of a sign language from the Sign Language Work staff. Potential trainees might come from the Sign Language Working Group, or from other interested members of the Deaf Community who have not yet been involved in Sign Language Work.

This Training of Trainers (ToT) approach guarantees a broad pool of trained deaf people. Teaching is also an effective way of reinforcing what one has learned. By teaching other people, one realises wheth-er one has understood a topic properly or not. This model, partly based on peer edu-cation, is a good way to share information with Deaf Community members.

44..77 TTeeaacchhiinngg mmeetthhooddss

Interactive teaching methods are recom-mended, and training should have a very concrete form, with hands-on work. A tra-ditional one-way teaching method, where the advisor ‘lectures’ local trainees must not be used. This is not the best way for deaf trainees to learn – they may never have had the opportunity to learn in their own sign language before, and their ability to process information when delivered in a lecture style may be limited.

Learning-by-doing is a functional ap-proach, and means that participants can apply new knowledge, and practice newly-acquired skills. A lot of time should be de-voted to this, in such a way that the prac-


tical implementation is carried out by the trainees. The responsibility of the advisor is to exchange skills with the Deaf Com-munity, rather than to become a doer of Sign Language Work her/himself.

Culturally, deaf people are visual – this means that they also learn in a visual way. From this, it follows that visual teaching materials and tools shall be used in the training – e.g. visual notes with drawings as to-do-lists. Sign language should be used as much as possible, especially if the literacy skills of the trainees are weak. In-stead of producing progress reports in a written language, reports can be presented in sign language in front of a camera and, if needed, later translated into a written language by a bilingual person.

While the advisor is away from the loca-tion of the Sign Language Work, it may be too challenging for the advisor and the trainees to correspond by written e-mails. It might also be the case that the advisor and the trainees do not have a written language in common. Instead, video chat programmes with a webcam should be used for communicating remotely in sign language. Rather than produce written information on websites, trainees should provide information about the Sign Lan-

guage Work on websites in sign language. This signed information can later be trans-lated into written language.

44..88 EEnnssuurriinngg ggeeooggrraapphhiicc ccoovveerr--aaggee ffoorr SSiiggnn LLaanngguuaaggee WWoorrkk

Some countries are known to have more than one sign language. This might be be-cause there are several schools for deaf children, or because one Deaf Community is isolated from others. The aim of Sign Language Work is nnoott to reduce variation or to unify or standardise different sign language varieties (whether different lan-guages or different dialects).

Sign Language Work focuses on one sign language at a time – but takes regional language variation into account. If the sign language is used across a wide area, it is crucial to work in several locations, with the aim of representing the language used in as many areas as possible. In practice this means that the initial information about Sign Language Work must be shared in different areas, so that as many regions as possible are represented in the Working Group. Filmed video data needs to be collected from different areas and different parts of the community, to get an accurate representation of real lan-guage use.

While conducting Sign Language Work, information about the on-going research should be shared on regular basis with the whole community in the form of seminars or workshops. Information should also be shared with key external stakeholders dur-ing the process, to try and maximise the chance that they will accept the results of the Sign Language Work when they are published.

When the Sign Language Work activities have begun and are running smoothly, it is recommended that deaf people from the country should network internationally. Visiting international sign language work-shops, seminars and conferences is a good way to obtain the latest information about linguistic research, and to share experienc-es with other deaf people who are con-ducting Sign Language research around the world.


55.. SSUUGGGGEESSTTEEDD CCOONNTTEENNTT AANNDD TTOOPPIICCSS FFOORR SSIIGGNN LLAANNGGUUAAGGEE WWOORRKK TTRRAAIINNIINNGG 55..11 DDeeaaff AAwwaarreenneessss mmoodduullee

Local deaf people are sometimes used to the oppression and discrimination that they face, and may even consider hearing people to be superior. For changes to take place, individuals in the Deaf Community need to become aware of their cultural heritage, their linguistic identity as mem-bers of a Deaf Community, and the equali-ty between signed and spoken languages. These things may not be recognised or openly discussed within the community, but deaf people need awareness of them in order to understand the ability to change their situation. The emergence of pride in using the local sign language also effec-tively protects the language from the in-fluence of other sign languages.

The training in this module – on topics such as deaf culture, deaf identity, Deaf-hood and deaf history – must be given by a deaf advisor. Hearing advisors do not have the competence and personal experience (for example, of deaf identity) necessary to teach these topics.

55..22 BBaassiicc ssiiggnn llaanngguuaaggee ll iinngguuiiss--ttiiccss

Basic linguistic topics that could be cov-ered include:

• universal characteristics of language, and similarities and differences be-tween spoken, written and signed lan-guages

• the relationship between language and culture as revealed in the Deaf Com-munity (sign language and deaf cul-ture) – e.g. in the form of eye contact or seeking attention

• language structure: the building blocks of individual signs, and sign modifica-tion and formation (phonology and morphology), the order of signs in a signed expression (syntax), and other grammatical features specific for signed languages, such as body move-

ments, non-manual elements, and the use of space

• the social aspect of language and the relationship between language and so-ciety: o language variation (regional, social

and individual) o language register and style o language change o language acquisition o bilingualism in children o language planning and policy

55..33 SSiiggnn llaanngguuaaggee ddooccuummeennttaattiioonn

Training must be given on why and how to document sign language, based on the filming of natural language. This means that the Sign Language Work staff are first trained in the use of technical equip-ment and given practical training on how to collect linguistic data through natural discussions or interviews. Sign Language Work staff must learn not to begin with the spoken language, e.g. showing the deaf informants written words to sign. No written material should be used at all; in-stead linguistic data should be elicited through natural sign conversation or by using visual stimuli – such as pictures, pho-tographs or video clips. Training is also to be given in research ethics, e.g. consent for filming and use of data.

Once natural signing data have been col-lected, the filmed clips can become a base for the development of a sign language corpus. A sign language corpus is a collec-tion of organised sign language data which have been transcribed and annotated, and can be searched by a computer. A corpus is very useful for further research and for teaching the language.

55..44 LLaanngguuaaggee ddeessccrriippttiioonn ((iinncclluudd--iinngg ccoonnssiiddeerraattiioonnss ffoorr mmaakkiinngg aa ddiiccttiioonnaarryy))

It is common for Deaf Communities to want a dictionary of their language, and therefore the advisor should explain the


limitations that dictionaries usually have. A dictionary cannot provide a comprehen-sive description of the language. However, a dictionary can function as a valuable first step for describing signs in a language, and as an important symbol and lobbying tool for sign language. The signs in a dictionary are not more “correct” than those not tak-en into the dictionary are “wrong”. Sign languages contain linguistic variation and when languages change over time new signs enter into the language. It is im-portant not to publish a dictionary only in the form of a book, since printed material does not do justice to the visual nature of sign language. Therefore the dictionary needs a “live” format, such as a website, a DVD or a USB memory stick.

The Sign Language Work staff need to learn how to organise the collected lin-guistic information in sign files – within a computer database, and maybe also on index cards stored in a box. They need to learn how to note down the form of the sign (handshape, orientation, movement and place of articulation) and information about the signer (gender, age and region). The Sign Language Work staff should learn not to work on the signs through a spoken/written language – e.g. not to ar-range collected signs based on words in a spoken language in an alphabetic order. Instead signs can be arranged in groups based on the structure of the sign (hand-shape). In the analysis an alphabetical or-der of spoken language words should be avoided, since it makes the analysing pro-cess more complicated and confusing by mixing spoken language information into the sign research. Signs for a dictionary can also be arranged based on the mean-ing of the sign (signs for family members, school, food & drinks, etc.).

The collected and analysed material will then be discussed in the Working Group. After the discussions the signs need to be re-filmed if the planned outcome of the language description work is a dictionary. The Group can also give their input by filming example sentences for each of the signs with support of examples found in the filmed data. In this way, the dictionary presents not only individual signs, but also the signs in context. Finally, support from bilingual (hearing) persons with skills in

both sign language and written language is needed for finding the equivalents to the signs in spoken language and for trans-lating the signed example sentences into written language.


55..55 TTrraaiinniinngg oonn ‘‘hhooww ttoo tteeaacchh’’ ((‘‘ppeeddaaggooggyy ttrraaiinniinngg’’))

If the skills and the linguistic knowledge that one has acquired are to be passed on to other people, then Sign Language Work staff must have pedagogical skills (this means that they know how to teach). Having knowledge of a topic (such as sign language research) is not the same thing as being able to teach it. Once the staff are trained on how to teach, the staff will be able to teach sign language topics to sev-eral groups, such as the Deaf Community members, hearing parents of deaf children and interpreter students.

Therefore, a pedagogic advisor needs to be recruited to give training in:

• how to plan and structure sign lan-guage teaching sessions

• what kind of visual teaching material to use (such as video clips, pictures and photos)

• how to practice before the actual teaching session

• interactive teaching methods and how to give feedback

• self-reflection and self-evaluation in order to develop ones teaching skills

• how to adapt ones teaching to differ-ent target groups – since deaf sign lan-guage users, or hearing people who are learning sign language as a foreign lan-guage require different teaching ap-proaches, and children and young peo-ple learn in a different way compared to adult learners

In addition to getting pedagogy training from the advisor, the Sign Language Work staff are also given feedback from the ad-visor after their actual teaching perfor-mance, where the advisor has been pre-sent as an observer.

55..66 TTrraaiinniinngg iinn hhuummaann aanndd ll iinn--gguuiissttiicc rriigghhttss aaddvvooccaaccyy

Skills and strategies are needed in order to lobby successfully for the improvement of human and linguistic rights. This training module could contain information about society structures; how parliamentary de-cision-making functions, about different government bodies, and how legislation is structured in the country in question. Training on the UN Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (CRPD) and other relevant international human rights treaties regarding deaf people and sign language is also a part of this module.

It is important for deaf people to practice their lobbying skills before meeting with different authorities, so that they are pre-pared and know how to behave. Partici-pants can practice by acting out situations beforehand, to prepare different roles. When people are well prepared for lobby-ing, they are able to make a difference, and contribute both to the process of changing legislation and to the way that it is implemented. Lobbying on sign lan-guages can cover issues such as the legal recognition of sign language, the use of sign language in education, funding for a sign language interpreter service, and ac-cess to information through sign language on TV and on the internet.


66.. BBEESSTT PPRRAACCTTIICCEESS AANNDD CCHHAALLLLEENNGGEESS IINN SSIIGGNN LLAANNGGUUAAGGEE WWOORRKK 66..11 CCoommmmuunniiccaattiioonn

66..11aa CCoommmmuunniiccaattiioonn bbeettwweeeenn SSiiggnn LLaanngguuaaggee WWoorrkk ssttaaffff aanndd tthhee DDeeaaff CCoommmmuunniittyy

Open interaction and communication is the basis for cooperation between Sign Language Work staff and the Deaf Com-munity. It is very important that there is mutual understanding, so that motivation levels are maintained and successful (learning) results are achieved. This cre-ates a supportive atmosphere among the people involved in Sign Language Work.

Communication challenges and misunder-standings that arise need to be dealt with openly and immediately. Unsolved com-munication problems tend to escalate into bigger problems. They can affect the mo-tivation of those involved, and have a negative effect on the Sign Language Work as a whole. Transparent problem solving is the key to good communication and successful Sign Language Work activi-ties.

66..11bb CCoommmmuunniiccaattiioonn bbeettwweeeenn tthhee aaddvviissoorr aanndd tthhee DDeeaaff CCoommmmuunniittyy

When the advisor arrives in the target country, her or his first task is to learn the local sign language so that communication is smoother and more efficient. The advi-sor should not use her/his own national sign language or International Sign for communicating with the local Deaf Com-munity.

How can the advisor learn the local sign language? There might be some sign lan-guage classes in the target country, but language is best learned through interac-tion with language users, i.e. members of the Deaf Community. It is also advanta-geous for the advisor to meet female and male language users of different ages and other backgrounds. Some deaf individuals might be more used to communicating with language learners, and could function as interpreters, supporting the advisor with communication in the beginning

phase. By learning the language of the community, the advisor also acquires cul-tural patterns and gets to know and to be known by the community members.

There are several benefits for an advisor who learns the sign language of the local Deaf Community:

1. According to the WFD policy (see wfdeaf.org > Databank > Policies > WFD Work in Developing Countries) foreign sign languages should not be imported into developing countries. The local and national sign languages should be respected and not be subject to foreign influence that might change, destroy or jeopardise the existence of a local sign language.

2. The target audience may not under-

stand training that is given by the advi-sor if s/he uses International Sign or her/his own national sign language. Learning the sign language of the community therefore ensures that the training is accessible to the Deaf Com-munity.

3. Sign Language Work staff need to un-

derstand guidance that the advisor gives on language documentation, but the advisor also needs to understand the sign language data that Sign Lan-guage Work staff collect. This means that the advisor needs to be proficient in the local sign language so that s/he can assist with analysis and explain fea-tures in the language that is the target of documentation and research. The advisor’s proficiency in the local sign language contributes to the high quali-ty of the linguistic work that is con-ducted.

4. Communication in the local sign lan-

guage of the Deaf Community reduces the power-differential between the ad-visor and the language users. As a re-sult, the two parties become more equal socially.


5. When the advisor socialises with the Deaf Community members, they get to know her/him and witness the increas-ing proficiency of the advisor in the lo-cal sign language. This helps communi-ty members to accept the advisor more easily.

66..11cc TThhee rroollee ooff tthhee aaddvviissoorr iinn ffooss--tteerriinngg ggoooodd eevveerryyddaayy ccoommmmuunniiccaa--ttiioonn

When the advisor introduces a new train-ing topic to Sign Language Work staff, it is crucial to ensure that the key points are understood. Interactive teaching methods can be used, such as regularly asking train-ees to provide summaries of what has been discussed or covered. This helps eve-ryone to identify if a topic is not yet clear-ly understood. It also gives Sign Language Work staff more confidence to continue working independently when the advisor is not present. For successful learning, communication must be clear and interac-tive, and new topics must be introduced gradually at the right pace.

The advisor has to know the local sign lan-guage in order to communicate with Sign Language Work staff. It is also useful if the advisor knows the basics of the spo-ken/written language(s) of the wider community. These language skills are ben-eficial when the advisor is involved in dic-tionary work, where equivalents to the signs are processed and written transla-tions of the example sentences are pro-duced. This phase happens after signed material is collected and analysed, when sign entries are created for the dictionary. Any hearing people involved in working on translations and written equivalents for sign entries will also need linguistic guid-ance from the advisor.

Open communication and direct problem-solving are basic principles for general in-teraction in Sign Language Work. Enough time must be allocated for solving prob-lems and for effective interaction. The ad-visor is a role model for her/his interaction skills and communicative behaviour, and the importance of this cannot be overem-phasised. Sign Language Work staff can learn crucial problem solving skills from the advisor. If communication is inade-

quate then Sign Language Work will suf-fer.

66..11dd CCoommmmuunniiccaattiioonn bbeettwweeeenn ddeeaaff ,, hhaarrdd ooff hheeaarriinngg aanndd hheeaarriinngg ppeeooppllee

It is important to be aware of communica-tion issues between deaf, hard of hearing and hearing people. Even if Sign Language Work activities are mainly implemented by deaf staff and deaf members of the Working Group, it is likely that the input of hearing people is needed. Hearing peo-ple are often involved in the later stages of dictionary development, and the deaf-hearing relationship may be crucial for the success of the project.

Hearing people might not be familiar with the communication patterns and rules that Deaf signers use. Examples include the im-portance of eye contact during signed in-teractions, and the attraction of a deaf person’s attention by tapping on the shoulder, or waving, rather than by shout-ing. If signed communication is to run smoothly, hearing people need to be made aware of these cultural norms, for example through training by deaf people. This fos-ters cross-cultural cooperation and under-standing.

If deaf, hard of hearing, and hearing peo-ple work together within a deaf associa-tion or on a project, problems arise if some people use spoken language to communi-cate with each other, because this excludes deaf people from taking part in discussion. One way to ensure that communication is accessible for everybody is to have an ex-plicit language policy for the office or space where Sign Language Work takes place. This kind of policy states that sign language is to be used whenever deaf peo-ple are present. When no deaf persons are present, spoken language may be used. By using a signed language, communication becomes respectful and accessible for eve-ryone in the room.

This language policy, of always using a signed language when deaf people are pre-sent, can sometimes be challenging for hearing and hard of hearing people. It is possible that they must be reminded of the policy – and about why using a spoken language might be disrespectful towards


deaf people. It can also take time for changes in linguistic behaviour to take place.

66..22 LLiinngguuiissttiicc cchhaalllleennggeess –– tthhee ddeessiirree ffoorr ssiiggnn llaanngguuaaggee cchhaannggee aanndd ssttaannddaarrddiissaattiioonn

66..22aa SSiiggnn llaanngguuaaggee vvaarriiaattiioonn

Deaf people do not usually have problems understanding the sign language used by people of different gender and age, who may sign in different ways. Within the community, deaf people often use differ-ent signs for the same concept, and there-fore the lexicon of a sign language natural-ly contains linguistic variation. When deaf people are travelling (abroad), they often find it relatively effortless to learn a new sign language through communication with deaf signers in a new area or a new country.

Linguistic variation in sign languages can be a challenge for hearing people. Hearing teachers of deaf children can be apprehen-sive about the range of variants, and might even express a desire for children to change their signing and use standardised signs. For smooth communication be-tween a hearing teacher and students, it is the responsibility of the teacher to learn the different signs that are used. (The teacher can use either one or several vari-ants in return.)

66..22bb SSiiggnn llaanngguuaaggee vvaarriiaattiioonn aanndd ddiiccttiioonnaarryy wwoorrkk

Sometimes a desire is expressed to reduce the variation that hearing people encoun-ter in a sign language. Sign language in-terpreters, teachers or hearing parents of deaf children sometimes regard such varia-tion as problematic. There are even cases where dictionaries are made by choosing only one variant for each spoken language word. This is not an adequate way to pro-ceed with dictionary work, because the richness of expression in a sign language should be respected.

One of the dangers associated with this approach is that variants appearing in the dictionary may be seen as “correct” while other variants in use in the community

language, which are not in the dictionary, are considered “incorrect”. In light of this, it is recommended that dictionaries reflect natural signing, which contains variation. By collecting such ‘real’ sign language data from different deaf signers, different vari-ants can be presented in the dictionary publication, as well as “live” signed exam-ples of the signs.

Attempts to standardise sign languages often fail because signed languages are mistakenly compared with written lan-guages. The written form of a language is usually the result of standardisation pro-cesses, and therefore writing follows strict, conventionalised rules of spelling and grammar. Rather, signed languages should be compared to spoken forms of a lan-guage – spoken and signed languages are both richer in variation than normative standard written languages.

66..22cc TToo iimmppoossee cchhaannggeess aanndd aatt--tteemmppttss ttoo uunniiffyy ssiiggnn llaanngguuaaggee

Several attempts have been made to change or unify sign languages in different parts of the world. Within a sign commu-nity, linguistic variation is sometimes re-lated to different schools for deaf children. Attempts should not be made to standard-ise varieties – or variants – in order to re-duce variation. Linguistic variation in sign languages should be respected.

Foreign sign languages should not be im-ported into a country to replace an exist-ing sign language. If a foreign sign lan-guage has already been introduced to a country, the use of the original/indigenous sign language can be supported and (re)vitalised by community-based sign language documentation and research, and language awareness training.

Misconceptions still prevail about sign languages ‘lacking’ elements that are found in spoken and written languages; sign languages are sometimes mistakenly judged as inferior on the basis of this, and in need of ‘fixing’ or developing. Sign lan-guages should not be ‘developed’ by indi-viduals from outside the community. The sign languages of Deaf Communities are natural, fully-fledged languages.


Different sign languages are used around the world, and attempts to unify different sign languages are misguided and unethi-cal (see wfdeaf.org > Databank > State-ments > Statement on the unification of sign languages). It should also be remem-bered that there may be several sign lan-guages in one country in a similar way that there might be several different spo-ken languages.

All forceful attempts to change, standard-ise or unify natural sign languages are vio-lations of the linguistic human rights of deaf people. Through Sign Language Work, Deaf Community members receive linguistic training and accurate infor-mation about the nature of sign lan-guages, and become better equipped to resist pressure from others to change their language.

66..22dd SSiiggnn llaanngguuaaggee ddeevveellooppmmeenntt wwiitthhiinn ddeeaaff eedduuccaattiioonn

Hearing teachers with poor signing skills might find it challenging to identify signed equivalents for written words in school books. We suggest that teachers take part in sign language classes to develop their signing skills. If such classes are not availa-ble, the teacher can actively engage with Deaf Community members and learn to sign from deaf adults. If this is also not possible, teachers can interact with their deaf schoolchildren, and learn how they express concepts.

One particular challenge is to find signed equivalents for terminology linked with a specific area of study. It is unlikely that established and conventional signed ex-pressions already exist for all special ter-minology. It is not acceptable for working groups of hearing people – such as inter-preters, teachers and educationalists – to develop new signs.

The best way to develop new signs is to establish a working group of deaf signers who have had basic linguistic training. Hearing people can join the group, but it is essential that they do not take over the decision making process.

The involvement of deaf people in this kind of work is essential, since hearing

staff do not usually have a sign language as their first language, and so lack the nec-essary skills. Those who have a sign lan-guage as their first language have complex knowledge concerning language use, and metalinguistic awareness and intuition about their language. They can determine how new signs can be constructed accord-ing to the norms of the language.

66..33 CChhaalllleennggee –– hhooww ttoo aavvooiidd ((lliinn--gguuiissttiicc)) ccoolloonniiaalliissmm aanndd iinntteerrnnaa--ttiioonnaall pprreessssuurree

The term "colonialism" is used here to re-fer to the introduction of linguistic or cul-tural influences from a more dominant culture that leads to the replacement of indigenous language(s) or cultural practic-es. In order to avoid this kind of colonial-ism, the advisor should be aware of, and observe how s/he communicates, and try to adapt to local cultural patterns. It is of the utmost importance that Deaf Commu-nity members are aware of international influences, and learn to resist them as ap-propriate.

The advisor should be recruited in cooper-ation between the Deaf Community and the project funder. Once the advisor is ap-pointed, her or his behaviour is very im-portant. If the advisor is unaware of local cultural patterns, uses International Sign or another sign language, the local sign language is then exposed to risk of being displaced. If a foreign advisor is recruited, s/he must learn the sign language of the community and become accustomed to the local deaf culture.

The advisor might find it tempting to con-duct some of the tasks her/himself, but in the long run this is counterproductive for Sign Language Work. If the results are to be sustainable, deaf trainees need to learn new skills by conducting the work them-selves. The advisor should adopt a back-ground role; by advising instead of doing, the advisor makes it possible for trainees to implement the work themselves, and sustainable capacity building can take place. The advisor can also encourage the further spread of skills and knowledge, by encouraging Sign Language Work staff to share their experience with neighbouring


countries in the form of South-South part-nerships.

Through their ethical behaviour, advisors are role models for how to respect the lo-cal sign language and cultural patterns. Through appropriate training, the local Deaf Community becomes empowered when learning new skills. They acquire new tools to manage the challenges they will meet, and this ensures successful re-sults for Sign Language Work.

66..44 CChhaalllleennggeess iinn iinnvvoollvviinngg tthhee DDeeaaff CCoommmmuunniittyy

66..44aa IInnvvoollvviinngg tthhee DDeeaaff CCoommmmuunniittyy –– ppllaannnniinngg SSiiggnn LLaanngguuaaggee WWoorrkk

It is common for new Sign Language Work projects to face various challenges. Repre-sentatives of the Deaf Community must be involved in the planning phase, because planning should not be carried out by the international project manager and the ad-visor alone. This is for several reasons.

Deaf Community members are the experts on the local situation – collectively, they know about the history of the community, its sign language, the specific needs and everyday challenges that community members face in life. This information is needed in the planning phase, and there-fore planning should be carried out in co-operation between the community, the advisor and the project manager. This is the way in which decisions must be taken about which Sign Language Work activi-ties to carry out.

Local Deaf Community members must be involved in the planning phase because Sign Language Work models cannot be directly copied and pasted from one coun-try to another. In international coopera-tion it is important to remember that eve-ry Deaf Community is unique, and faces different challenges. The project aims and activities must match the specific situation in question.

66..44bb IInnvvoollvviinngg tthhee DDeeaaff CCoommmmuunniittyy –– iinnppuutt dduurriinngg aallll ssttaaggeess ooff wwoorrkk

When working with a small team of deaf Sign Language Work staff, it is crucial that

the new or developing skills of the staff are shared with other community mem-bers as soon as possible. These members are key stakeholders in Sign Language Work. If they are not involved, problems may arise later on. It is important to bear in mind that information needs to be giv-en to the Deaf Community as Sign Lan-guage Work takes place. The Working Group represents the community and has a crucial part to play in this process, not at least in representing the linguistic varia-tion that can be found in the language. If the community is involved only when the work is coming to an end – e.g. when a dictionary is published – members of the community might reject the results of Sign Language Work.

In order for Sign Language Work activities to succeed, Deaf Community members need to have a genuine sense of ownership towards the work.

66..44cc IInnvvoollvviinngg tthhee DDeeaaff CCoommmmuunniittyy –– ppaarrttiicciippaattiioonn oonn aann eeqquuaall bbaassiiss

One challenge when involving the com-munity is how to do so on an equal basis, because it is common for (sub)groups of a community to oppress each other. Exam-ples of why this might happen during Sign Language Work are outlined below:

• The community might still be dominat-ed by hearing people, who want to re-tain strong positions, and are unwilling to cooperate with deaf people. DDeeaaff aanndd hheeaarriinngg ppeeooppllee are equal and should respect each other, but Sign Language Work should be conducted by deaf people themselves, at least at the beginning. It is crucial that the con-trol of the Sign Language Work re-mains within the Deaf Community.

• GGeennddeerr issues might be a reason for discrimination. Sign Language Work should not be dominated by male staff members, and women and men should be able to participate equally.

• The yyoouunnggeerr ddeeaaff ggeenneerraattiioonn

might have difficulties in participating, if the community is dominated by an oollddeerr ggeenneerraattiioonn that maintains


control or influence.

• IInnccoommee//wweeaalltthh ddiiffffeerreenncceess should not be a reason for unequal treatment.

• EEdduuccaattiioonn lleevveell should not be a bar-rier for participating in Sign Language Work. Deaf people who have attended school and those who have not should be given the opportunity to participate in Sign Language Work.

• Even cciittyy--vveerrssuuss--ccoouunnttrryyssiiddee should not be a reason to discriminate between members of the Deaf Com-munity. Everybody should be treated equally regardless of where they live.

• EEtthhnniicc bbaacckkggrroouunndd is not a reason to exclude deaf people from participat-ing in Sign Language Work.

• Deaf people of different rreelliiggiioouuss bbaacckkggrroouunnddss aanndd bbeelliieeffss should be respected and should have the oppor-tunity to participate in Sign Language Work.

For discrimination of this kind to be avoid-ed or minimised, it may be appropriate to give information to the Deaf Community about equality and human rights issues. For Sign Language Work, it is crucial that linguistic and sociolinguistic variation is respected and made visible. This can be done by including representatives from the whole community in Sign Language Work.

66..55 CChhaalllleennggee –– mmoottiivvaattiioonn ooff vvoolluunntteeeerrss

When seeking to involve the Deaf Com-munity, one challenge is how to motivate community members to take part in the work on a voluntary basis. In addition to the two or three paid staff members, Sign Language Work requires unpaid but com-mitted language users who give their in-put as long-term members of the Working Group. Before Sign Language Work begins in earnest, it can help to stress the im-portance of the ongoing involvement of volunteers throughout the duration of the project so that they stay motivated and

committed to the work. Volunteers can be aware that:

• They are not paid a salary because they do not work on a daily basis, unlike the Sign Language Work staff. Their work consists only of attending Working Group meetings.

• For Working Group meetings, travel expenses are paid (e.g. travel by bus or train). In addition to this, their expens-es (meals and accommodation) will be covered.

• The input of volunteers is important because they are familiar with sign language use and regional variation.

• Once a dictionary is published (as a book and in electronic form), Working Group members will be acknowledged in the publication by name.

• The dictionary will be an important lobbying tool for persuading the gov-ernment of the existence of the lan-guage. Over time, this effort will re-move barriers that deaf people face, and improve their human rights.

A thorough understanding of the role of the Working Group is needed in order to secure the commitment of its members. When the members understand why the work is being carried out on a voluntary basis, it is likely that they will be willing to support Sign Language Work as long-term members of the Working Group.

66..66 CCuullttuurraall ccllaasshheess iinn eevveerryyddaayy wwoorrkk

Different kinds of cultural clashes are to be expected in Sign Language Work. For example, the advisor and the local Deaf Community may have different cultural conceptions of time (e.g. different expec-tations regarding punctuality). The advisor must use a flexible approach when adapt-ing to local customs. Partners must com-municate openly on issues such as punctu-ality and scheduling, so that cooperation ensues as smoothly as possible. All parties should be encouraged to be flexible so that cultural differences can be overcome.


Differences between hearing and deaf cul-ture might also present challenges. To laugh at different things, to have a differ-ent sense of humour, may be a source of misunderstanding. Informing other peo-ple before you leave a room may appear to be odd behaviour to a hearing person, but deaf people do not hear the shutting of a door which indicates that someone has left. Hearing people involved in Sign Lan-guage Work should be made aware of the fundamental features in communicating with deaf people, so that misunderstand-ings or conflicts due to ignorance are not created.

66..77 CChhaalllleennggee –– pprriioorriittiissiinngg

66..77aa CChhaalllleennggee –– pprriioorriittiissiinngg hhooww ttoo uussee tthhee aavvaaiillaabbllee ffuunnddiinngg

One challenge that might emerge con-cerns funding. It might not be possible for all of the goals set out in the original pro-ject proposal to be achieved, if funding does not allow for this. In such a situation, the amount of funding available affects which activities can be implemented.

Discussion of priorities – involving the pro-ject manager, the advisor and Sign Lan-guage Work staff – is important. If the amount of funding falls short of what was expected, new plans must be made based on the most urgent Sign Language Work topics. Some activities may have to be postponed, pending further funding. Plans must be adapted to match the amount of funding available.

66..77bb CChhaalllleennggee –– wwhhiicchh SSiiggnn LLaann--gguuaaggee WWoorrkk ttooppiiccss sshhoouulldd bbee pprriioorrii--ttiisseedd??

Whose important is important? Another challenge concerns which topics should be dealt with in Sign Language Work. On one hand, the advisor might be overambitious in terms of the ideas that s/he wants to share, or the depth of the content. Sign Language Work staff might struggle to grasp all of the new topics, especially if there is not enough time to discuss each one. On the other hand, Sign Language Work staff might also have unrealistic plans for the things they want to achieve within the scope of Sign Language Work.

How can one solve the problem of which topics to prioritise? Plans must be realistic – adapted to the needs, situation, and cir-cumstances of the Deaf Community in the target area. To obtain agreement for con-crete plans, open discussions are needed between the advisor and all relevant local parties/individuals.

66..77cc CChhaalllleennggee –– tthhee bbaallaannccee bbee--ttwweeeenn lleeaarrnniinngg nneeww kknnoowwlleeddggee aanndd sskkiill llss ,, aanndd ppuuttttiinngg tthheemm iinnttoo pprraacc--ttiiccee

Time management can be a challenge when Sign Language Work staff and the advisor make plans for periods when the advisor is present. If active training takes place for a period of two weeks, problems and uncertainties can arise when the advi-sor has left staff members to continue by themselves. Time can be lost when Sign Language Work staff have to wait for the next visit by the advisor.


With this in mind, we recommend that the advisor does not spend all of her or his time engaged in active face-to-face teach-ing, but allocates time for practice. The advisor has to be present long enough for new topics to become clear, and for addi-tional information to be given (if needed). If enough time is reserved for trainees to practice, it will be possible to digest and learn to apply the new skills.

66..88 CChhaalllleennggee –– sseettttiinngg tthhee oorrddeerr iinn wwhhiicchh ttooppiiccss sshhoouulldd bbee ccoovv--eerreedd

If the advisor starts the training by teach-ing only linguistic topics in some depth, there is a risk that the content will be too challenging for Sign Language Work staff who have been recently recruited.

Staff members often need training in oth-er basic skills first, such as:

• cooperation and team working skills – how to communicate and interact in a mutually-supportive way

• how to organise one’s work – the plan-ning of work on a weekly, monthly and yearly basis

• how to use the technical equipment needed for Sign Language Work – training in the use of video cameras, computers and other technical equip-ment, file management, editing, etc.

• how to report on the activities that have been done – training in making video reports

Basic insights and skills in these practical topics connected to the work is a prerequi-site for the Sign Language Work staff to be prepared for acquiring deeper training in sign language linguistics.

66..99 CChhaalllleennggee –– tthhee nneeeedd ffoorr fflleexx--iibbiill iittyy iinn iimmpplleemmeennttiinngg aa ppllaann

It is well known that everything does not often go according to plan when starting Sign Language Work activities. Plans that are made by the advisor and the Deaf

Community need to allow for flexibility. If a three-year plan is made for Sign Lan-guage Work, the original plan (‘Plan A’) will not necessarily be followed all the way to its conclusion.

To reach the goals that have been set, it is common for Plan A to be changed into Plan B, and then to be developed further into Plan C. This is done during the course of the work, and means that plans need to be open to evaluation and adjustment ac-cording to prevailing circumstances and situations. This evaluation and adjustment should take place in cooperation and agreement with the Deaf Community.

Consequently, it is good to have a flexible attitude and to bear in mind that a plan is only a plan. If a plan does not work, it needs to be re-evaluated and changed ac-cordingly.

66..1100 CChhaalllleennggee –– aann aaccttiivvee ddiiaa--lloogguuee wwiitthh rreelleevvaanntt ssttaakkeehhoollddeerrss

If Sign Language Work activities are car-ried out within a small group of Sign Lan-guage Work staff in isolation, this can generate challenges later on. If others are unaware of the research, they may reject it. It is preferable that relevant stakehold-ers – such as the whole Deaf Community, interpreters, schools for the deaf, universi-ty linguistics departments, and govern-mental bodies – are aware of Sign Lan-guage Work from the very beginning (or at least from early on).

It is wise to maintain active contact, ar-range regular meetings and repeatedly dis-seminate information about the Sign Lan-guage Work process to relevant groups and institutions. This can help to foster acceptance of the results of Sign Language Work, e.g. once a dictionary is published.

66..1111 CChhaalllleennggee ooff ssuussttaaiinnaabbiill iittyy –– pprroojjeecctt dduurraattiioonn aanndd eennssuurriinngg ffuunnddiinngg

If Sign Language Work is dependent on international project funding, how can the work continue sustainably once funding stops?


It usually takes at least three years to begin Sign Language Work and make sure that it is running properly. Sign Language Work is not a “quick fix”, and it takes time to learn and build the capacity of Deaf Community members. The work should not be rushed. The people who are con-ducting Sign Language Work need time to digest and practice applying new knowledge, so that activities contribute to strong, lasting and ethical Sign Language Work.

If international project funding is used, this will almost certainly stop at some point, perhaps after several cycles of fund-ing. While Sign Language Work activities and capacity building are being conducted, it is important to start lobbying, so that the government will take responsibility for future funding. Over time, as international funding decreases, government funding should increase. Ultimately, Sign Language Work should be guaranteed and funded by national authorities.

In the long run, the ‘home’ of sign lan-guage documentation and research should move to a place where language research belongs – this might be a linguistics de-partment at a university that has more resources than a small deaf organisation. Through equal treatment with spoken languages, the status of the national sign language(s) will also increase. However, ownership of the language must stay with-in the sign community, and deaf signers must remain in control of the research of their language. In order that these princi-ples are followed, Sign Language Work should continue through cooperation be-tween researchers (whether deaf or hear-ing) and the Deaf Community.

In conclusion, Sign Language Work should be conducted on a long-term basis. It should not rely only on international fund-ing, therefore lobbying activities need to be directed towards the relevant national government. These authorities should claim responsibility for funding Sign Lan-guage Work activities in future, when the initial funding stops.


77.. SSUUMMMMAARRYY:: WWHHAATT NNOOTT TTOO DDOO ,, AANNDD CCOONNCCRREETTEE SSUUGGGGEESSTTIIOONNSS FFOORR GGOOOODD PPRRAACCTTIICCEE 1. Actors and project planners outside Deaf

Communities – such as international or-ganisations or governments – must not suggest or plan Sign Language Work pro-jects without consulting the local deaf people concerned, or without having a sign language linguist involved in the planning. Local Deaf Community mem-bers should already be involved in the planning stages of Sign Language Work, according to the philosophy “Nothing About Us Without Us!”.

2. Sign languages differ from each other

throughout the world. Do not try to uni-fy different sign languages or language varieties into a single form, but respect languages as they are. Do not try to re-duce variation by imposing standardisa-tion efforts on a sign language. Variation occurs naturally in all language. (See wfdeaf.org > Databank > Statements > Statement on the unification of sign lan-guages / WFD Statement on Standard-ized Sign Language)

3. Some people might regard sign languages

as incomplete, and may not understand that these are natural languages. Do not impose changes or try to ‘develop’ a sign language – e.g. by adding what you think the language ‘lacks’. Sign languages lack nothing; they are natural languages that develop over time through use within a language community. They should be re-spected as such.

4. Foreign advisors must not introduce

her/his own sign language, or Interna-tional Sign, into the target country. The local sign language(s) should be acquired and used for communication. Advisors should also familiarise themselves with the local culture. This helps to foster co-operation.

5. An advisor coming from a financially rich

country should not impose outside be-haviour or alien cultural values and be-liefs on the target community. Rather than dominating, s/he should foster genuine cooperation with the Deaf Community in the target country, charac-terised by equality and mutual under-standing. Working and setting the goals

together will result in effective develop-ment and sustainability.

6. Sign Language Work should be conduct-

ed in accordance with the principles of openness and transparency. The advisor should not “hand pick” Sign Language Work staff according to her/his personal preference or opinion. Instead there should be a transparent recruitment pro-cess, where the Deaf Community is given information about recruitment. In this way all interested community members have the chance to apply for a position and attend an interview.

7. Where possible, do not pick only male or

only female Sign Language Work staff. Try also not to show partiality towards younger or older people. Be therefore aware of the gender balance and work with people of different ages.

8. Sign Language Work as we have de-

scribed it should not be conducted in a bubble by staff members. Interested members of the whole Deaf Community should have the opportunity to be in-formed and involved in different ways. It is advisable that the Sign Language Work staff cooperate with a Working Group. The wider Deaf Community should be in-formed of progress since it concerns their language.

9. Do not employ hearing people as Sign

Language Work staff or Working Group members. When starting Sign Language Work, it is advisable for the work to be conducted only by deaf or hard of hear-ing people. They need to have good sign-ing skills, be representative of linguistic variation and have strong connections to the community language use in order to work on the sign language data. Hearing people can be included at a later stage of Sign Language Work – when the focus of the work is to find equivalents and trans-late the collected signed data into a writ-ten language.

10. Hearing people should be aware of how

they are interacting with the Deaf Com-munity. It is important not to take con-trol, since it is the Deaf Community that should lead the work. This will empower


the community and enable deaf people to cooperate with hearing people on an equal basis.

11. Do not conduct Sign Language Work

without expertise on sign language lin-guistics. Sign Language Work imple-mented without this expertise will be in-adequate. Linguists provide training to Sign Language Work staff in sign lan-guage structure and grammar, which contributes to robust, accurate and meaningful results based on standard and reliable paradigms.

12. The advisor should not be the one who

does the work. Even if s/he thinks that the Sign Language Work is progressing at too slow a pace, and might prefer to do the work her/himself. It is crucial that it is the local Sign Language Work staff who implement the activities. The advisor’s role is to stay in the background, offering support and providing training, but not moving into the spotlight and doing the work. In this way, real learning happens and leads to increases in local skills and capacity.

13. Sign Language Work is not a “quick fix”.

Learning takes time and outcomes emerge in due course. We feel that a minimum of three years is needed for Sign Language Work to achieve sustaina-ble results. The advisor does not need to be continually present; if the advisor can visit the field at regular intervals to give training, the Sign Language Work staff can then work independently.

14. It cannot be presumed that findings from

research on one sign language apply to another sign language without conduct-ing research to find out. Guidance and in-formation about how to conduct sign language research should be shared with countries that have no tradition of re-search.

15. Although two countries may use the

same spoken and written languages, the signed languages may be different. Each sign language has its own historic trajec-tory. A sign language dictionary made in one country can never apply to another, even if the spoken language happens to be the same in both countries.

16. Do not collect signing data by confront-ing the deaf informants with lists of writ-ten words from a spoken language. To avoid influence or interference from a spoken language, it is preferable to film spontaneous conversations between deaf participants. Natural language use can al-so be elicited using visual stimuli, such as pictures, photographs or video clips/films.

17. When making a sign language dictionary,

do not expect to find one sign for each spoken word. Words or signs in different languages do not correspond with each other on a one-to-one basis. There might be many words that match a sign, and correspondingly many signs that match one word.

18. If a sign is included in a dictionary, this

does not mean that the sign is more ac-ceptable or ‘correct’ and that other vari-ants (not included) are ‘wrong’. A dic-tionary is not supposed to be a tool for changing a language, or for trying to per-suade deaf people to favour one sign in-stead of another.

19. Sign Language Work should not be con-

ducted in isolation within a restricted group of people. In addition to working with the community you also need to get support for the work from different key stakeholders. If they are not aware of the ongoing work, they might reject the final results – such as a dictionary – once it is finalised and published. Therefore you should remember to actively inform the Deaf Community, and parties such as schools for the deaf, interpreters, linguis-tics departments at university, and gov-ernmental bodies about the progress of Sign Language Work. When these parties are aware of the ongoing work, it is more likely they are willing to accept the end result.

20. Do not become stuck on the original plan.

If obstacles are encountered, the plan should be evaluated and changed to suit the new situation. It is important that Sign Language Work staff, the advisor and Working Group members have agreed on the original goals together, and also work jointly on re-planning and ad-justing the activities whenever needed. This can be supported by flexible atti-tudes, and the confidence to change plans that are not working.


RREEFFEERREENNCCEESS ,, SSOOMMEE SSUUGGGGEESSTTEEDD FFUURRTTHHEERR RREEAADDIINNGG ,, AANNDD WWEEBB SSIITTEE RREESSOOUURRCCEESS 11.. GGeenneerraall rreeffeerreenncceess rreelleevvaanntt ttoo eemmppoowweerrmmeenntt aanndd ppaarrttiicciippaattiioonn iinn ddeevveellooppmmeenntt ccooooppeerraattiioonn wwoorrkk

UN and WFD webpages and documents; websites for Deaf Associations and NGOs; rele-vant research centres, projects, and websites

AAlllleenn ,, CCoolliinn . Avoiding Deaf colonialism in developing countries: Empowerment in de-velopment work. Video presentation at the International Workshop of Deaf Community Development at iSLanDS institute (Preston, UK) in July 2012. www.slwmanual.info/#colin_allen AAllbbaanniiaann NNaattiioonnaall AAssssoocciiaattiioonn ooff tthhee DDeeaaff ((AANNAADD)) www.shknd.info www.facebook.com/anad2000 Gjuha e Shenjave Shqipe 1, 2005 (First dictionary in Albanian Sign Language – book + DVD) DDeeaaff AAccaaddeemmiiccss www.deafacademics.org DDiiccttiioonnaarriieess ooff AAffrriiccaann SSiiggnn LLaanngguuaaggeess www.africansignlanguages.org > Dictionaries/Dictionaires DDiissccoovveerriinngg DDeeaaff WWoorrllddss www.discoveringdeafworlds.org FFiinnnniisshh AAssssoocciiaattiioonn ooff tthhee DDeeaaff ((FFAADD)) www.kuurojenliitto.fi/en > Development Cooperation www.facebook.com/kuurojenliitto IInntteerrnnaattiioonnaall IInnssttiittuuttee ffoorr SSiiggnn LLaanngguuaaggeess aanndd DDeeaaff SSttuuddiieess ((iiSSLLaannDDSS)) www.uclan.ac.uk/research/explore/groups/islands.php iiSSLLaannDDSS SSiiggnn LLaanngguuaaggee EEnnddaannggeerrmmeenntt RReesseeaarrcchh PPrroojjeecctt www.uclan.ac.uk/islands www.uclan.ac.uk/research/explore/projects/sign_languages_in_unesco_atlas_of_world_languages_in_danger.php > Questionnaire > Adapted Survey: Linguistic Vitality and Diver-sity of Sign Languages KKoossoovvaarr AAssssoocciiaattiioonn ooff tthhee DDeeaaff ((KKAADD)) www.shksh.org www.facebook.com/pages/SHKSH-KAD/484915854903850 Gjuha e Shenjave Kosovare 1, 2012 (First dictionary in Kosovar Sign Language – book + DVD) NNaattiioonnaall AAssssoocciiaattiioonn ooff tthhee DDeeaaff ((NNAADD iinn UUSSAA)) nad.org/issues/international-advocacy SSiiggnn LLiinngguuiissttiiccss CCoorrppoorraa NNeettwwoorrkk www.ru.nl/slcn/

AAuussllaann CCoorrppuuss elar.soas.ac.uk/deposit/0001 www.auslan.org.au/about/corpus/ BBSSLL CCoorrppuuss PPrroojjeecctt www.bslcorpusproject.org


DDGGSS CCoorrppuuss www.sign-lang.uni-hamburg.de/dgs-korpus/index.php/welcome.html LLSSFF CCoorrppuuss www.umr7023.cnrs.fr/-Realisation-de-corpus-de-donnes-.html LLSSFFBB CCoorrppuuss www.corpus-lsfb.be NNGGTT CCoorrppuuss www.ru.nl/corpusngtuk/ PPJJMM ((PPSSLL)) CCoorrppuuss www.plm.uw.edu.pl/en/node/241 SSSSLL CCoorrppuuss www.ling.su.se/english/research/research-projects/sign-language/swedish-sign-language-corpus-project-1.13982

SSiiggnn LLiinngguuiissttiiccss (linguistic terminology in International Sign) www.signlinguistics.com SSLLLLIINNGG--LL LLiisstt (e-mail list for linguists interested in signed languages) listserv.valenciacollege.edu/cgi-bin/wa?A0=SLLING-L SSLLLLSS:: SSiiggnn LLaanngguuaaggee LLiinngguuiissttiiccss SSoocciieettyy www.slls.eu > About > Ethics > SLLS Ethics Statement for Sign Language Research www.slls.eu > Starting Guide www.facebook.com/pages/Sign-Language-Linguistics-Society/1476917052577121 UUNN CCoonnvveennttiioonn oonn tthhee RRiigghhttss ooff PPeerrssoonnss wwiitthh DDiissaabbiill iittiieess ((UUNN CCRRPPDD)) www.un.org/disabilities/convention/conventionfull.shtml WWoorrlldd FFeeddeerraattiioonn ooff tthhee DDeeaaff ((WWFFDD)) wfdeaf.org > Human Rights > UN CRPD wfdeaf.org > Human Rights > UN CRPD > CRPD translations in national sign languages wfdeaf.org > Human Rights > UN CRPD > Deaf as a linguistic and cultural group / Sign Language wfdeaf.org > Databank

Guidelines, Policies, Statements, Submissions, Fact Sheets, Cooperation Agreements, Publications and Resources, Information about deaf issues Policies > WFD Work in Developing Countries Policies > Work Done by Member Organisations in Developing Countries Statements > Statement on the unification of sign languages Statements > WFD Statement on Sign Language Work Statements > WFD Statement on Standardized Sign Language


22.. AAccaaddeemmiicc rreeffeerreenncceess

Sign language research, sign language documentation and description; field work; ethics; sign language lexicography (dictionary work); sign language policy and planning (such as standardisation issues), and deaf culture

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BBaatttteerrbbuurryy ,, SSaarraahh ,, PPaaddddyy LLaadddd ,, DDoouugg AAllkkeerr ,, MMiikkee GGuullll iivveerr ,, GGrraahhaamm HH .. TTuurrnneerr && VVeerreennaa KKrraauussnneekkeerr . 2003. An agenda for change: Principles and guidelines for policy making and research in Deaf-related areas. Deaf Worlds 19(2), 66–77.

BBaauummaann ,, DDiirrkksseenn (Ed.). 2008. Open your eyes: Deaf studies talking. Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press.

BBaauummaann ,, DDiirrkksseenn && JJoosseepphh MMuurrrraayy (Eds). 2014. Deaf gain: Raising the stakes for human diversity. Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press.

BBjjaarrnnaassoonn ,, DDaavvííðð,, VVaallggeerrððuurr SStteeffáánnssddóóttttiirr && LLiizzeettttee BBeeuukkeess . 2012. Signs speak as loud as words: Deaf empowerment in Namibia. Development in Practice 22(2), 190–201.

BBrraannssoonn ,, JJaann && DDoonn MMiilllleerr . 1998. Nationalism and the linguistic rights of Deaf com-munities: Linguistic imperialism and the recognition and development of sign languages. Journal of Sociolinguistics 2(1), 3–34.

DDiikkyyuuvvaa ,, HHaassaann ,, CCeessaarr EErrnneessttoo EEssccoobbeeddoo DDeellggaaddoo ,, SSiibbaajjii PPaannddaa aanndd UUllrriikkee ZZeesshhaann . 2012. Working with village sign language communities: Deaf fieldwork re-searchers in professional dialogue. In Ulrike Zeshan & Connie de Vos (Eds). Sign languages in village communities: Anthropological and linguistic insights. Sign Language Typology Series No. 4, 313-344. Berlin: De Gruyter Mouton/Njimegen: Ishara Press.

EEiicchhmmaannnn ,, HHaannnnaa . 2009. Planning sign languages: Promoting hearing hegemony? Conceptualizing sign language standardization. Current Issues in Language Planning, 10(3), 293–307.

FFeennlloonn ,, JJoorrddaann ,, AAddaamm SScchheemmbbrrii ,, TTrreevvoorr JJoohhnnssttoonn && KKeeaarrssyy CCoorrmmiieerr . 2015. Documentary and corpus approaches to sign language research. In Eleni Orfanidou, Bencie Woll & Gary Morgan (Eds) Research Methods in Sign language studies: A practical guide, 156-172. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell.

FFrraawwlleeyy ,, WWiillll iiaamm ,, KKeennnneetthh CC .. HHiillll && PPaammeellaa MMuunnrroo (Eds). 2002. Making diction-aries: Preserving indigenous languages of the Americas. Berkeley, California: University of California Press.

GGiippppeerrtt ,, JJoosstt ,, NNiikkoollaauuss PP .. HHiimmmmeellmmaannnn ,, && UUllrriikkee MMoosseell (Eds). 2006. Essentials of language documentation. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.

HHaarrrriiss ,, RRaayycchhllllee ,, HHeeiiddii MM .. HHoollmmeess && DDoonnnnaa MM .. MMeerrtteennss . 2009. Research ethics in sign language communities. Sign Language Studies 9(2), 104–131.

HHoocchhggeessaanngg ,, JJuulliiee AA .. 2015. Ethics of researching signed languages: The case of Kenyan Sign Language (KSL). In Audrey C. Cooper & Khadijat K. Rashid (Eds), Signed languages in Sub-Saharan Africa: Politics, citizenship and shared experiences of difference, 9–28. Wash-ington, D.C : Gallaudet University Press.


HHoollccoommbb ,, TThhoommaass . 2013. Introduction to American Deaf culture: Professional perspec-tives on deafness: Evidence and applications. New York: Oxford University Press.

HHooyyeerr ,, KKaarriinn . 2007. Albanian Sign Language: Language contact, International Sign, and gesture. In David Quinto-Pozos (Ed.) Sign languages in contact, 195–234. Washington, D.C: Gallaudet University Press.

HHooyyeerr ,, KKaarriinn . 2013. Language vitalization through language documentation and de-scription in the Kosovar Sign Language Community. Nijmegen: Ishara Press. e-book: www.oapen.org/search?identifier=442947

KKrraauussnneekkeerr ,, VVeerreennaa . 2008. The protection and promotion of sign languages and the rights of their users in council of Europe member states: [A] needs analysis. Strasbourg: Council of Europe. www.coe.int/t/DG3/Disability/Source/Report_Sign_languages_final.pdf

LLaadddd ,, PPaaddddyy . 2003. Understanding Deaf culture: In search of Deafhood. Clevedon, UK: Multilingual Matters Ltd.

LLaannee ,, HHaarrllaann ,, RRoobbeerrtt HHooffffmmeeiisstteerr && BBeenn BBaahhaann. 1996. Journey into Deaf world. San Diego, CA: Dawn Sign Press.

LLuuttaalloo--KKiiiinnggii ,, SSaamm . 2012. The importance of deaf involvement in African Sign Lan-guage research. In Matthias Brenzinger & Anne-Maria Fehn (Eds), Proceedings of the Sixth World Congress of African Linguistics, 23–28. Cologne, Germany: Rüdiger Köppe.

MMccKKeeee ,, DDaavviidd ,, RRuusssseellll SS .. RRoosseenn aanndd RRaacchheell MMccKKeeee (Eds). 2014. Teaching and learning signed languages: International perspectives and practices. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.

OOrrffaanniiddoouu ,, EElleennii ,, BBeenncciiee WWoollll && GGaarryy MMoorrggaann (Eds). 2015. Research methods in sign language studies: A practical guide. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell.

PPaaddddeenn ,, CCaarrooll && TThhoommaass HHuummpphhrriieess . 1990. Deaf in America. Cambridge, MA: Har-vard University Press.

PPaaddddeenn ,, CCaarrooll && TThhoommaass HHuummpphhrriieess . 2006. Inside Deaf culture. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

PPffaauu ,, RRoonnaalldd ,, MMaarrkkuuss SStteeiinnbbaacchh && BBeenncciiee WWoollll (Eds). 2012. Sign language: An in-ternational handbook. Berlin: De Gruyter Mouton.

PPoollllaarrdd ,, RRoobbeerrtt QQ .. 1992. Cross-cultural ethics in the conduct of deafness research. Re-habilitation Psychology 37(2), 87– 101.

PPoollllaarrdd ,, RRoobbeerrtt QQ .. 2002. Ethical conduct in research involving Deaf people. In Virginia Gutman (Ed.) Ethics in mental health and deafness, 162– 178. Washington, D.C: Gallaudet University Press.

RReeaaggaann ,, TTiimmootthhyy GG .. 2010. Language policy and planning for sign languages. Washing-ton, D.C: Gallaudet University Press.

SScchheemmbbrrii ,, AAddaamm && CCeeiill LLuuccaass (Eds). 2015. Sociolinguistics and Deaf communities. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

SScchheemmbbrrii ,, AAddaamm . 2010. Documenting sign languages. In Peter K. Austin (Ed.) Language Documentation and Description, Volume 7, 105–143. London: School of Oriental and Afri-can Studies.


SScchhmmaalliinngg ,, CCoonnssttaannzzee . 2012. Dictionaries of African sign languages: An overview. Sign Language Studies, 12(2), 236–278.

SSiiggnn LLaanngguuaaggee SSttuuddiieess ,, Volume 3, Number 3, 2003. Special issue: On dictionaries and lexicography, part 1. General issues in lexicography.

SSiiggnn LLaanngguuaaggee SSttuuddiieess ,, Volume 3, Number 4, 2003. Special issue: Dictionaries and lex-icography, part 2. The development of national sign language dictionaries.

SSkkuuttnnaabbbb--KKaannggaass ,, TToovvee && UUllllaa AAiikkiioo--PPuuoosskkaarrii . 2003. Exclusion or inclusion – lin-guistic human rights for a linguistic minority, the Deaf Sign language users, and an indig-enous people, the Saami. In Philip Lee (Ed.) Many voices, one vision: The right to com-municate in practice. London: Southbound/WACC.

SSttoonnee ,, CChhrriissttoopphheerr . 2009. Toward a Deaf translation norm. Studies in Interpretation, 6. Washington, D.C: Gallaudet University Press.

WWiillccooxx ,, SShheerrmmaann EE .. ,, VVeerreennaa KKrraauussnneekkeerr && DDaavviidd FF .. AArrmmssttrroonngg . 2012. Language policies and the Deaf community. In Bernard Spolsky (Ed.) The Cambridge handbook of language policy, 374–395. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

WWiillssoonn ,, AAmmyy TT .. 2005. The effectiveness of international development assistance from American organizations to Deaf communities in Jamaica. American Annals of the Deaf 150(3), 292–304.

WWiillssoonn ,, AAmmyy TT ,, && NNiicckkssoonn KKaakkiirrii. 2011. Best practices for collaborating with Deaf communities in developing countries. In Gaurav Mathur & Donna Jo Napoli (Eds) Deaf around the world: The impact of language, 271–286. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

WWoollll ,, BBeenncciiee ,, && RRoobbeerrtt AAddaamm . 2012. Sign language and the politics of deafness. In Marily Martin-Jones, Adrian Blackledge & Angela Creese (Eds) The Routledge handbook of multilingualism, 100–115. London & New York: Routledge.

WWooooddwwaarrdd ,, JJaammeess && NNgguuyyeenn TThhii HHooaa . 2012. Where sign language studies has led us in forty years: Opening high school and university education for deaf people in Viet Nam through sign language analysis, teaching, and interpretation. Sign Language Studies 13(1), 19–36.

ZZeesshhaann ,, UUllrriikkee .. 2007. The ethics of documenting sign languages in village communi-ties. In Peter K. Austin, Oliver Bond & David Nathan (Eds) Proceedings of Conference on Language Documentation and Linguistic Theory. London: SOAS. www.hrelp.org/eprints/ldlt_31.pdf

ZZeesshhaann ,, UUllrriikkee && CCoonnnniiee ddee VVooss (Eds). 2012. Sign languages in village communities: Anthropological and linguistic insights. Sign Language Typology Series No. 4. Berlin: De Gruyter Mouton/Njimegen: Ishara Press.

ZZwwiittsseerrlloooodd ,, IInnggee . 2010. Sign language lexicography in the early 21st century and a re-cently published dictionary of Sign Language of the Netherlands. International Journal of Lexicography. 23(4): 443–476.

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