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TABLE OF CONTENTS

c

GRAZI-BAROTHA HYDROPOWER PROJECTREPORT ON SUPPLEMENTARY ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES

TABLE OF CONTENTSPage

CHAPTER 1INTRODUCTION

1.1 GENERAL 1.1

1.2 GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF THE PROJECT 1.1

1.3 PREVIOUS ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES 1.2

1.4 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONSOF THE ENVIRONMENTAL REVIEW PANEL 1.2

1.5 SUPPLEMENTARY ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES 1.3

1.6 APPENDICES 1.4

REFERENCES

CHAPTER 2ECOLOGICAL ASPECTS OF THE INDUS RIVER

FLOOD PLAIN

2.1 INTRODUCTION 2.1

2.2 APPROACH 2.1

2.3 MORPHOLOGICAL AND ECOLOGICALSETTING OF THE RIVERAIN AREA 2.2

2.4 PLANT COMMUNITIES IN VARIOUS HABITATS 2.32.4.1 General 2.32.4.2 Braided Alluvial Channel 2.32.4.3 Attock Gorge 2.52.4.4 Alluvial Basin 2.6

2.5 WILDLIFE USE OF HABITATS 2.62.5.1 Open Water 2.62.5.2 Temporary Belas 2.62.5.3 Permanent Belas 2.72.5.4 Ind-ds Gorge 2.8

2.6 POTENTIAL EFFECTS OF THE PROJECT 2.82.6.1 Effects on Natural Vegetation 2.82.6.2 Effects on Wildlife 2.10

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2.7 CONCLUSION 2.11

REFERENCES

CHAPTER 3WASTEWATER DISPOSAL AND WATER QUALITY

3.1 INTRODUCTION 3.13.1.1 Background 3.13.1.2 Scope 3.1

3.2 WASTEWATER FLOWS 3.23.2.1 Existing Situation 3.23.2.2 Future Situation 3.3

3.3 WASTEWATER QUALITY 3.53.3.1 Sampling and Testing 3.53.3.2 Comments on the Results 3.6

3.4 RIVER WATER ASSIMILATIVE CAPACITY BYMASS BALANCE (DILUTION) METHOD 3.6

3.5 CONCLUSIONS 3.8

REFERENCES

TABLES

CHAPTER 4PUBLIC AND ANIMAL HEALTH

4.1 INTRODUCTION 4.1

4.2 APPROACH TO STUDY 4.14.2.1 General 4.14.2.2 Literature Search

Vector-borne Diseases in Pakistan 4.24.2.3 Interviews with Pakistani Health Workers 4.24.2.4 Field Survey 4.2

4.3 GENERAL HEALTH CONDITION IN PAKISTAN 4.3

4.4 HEALTH RISKS ASSOCIATED WITH THE PROJECT 4.34.4.1 Malaria 4.34.4.2 Other Vector-borne Diseases 4.74.4.3 Blackfly (Simuliuma 4.10

4.5 TYPICAL BREEDING SITES OF ANOPHELES ANDSIMULIUM IN THE INDUS RIVER AND ASSOCIATEDNULLAHS 4.10

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4.6 CONCLUSIONS 4.11

4.6.1 General 4.114.6.2 Project Zones of Health Influence 4.114.6.3 Changes in Aquatic Environment 4.124.6.4 Malaria 4.124.6.5 Leishmaniasis 4.124.6.6 Bilharzia 4.124.6.7 Guinea Worm 4.13

REFERENCES

CHAPTER 5ARCHAEOLOGICAL AND AESTHETICAL ASPECTS

5.1 RESUME OF THE PREVIOUSARCHAEOLOGICAL STUDIES 5.1

5.2 FURTHER STUDIES 5.15.2.1 Archaeological Studies of Borrow Areas 5.15.2.2 Aesthetic Aspects of the Attock Gorge 5.2

5.3 FINDINGS OF STUDY 5.25.3.1 Archaeological Studies of Borrow Areas 5.25.3.2 Aesthetic Aspects of the Attack Gorge 5.3

5.4 CONCLUSIONS 5.4

REFERENCES

DRAWINGS

APPENDIX ALIST OF PREPARERS AND CONTRIBUTORS

APPENDIX BLIST OF CONTACTS

APPENDIX C

OTHER LITERATIJRE STUDIED

APPENDIX DSPECIES OF FLORA ENCOUNTERED

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APPENDIX ESPECIES OF FAUNA ENCOUNTERED

APPENDIX FDESCRIPTION OF ANOPHELES AND

SIMULIUM BREEDING SITES INVESTIGATED

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REPORT ON SUPPLEMENTARY ENVIRONMIENTAL STUDIES

LIST OF TABLES

No. Title Page

3.1 Population Statistics 3.10

3.2 Population, Wastewater Production,Dilution Requirements and RiverWater Quality 3.11

3.3 River Water Quality 3.12

3.4 Groundwater Quality 3.13

3.5 Wastewater/Sewage Quality 3.14

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REPORT ON SUPPLEMENTARY ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES

LIST OF DRAWINGS

No. Title

1.1 General Layout of Project Components

2.1 Discharge Rating Curve at Ghazi (L 9)(Average of 1986-1989)

2.2 Climatic Diagram for Tarbela and Attock

3.1 Assumed Wastewater Ingress Points

3.2 Required Dilution Flow

3.3 Dissolved oxygen in Indus (Year 2057)

4.1 Project Area showing Breeding Sites Investigated

4.2 Barrage Pond Fluctuation

4.3 Headpond Fluctuation

4.4 Mosquito Increase Rate (MIR) VSSlide Positive Rate (SPR)

4.5 Rainfall VS Mosquito Increase Rate (MIR)

4.6 Indus River Water Temperature VSMosquito Increase Rate (MIR)

4.7 Air Temperature VS Mosquito Increase Rate (MIR)

5.1 Location of Borrow Areas

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CHAPTER 1

i

5

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 GENERAL

This Report supplements the Environmental Assessment Report (EAR)that was prepared as part of the feasibility studies for theProject and constituted Volume 7 of the Feasibility Report(Ref. 1.1). The draft EAR was reviewed by an Environmental ReviewPanel in May 1991. The recommendations of the Panel formed thebasis for sfupplementary studies that are presented in thisReport.

The Project was called the Ghazi-Gariala Hydropower Project untillate in 1991, when the name was changed by WAPDA at the requestof the people of Barotha. The Project is described in the EARand, in greater detail, in various other volumes of theFeasibility Rep-ort. For convenience, a brief description of theProject is provided here.

1.2 GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF THE PROJECT

The Project will be located in the eastern part of Pakistan'sNorth West Frontier Province and the northern part of the PunjabProvince. It consists of three main components: a barrage, apower channel and a power complex (Drawing 1.1).

The barrage will be located on the Indus river about 7 kmdownstream of Tarbela dam, just upstream of the village of Ghazi.It will create a pond with a maximum surface area of 1140 ha at asurface elevation of 340.0 m. During the low-flow season(October to April), when the average daily release from Tarbelais less than the power channel capacity, the barrage pond willprovide diurnal re-regulation to ensure a constant flow in thepower channel. During this period, the pond level will fluctuatedaily by up to 5 m. Water from the barrage pond will be deliveredto the power channel through a head regulator.

The power channel will have a capacity of 1,600 cumecs(56,500 cusecs) as against the 2,000 cumecs proposed in theFeasibility Report. The capacity has been reduced as a prudentmeasure in view of the limited experience of channels of thiscapacity. The power channel will be a concrete-lined, trapezoidalstructure approximately 94 m across at the water surface and 9 mdeep. It will flow at a velocity of 2.33 m/s and a gradient of1:9,600 to a forebay which forms the start of the power complex,near Barotha. The power complex will include two headponds, toallow peaking operation while maintaining channel flows uniform,a spillway, an intake structure, 5 penstocks, a powerhouse with5x290 MW turbine-generators, and a tailrace channel to dischargethe water back into the Indus.

1.1

During the high-flow season, when the average daily flow releasedby Tarbela is greater than the 1,600 cumecs capacity of the powerchannel, the barrage will release excess flows throughundersluices near the left bank and, during high floods, anadjacent set of spillway gates. When Tarbela delivers less waterthan the capacity of the channel, the barrage will release onlycompensation water, much of which is expected to result initiallyfrom seepage under the barrage.

1.3 PREVIOUS ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES

The environmental assessment of the Project began during thepre-feasibility studies by WAPDA and was continued by theConsultants during the feasibility studies. It is expected thatenvironmental assessments will continue, in one form or another,throughout the life of the Project.

Efforts during the pre-feasibility stage focused on theidentification of alternatives. During the layout phase of thefeasibility studies, attention was focused on the siting andpreliminary design of the main components, the locations of thechannel crossings, public safety, and the avoidance of impacts onvillages, shrines and graveyards.

During this stage an excellent working relationship wasestablished between the planning engineers and the environmentalstaff that resulted in early attention to potential problems.Scoping meetings were held with provincial and districtofficials, In the subsequent phase of the feasibility study,scoping sessions were held at the Union Council level. Variousaspects related to land, water and biological resources, and thesocioeconomic conditions of the Project area were studied. Theseaspects, along with resettlement and other mitigation measures,were discussed in the Draft EAR.

1.4 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS OF THE ENVIRONMENTALREVIEW PANEL

The Panel's review found "general acceptability of (a) theapproach used in the environmental and social impact analysis ofthe structural elements of the proposed Project, including sitingand design approach for barrage, power channel and power complex;(b) recommended mitigation plan for resettlement andcompensation; (c) proposed mitigation plan for archaeological,historical and religious sites."

The Panel recommended revisions to the draft environmentalassessment to :

- strengthen the presentation and analysis of alternatives,environmental impacts, mitigation activities andmonitoring plan; and

1.2

include the arrangement for implementing the recommendedsocial mitigation plan and for facilitating economicdevelopment in the Project area.

The Panel also recommended supplementary studies to develop Koperational criteria for discharge of compensation water and forthe management of the created impoundments.

The Draft EAR has been revised to incorporate the suggestionsmade by the Panel and supplementary studies have been carriedout.

1.5 SUPPLEMENTARY ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES

The supplementary studies were carried out in the period fromOctober 1991 to January 1992 and comprised the following :

9 - Ecology of the Indus River Flood Plain. More data hasbeen collected on the flora and fauna of islands, bars,and pools in the braided reach of the Indus betweenTarbela dam and the Kabul river.

- River Water Quality. Resampling of the river and analysisfor BOD5 and coliform bacteria, combined withrecalculation of future sewage discharges and in-streamdilution factors have been carried out to refine thecalculation of compensation water requirements.

- Public Health. A study has been carried out of the effectof changes in river flows, and the creation of thebarrage pond and headponds, on mosquito habitats and theincidence of malaria. The possibility of an increase inthe incidence of guinea worm has also been studied.

Animal Health. The effects of alteration of surface waterconditions on the distribution and transmission offasciola parasites in buffalo, sheep and goats have beenstudied.

- - Indus River Gorge. Possible effects of the Project on theresources of the stretch of the Indus river immediatelydownstream of its confluence with the Kabul river havebeen investigated.

- Archaeological Surveys. Proposed borrow areas have beenexamined by an archaeological team to ensure that novaluable sites will be destroyed or artifacts lost.

The results of these additional studies are presented in thefollowing Chapters.

1.3

1.6 APPENDICES

The following Appendices are provided with this Report

Appendix A : List of Preparers and Contributors

This Appendix lists the names of those people involvedwith the preparation of this Report.

Appendix B : List of Contacts

This Appendix lists the names of people contacted duringthe supplementary studies.

Appendix C : Other Literature Studied

This Appendix lists the documents consulted in thepreparation of the Report, in addition to those listed asreferences in the individual Chapters.

Appendix D : Species of Flora Encountered

This Appendix lists the species of flora recorded duringa field visit to the Indus flood plain.

Appendix E : Species of Fauna Encountered

This Appendix lists the species of fauna recorded duringa field visit to the Indus flood plain.

Appendix F : Description of Anopheles and SimuliumBreeding Sites Investigated

This Appendix describes the Anopheles and Simuliumbreeding sites investigated during a field survey in theProject area.

REFERENCES

1.1 Pakistan Hydro Consultants; Ghazi-Gariala HydropowerProject, Feasibility Report, August 1991.

1.4

CHAPTER 2

CHAPTER 2

ECOLOGICA1 L ASPECTS OF THE INDUS RIVER FLOOD PLAIN

2.31 INTRODUCTION

The reach of the Indus river between the Project barrage and thetailrace discharge will undergo reduction of flow in the amountpassed through the power channel (up to 1,600 cumecs). Reliableprediction of the ecological effects of such flow changesrequired an understanding of the hydrologic and geomorphicprocesses of the extremely complex braided channel system and theless complex gorge below the river's confluence with the Kabul.The ecology of the flood plain, in particular that of the islandsthat are flooded annually, occasionally, or seldom, depends bothon the flow regime and on the land-use practices of the owners.To the extent possible within a limited time frame, thesupplementary study aimed at evaluating both of these factors.

This Chapter deals with the present distribution pattern of floraand fauna within different reaches of the Indus river betweenTarbela dam and the confluence with the Haro river, and topredict possible effects of reduced river flows on the presentecosystem.

2.2 APPROACH

The ecological study relied primarily on field observation andsampling by a team of three environmental ecologists: azoologist, a botanist, and a soil/water scientist. The team spenttwo days visiting the islands and gravel bars in the braidedreach between Tarbela dam and the Kabul river, and one day in thereach between the mouth of the Kabul and that of the Haro. Theymade visual observations, took photographs and collected plantspecimens from the various habitat types.

Before proceeding for the field study, the aerial photographs ofscale 1:10,000, taken in December 1990 and January 1991, werestudied with a stereoscope to identify various morphologicalzones and isolate landscape ecological units (LSEUs) on the basisof vegetation distribution and successional stages of the belas(islands).

During the field visit, the vegetation distribution and habitatcondition of various landscape ecological units, so identified,was established by traversing the river reach by boat andstopping at the representative belas of different LSEUs or wherea change in vegetation was observed.

The species dominance criterion was used to study the vegetation.The successional stages in different LSEUs were observed. Thefield study also included the identification of fauna underdifferent habitat conditions.

2.1

2.3 MORPHOLOGICAL AND ECOLOGICAL SETTING OF THE RIVERAIN AREA

The river reach from Tarbela dam to the confluence with the Haroriver is distinctly divided into three geomorphological zones(Drawing 1.1). These are as follows :

- Braided alluvial channel (Tarbela dam to Attock Khurd).

- Attock gorge (Attock Khurd to Darwazai).

- Alluvial basin (Darwazai to Haro river).

The Indus river downstream of Tarbela dam flows about 48 km in awide braided alluvial channel before joining the Kabul river andentering the Attock gorge. Thereafter it continues in a narrowconfined channel between terraces and hills ranging in heightfrom 30 m to 150 m. The general course of the river in thebraided reach is in an east-west direction, while beyond Attockgorge it flows in an almost north-south direction.

In the vicinity of Attock, the rocks in the gorge on both sidesof the river consist of metamorphosed slates and limestone ofPrecambrian age. The rocks are steeply dipping and strike acrossthe river. Major faults parallel to the strike occur bothupstream and downstream of the gorge.

Below the gorge is an alluvial basin, underlain by upper Siwaliksandstone and gravels of the lower Pleistocene to upperPleistocene era, which continues to the confluence with the Haroriver.

The braided reach of the river is characterised by a variety ofmorphological features which are not identified in the other twozones. These are related to the meandering activity of the river.In this reach the river tends to rework the river valley eachyear through the process of river bed scouring and sedimentdeposition during the annual high and low-flow cycles. Over time,the process resulted in the development of a series of islands ofvaried ages. The youngest member in this series is the sand orgravel bars that are being deposited at water level on the insideof each meander loop. Benches which lie slightly higher but stilllow enough to be inundated at high water periods are called floodplains. The terraces which lie above the flood plain formpermanent belas with thick vegetation cover.

Consequently, the braided river channel provides a series ofhabitats depicting a picture of the sere which began long ago atthe river's edge when the uppermost terrace was but a gravel bar,each higher and older level representing an advance in vegetationdevelopment. The consequence is that there is a series of singlelandscape ecological units (LSEUs) in this reach.

2.2

The LSEUs identified, on the basis of inundation, plant cover andmajor influencing factor on vegetation (eg grazing), in this zoneare as follows

Permanent Belas

- Above flood level and ungrazed.

- - Above flood level and grazed.

- Inundated occasionally and ungrazed.

- Inundated occasionally and grazed.

- Frequently inundated and ungrazed (under process ofstabilisation).

Temporary Belas

- With vegetation cover.

- Without vegetation cover (gravel and sand bars).

As there is no variation in the morphology of Attock gorge andthe alluvial basin, each is considered to be a single landscapeecological unit.

2.4 PLANT COMMUNITIES IN VARIOUS HABITATS

2.4.1 General

The natural vegetation as observed in different types of belas isdescribed below. The complete list of species which were recordedfrom different river reaches is given in Appendix D.

2.4.2 Braided Alluvial Channel

Permanent Belas

General. These belas have developed as a result of continuousriver deposits. Among these belas, some are so high that they areinundated only during exceptional floods, while the others arestill low enough to be inundated during every flood season. Whileeach bench was in the flood plain, a thick mantle of silt wascommonly accumulated. However, the grading of the depositsvaries between the different layers.

Most of the surface soils are sandy loam or silty loam intexture, with moderate water-holding capacity. Small patches ofloamy soils also occur locally.

2.3

Above Flood Level and Ungrazed. In some of these belas, a climaxecosystem has developed, while in others which are near to theriver banks, the invasion of species is continuing. Thevegetation consists of a mixture of trees, shrubs and grasseswhich show distinct strata.

Among the trees, Dalberqia sisso is dominating and forms thecanopy of woodland. The other trees are Acacia nilotica andA. modesta. Some individuals of Ailanthus glandulosa, and Cassiaalesus are recorded on the belas in the barrage pond area.

Zizyphus nummularia is the dominant shrub. These belas are richin grasses which make a dense ground cover. Probably Saccharumqrifithii was the pioneer grass in the early successional stageof habitat development. It is now being replaced by other grasseslike Imperata cylindrica, Saccharum munia and Saccharumspontaneum.

These belas are not grazed for various reasons (eg they are notproprietary and the adjacent river banks are occupied by WAPDAcolonies; the river bank are steep, or the belas are encircled bydeep creeks). Occasional cutting of Dalbergia trees was, however,noted in some belas.

Above Flood Level and Grazed. The belas which are accessible bythe cattle, being located near the river banks and surrounded byshallow creeks, are extensively grazed. On these belas theregeneration of species is normally limited. Dalbercia sissotrees have established prior to the start of grazing. Thegrasses, Cynodon dactylon and Cenchrus ciliaris contribute tograzing. The unpalatable grass Cymbopogan jawarencusa isdominating in some places.

Inundated Occasionally and Ungrazed. These belas are remote fromthe villages and so are beyond the reach of cattle. These havegood vegetation cover of a wide range of plants. The dominantspecies is Dalbergia sisso which forms a thick canopy.

The understory is formed by shrubs including Zizyphus nummularia,Rumex hastatus, Rhamnus cachemirica, Lautana camera andCalotropis procera.

The grass cover is limited by both the shading effect of thedense canopy and competition among species. The dominant speciesis Imperata cylindrica. In open places, Euphorbia pilulifera andSolanum sorathansis are doninating. Saccharum munia is formingsmall thickets on sandy loam soils, while Saccharum grifithii isrestricted to the outer margins of these belas.

2.4

Inundated Occasionally and Grazed. These belas are near thevillages and large enough to support large numbers of cattle dueto their favourable relief, providing them easy access andmovement, a good cover of grasses, and good shelter. These belasare therefore subject to continuous grazing.

Dalbergia sisso trees are scattered on these belas. The dominantshrub is Zizyphus nummularia which protects certain grasses fromgrazing and thus enables them to attain the seed dispersal stage.

The grazing also encourages the horizontal development of grassesresulting in a thick cover. The various grasses include : Cynodondactylon, Poa supina, Cenchrus ciliaris, Desmostachya bipinnata,Indigofera linifolia, Imperata cylindrica and others, as given inAppendix D.

Some belas are increasing in area due to silt deposition.Saccharum cgrifithii is the pioneer coloniser on these deposits.

Limited agriculture for maize, millets and sorghum is practicedin some belas. Eucalyptus camaldulensis has been planted on somebelas.

Frequently Inundated and Ungrazed. These belas are still in theprocess of stabilisation. The soils are mainly sandy bars withscattered gravel. Floristic composition is poor but the cover isquite thick. Saccharum grifithii is the dominant grass of thesebelas. Small bushy appearance of Dalberqia sisso tree has beenobserved. Typha angustata predominates in stagnant water whileArundo donax is forming small patches in slowly flowing water.

Temporary Belas

Belas with Vegetation Cover. These belas are transitional. Somemay convert into permanent belas if they receive repeateddeposition of sediments while others may disappear througherosion. Saccharum grifithii is the only species which cancolonise on the gravel substratum of these belas. Polygonumbarbatum colonises in places where the substratum is sandy loamand rich in nutrients.

Belas without Vegetation Cover. These are gravel or sand barsformed recently and have no vegetation cover. These are small insize and liable to be washed away by flood flows in the river.

2.4.3 Attock Gorge

Most of the vegetation on the river banks in the Attock gorgezone is above the peak discharge levels. The vegetationdistribution is mainly influenced by the precipitation. At theconfluences of the nullahs with the river, the vegetation has

2.5

reached down to river water and hence fulfills its waterrequirements from river or torrent water.

The dominant trees on the left bank are Acacia nilotica andAcacia modesta. Dalbergia sissio and Zizyphus juiuba arescattered in this zone.

Zizyphus nummularia, Z. oxyphylla, Lautana camera, Aeuralavanica, Rhamnus cachemirica, Prosopis glandulosa and Rumaxhastatus are the main shrubs of this zone.

The grass cover is not uniform due to the rocky habitat and ismainly of Alpuda mutica and Eleusine sp.

The right bank is under cultivation, some being irrigated and therest rainfed. It is not rich in natural vegetation. Eucalyptus spand some fruit trees have been planted by the farmers.

Some fern and liverwort species, such as Marchantia, Polytrichum,and Adeantum, have been observed on most rocks and may be helpful-in soil formation as a result of weathering.

2.4.4 Alluvial Basin

The left bank of this zone is grassland dominated by Cynodondactylon, Eleusine sp, Cenchrus ciliaris, Cvmbopoganiawarencusa, Juncellus pygmaeus and Poa supina. There are fewtrees, mostly Tamarix aphylla and Acacia nilotica. The right bankis under irrigated agriculture. Near the banks, Prospisqlandulosa is dominating, with Cynodon dactylon and Launeanudicaulis underneath.

2.5 WILDLIFE USE OF HABITATS

2.5.1 Open Water

Few of the wildlife species observed are obligate open waterspecies. Herons, terns and kingfishers require open water forfeeding on small fish, and ducks use it for feeding on plant lifeand resting. Swallows were seen taking emerging insects overstill water surfaces. Many bird species, of course, use shallowpools for drinking and bathing. A list of birds and mammalsobserved in the Project area is given in Appendix E of thisReport.

2.5.2 Temporary Belas

Without Vegetation

Two types of habitat are identified on the unvegetated temporarybelas: gravel (including cobbles) and sand or silt. Gravel barsform important resting places for many waterbirds, including both

2.6

fisheaters, such as kingfishers and herons, and waders such assandpipers and plovers. The White Wagtail, a common winterresident throughout the area, is the only songbird foundfrequently on these bars. Backwater areas where sand and finesilt has collected evidently support enough benthic or subsurfaceinvertebrates to attract waders. These areas may dry up later inthe winter.

Densities of waterfowl and other water-related birds were notlarge at the time of the field studies. The lack of suitablehabitat and the variability of the water regime make it unlikelythat this stretch of the flood plain is more than a temporaryresting place for waterbirds on their way to the coastal wetlandswhere they winter by the thousands.

With Vegetation

The temporary belas that support some pioneering vegetationprobably are less important eco-logically than those withoutvegetation, for they are in the early stages of succession, whenplant cover is sparse. Wagtails and some larks are found amongthese plants.

2.5.3 Permanent Belas

Bird use of the permanent belas is more dependent on thesuccessional stage of the plant cover than on the frequency offlooding, since even ground-inhabiting birds are able to escapefloods by moving into trees or by flying to other islands.

Vegetation management practices, such as grazing or fuelwoodcutting, influence the diversity of the plant community and thusits ability to support wildlife. Far fewer birds were seen on thebelas during the ecological study than in the mainland areaswhere plant diversity is fostered (eg Tarbela colony) or whereagriculture supports an artificial ecosystem. Such areas supportsubstantial populations of a few common species, such as HouseCrow, Common Mynah, Red-vented Bulbul, and Collared Dove. Theyalso host many less common local or migrant species of bee-eaters, woodpeckers, parakeets, warblers and thrushes. Of these,only the chiffchaff was seen on a bela, although doubtless othersuse the belas from time to time.

Some of the permanent belas above the flood level are alsoinhabited by wild boar and rodents. Although no specimen wasobserved during the field trip, the burrow holes of rodents andfoot prints of wild boar confirmed their existence on some belas.

2.7

2.5.4 Indus Gorge

The wildlife situation along the Indus gorge differs from that ofthe braided floodplain in that there is almost no habitat forbirds or mammals below the high water line. Water birds occurnear the water line are either highly mobile species, such as theGrey Heron and several species of Swallows, or visitors fromhabitat away from the river, such as Bulbuls and some other landbirds. Cliffs in reaches near Ghiri Island provide protectednesting sites for Rock Doves, but these birds feed in open areasaway from the river.

The same may be said of mammals and reptiles. Some, of which thejackal is the most numerous predator, use the Indus for drinkingwhen the nullahs cease to flow, but live and forage well aboveflood level.

Downstream of the Indus Gorge (alluvial basin), habitatconditions are more like those on the Chhachh plain. Some 15ducks (teal) were observed at the river's edge near -the Haro.Black Kite, Long-legged Buzzards, and Raven bear testimony to thepresence of carrion and small prey. Songbirds such as the IndianRobin, Rufus-backed Shrike and Common Babbler occur in thevegetation of the nullahs and in agricultural fields.

2.6 POTENTIAL EFFECTS OF THE PROJECT

2.6.1 Effects on Natural Vegetation

The reduction of the flow in the Indus river during the low-flowseason may affect the present ecosystem only in the braidedalluvial channel zone. The other zones will not be affected bythe proposed diversion. Even the effects in the braided alluvialchannel zone will be small due to the following reasons :

In spite of diversion of up to 1,600 cumecs into thepower channel, there will not be a substantial decreasein water levels in the braided alluvial channel zoneduring the high-flow season (Drawing 2.1). This isbecause the expanse of the river bed in this zone is inthe range of 3 to 5 km and the diversion is a fraction ofpeak flows. Therefore most of the presently inundatedtemporary and permanent belas will continue to beinundated with slight decrease in water depth. Thepermanent belas which are rarely flooded are 1 to 3 nabove the existing normal flood level. The slightdecrease in water level will not affect the vegetativegrowth.

During the low-flow season, the vegetation on low-lyingbelas will thrive on subsurface water retained by thesoils from the previous flood season. Moreover, therewill be a regular downstream flow of about 30 cumecscontributed from the seepage, leakage and compensation

2.8

releases from the barrage, outflow from the groundwaterregime of river banks and discharges from tributaries(Badri Khwar river). This will help maintain the level ofsubsurface water under the belas.

Tests in the boreholes in the river bed have indicatedthat the permeability of the substrata is low (generallyin the range of 10-4 to 10-3 cm/sec). Therefore,depletion of the soil moisture through downwardpercolation or lateral flow will be slow. Thus the waterrequirements of vegetation will be satisfied over alonger period, particularly during winter when theevaporation rate is low.

The climate factors, that include rainfall, humidity,wind, temperature and radiation, are very important inthe life process of plants and their spatialdistribution. Of these, rainfall and temperature areconsidered the dominant factors. The seasonaldistribution of rainfall rather than annual mean rainfallis a critical factor determining the nature and conditionof vegetation. To evaluate the effects on the naturalvegetation, a climatic diagram (Drawing 2.2) wasdeveloped by taking mean monthly temperature and rainfallvalues for the last 30 years (Ref. 2.1). The diagramshows that the Project area remains under sub-humid tohumid conditions during the winter, spring and monsoonseasons due to receiving effective precipitation.Therefore, it is foreseen that the reduction in flowduring the low-flow season will not affect the vegetationsignificantly. This is supported by the condition ofvegetation growth and rainfed agriculture on elevatedbelas (or the mainland) where the plant life is mostlydependent on the rainfall. In these areas, thecontribution of the river flow during the low-flow periodis minimal due to their height above the river waterlevel.

Taking the above circumstances into account, the possibleeffects of reduced river flows may be as follows

- Reduction in Plant Succession. Plant succession is a veryslow but continuous process. At present the formation ofnew bars is continuous due to meandering of the riverduring floods but is offset by the erosion of other barsrecently formed. When these bars attain sufficient heightand favourable conditions for plant growth, they arecolonised by pioneer species. The reduction in flowduring the high-flow season may slow down slightly theformation of these bars, which in turn may slow down theplant succession process. This, in due course of time,may result in a change in the pattern of plantsuccession. However, in about 20 years time the output ofsediment from Tarbela is expected to increase

2.9

substantially as the result of the sediment delta in thereservoir reaching the dam. Much of the annual sedimentload will then be released during May and June when thereservoir is low but the river flows are increasing dueto snowmelt. Under these conditions there will be largequantities of clay and silt available for deposition onlow belas or downstream of high belas, leading to ageneral increase in the areas available for colonisation.

Increase in Erosion. Surface erosion is rarelysignificant in areas where the soil surface is protectedagainst the direct impact of the erosion through a litterlayer or root network maintained by some sort ofvegetation. In spite of the fact that several permanentbelas are being utilised as grazing land by 1,000 to2,000 cattle, the vegetative regeneration has maintainedthe grazing potential of the belas. The regenerationprocess on these belas is mainly supported by theeffective precipitation, as they are above flood levels.Thus it can be concluded that the improved accessibilityfor cattle to other elevated belas, due to a reduction inflows during the low-flow period, will not affect thevegetative growth and thus the soil erosion. However, anyovergrazing of low-lying belas may result in erosion ofthe soils by subsequent floods and should be avoided.

Introduction of Arable Cropping. It has been observedthat the local population has already extended itsagricultural activities on to some of the permanent belaslying close to the river banks. With reduced flows in thewinter, this activity may increase due to the improvementin accessibility of other belas. This will be abeneficial effect of the Project.

2.6.2 Effects on Wildlife

Within the barrage pond area, the essential effect on wildlifewill be the replacement of all terrestrial habitat with openwater habitat. Some fish-eating birds may find this animprovement, despite the reduction in shallow edge areas. Theabsence of rooted aquatic vegetation, common to all fluctuatingwater bodies, will render the new shallow areas poor habitat.

Elsewhere in the braided section, the effects on waterbirds areexpected to be minor. Pools will remain through much of the year,especially during the autumn, when most migrant birds passthrough the area.

As noted earlier, there would not be significant effects of theProject on natural vegetation. Therefore it is expected thatthere will be no significant change in wildlife habitat.

2.10

2.7 CONCLUSIONS

The effect of the Project on flora and fauna of the riverainarea, with the exception of first 7 Km reach, will be minimal.The ecosystem of the upstream 7 km reach of the river will changedue to impoundment at the barrage pond. However, this will nothave any socioeconomic effect on the local population, becausethe belas in the reach are non-proprietary. On the other hand,the loss in riverain ecosystem in the barrage pond is expected tobe balanced by the development of aquatic ecosystem in this reachand increase in riverain ecosystem downstream of the barrage dueto reduction in flood peaks.

Downstream of the barrage, the effect, if any, will be limited tothe braided channel zone of the Indus river. The most probableeffect may be a change in plant succession. This will be throughreduction in flows, a change in the erosion and depositionprocess, and a change in the land-use pattern of belas. However,this is a long-term process and takes decades to reach anequilibrium. Even presently, the ecosystem in the braided channelzone is in a transitional stage due to the changes in the riverflows resulting from the construction of Tarbela dam. Extensivegrazing over belas may, however, accelerate the deterioration ofthe ecosystem.

The ecosystem of the braided channel zone will need to bemonitored to assess the change in plant succession. The grazingtrend should also be monitored and mitigatory actions taken ifdeterioration of the ecosystem is observed.

REFERENCES

2.1 Walter, H.; Vegetation of the Earth in Relation toClimate and the Ecophysiological Conditions, HeidelbergScience Library, Vol. 15 Sringer Verlag, Heidelberg,1973.

2.11

CHAPTER 3

A

CHAPTER 3

WASTEWATER DISPOSAL AND WATER QUALITY

3.1 INTRODUCTION

3.1.1 Background

The diversion of water from the Indus river into the powerchannel will decrease the flow in the river reach below thebarrage as far as the tailrace from the power complex. However,the Kabul river joins the Indus just above Attock gorge, 41 kmbelow the barrage. The Kabul is a large river, with an annualaverage flow about 36% of that of the Indus, so water qualityconsiderations apply to the reach between the barrage and theKabul confluence.

In the initial reach of the river downstream of the barrage,there are ton villages close to the left bank of the river andtwo on the right bank. Eight other villages/townships arelocated further downstream on the left bank. All these villagesare listed in Table 3.1 together with their population data.

Most of these villages have no drainsae system and theirwastewater soaks into the ground and reaches the river indirectlyafter percolating through the ground.

With the reduced discharges in the river, sewerage/wastewate~-flows from these villages could adversely effect the watt-quality during the low-flow season. The aim of the presentstudies is to determine the amount of water that should bereleased from the barrage for the purpose of diluting thewastewater to make it acceptablp for - il use.

3.1.2 Scope

This Chapter presents the results of water quality investigationsand studies carried out in accordance with the requirements givenin Annexure C of the Report of the Environmental Review Panel.

A survey of the sewerage facilities of the settlements on bothriver banks was made on November 17 end 18, 1991. Samples ofriver water, groundwater and waste or/sewage were alsocollected for laboratory testing.

3.1

3.2 WASTEWATER FLOWS

3.2.1 Existing Situation

General

The villages on the left and right banks which are close to theIndus river were inspected to assess the present water supply andwastewater disposal facilities, and to evaluate the socioeconomicconditions for the prediction of future trends. The conditionsin each village are described below.

In addition, there is a flow of wastewater/sewage from the leftbank WAPDA colonies at Tarbela upstream of the barrage. Becausethe flows_iin_ne river in this reach will not be changed by theProject, water quality is not expected to be affected. However,,tests have shown that the present treatment works serving the!

-colonies are not operating properly. These will have to berehabilitated by WAPDA.

Ghazi

Ghazi is spread on both sides of the main road leading toTarbela. Most of it is on the northern side of the road, betweenthe road and the river, and it has developed right up to theriver bank.

The houses are generally of semi-urban type. The streets aresemi-paved and are drained by two distinct valley drains, one ofwhich is lined. These carry sullage as weLl as stormwater. Thewastewater flow from each street drain is collected in the lineddrain which discharges to the left river channel. The flow wasabout 3 1/s (0.003 cumecs) at about 2 pm on November 17, 1991.

The township is served by an intermittent piped water supply forabout on- hour, twice a day from a tubewell drilled by the PublicHealth Engineering Department. For the remaining time of the day,the inhabitants use water from dug wells installed in themosques. Occasionally, women use river water for washing clothesand utensils.

Most of the houses have a soakage pit installed inside oroutside. Thus septic sullage soaks directly into the perviousgravel bed with a risk of contaminating the groundwater.

Khalo

Khalo is adjacent to Ghazi, being separated by a large nullahwhich flows only during rains. The source of water supply is thesame tubewell which supplies Ghazi and the supply is also onlyfor one hour, twice a day. This source is supplemented by twosmall local overhead tanks filled from wells constructed bywell-to-do people.

3 . 2

Some wastewater is carried by street drains into the river, theflow being generated only during the time that water issupplied. The balance of the wastewater and sewage soaks intothe ground through soak pits and contaminates the groundwater.

Isa, Jallo, Jammun, Qazipur and Hasanpur

These are rural communities generally having no household toiletfacilities. People go to the fields for defecation. Domesticwastewater, comprising mostly domestic and animal wastes,generally flows into unpaved streets where it soaks into theground. There is little or no direct flow into the river water.

Aldo, Mian Dheri, Jabbi and Sheikh Chuhr

These are also rural communities but are located slightly awayfrom the river. Therefore there is no wastewater contribution tothe river.

Galla

Galla is located on the right bank of the Indus, opposite Ghazi,accessible from Topi town. The normal source of domestic wateris a well located inside the village mosque. In addition, waterfor domestic use is fetched by women from the river, usuallyduring the summer as it is then cooler than the well supply.People use the fields for defecation and the wastewater/sewageflow to the river is insignificant.

Pontia

Pontia is also located on the right bank and is an agriculturalcommunity located about 1 km from a dry river creek. Water issupplied from wells located in the village. Fields are used fordefecation and there is no wastewater/sewage contribution to theriver.

3.2.2 Future Situation

Demography

The population census figures for the years 1961, 1972 and 1981available for the villages are shown in Table 3.1, which alsoshows the percentage annual increase between each census.

The percentage increases show that, in the villages from Ghazito Hasanpur, which were directly influenced by the demand forlabour during the construction of Tarbela dam, the annualincrease between 1961 & 1972 varied from 3.82% to 5.82%. The

3.3

peak years of construction activity were 1970-1974 and the highrate of increase was due to the ingress of labour to thesevillages. The 1981 census shows that the increase for the period1972-81 varied from -0.25% to 6.53%. The highest increase wasfor Isa which is a very small village and thus is not significantwhen considering overall trends. The 1981 census has shown anoverall increase in the annual rate. The average annual increasein these villages was 2.83% between 1961 and 1972, and 3.56%between 1972 and 1981 respectively. The national growth rate atpresent is about 3% per year.

The projected population up to the year 2057, using thisrelatively high lonq-term rate, is shown in Table 3.2. The totalpopulation in the year 2057 in these villages is projected atabout 280,000 persons. It is doubtful if this population could besustained in the area. The alternative would be for excesspopulation to migrate to the main urban centres, as is alreadyhappening.

Wastewater Flows

Based on the population projections given above, thewastewater flows have also been estimated in Table 3.2 for eachselected year, allowing for the consumption rate varying with thesize of village or town from 10 to 30 gallons per capita per day(gpcd), equivalent to 45 to 135 1/day, based on experience insimilar communities in Pakistan. Of this consumption, 80% isassumed to return as wastewater to the river. Again, this isconsidered to be conservative, particularly in the short term asit will take quite a few years before most of these villages areprovided with proper water supply and sewerage systems.

The use of water for cooking, washing and other domestic purposesis not spread evenly over the 24 hours of the day. The main usesare concentrated into about 16 hours a day. Therefore a peakingfactor of 1.5 has been assumed when calculating the flow fromeach village.

On this basis, the peak total contribution of wastewater to riverIndus water from the villages is expected.to increase from0.061 cumecs in 1997, when the Project is expected to becommissioned, to 0.515 cumecs in 2057.

Wastewater Ingress Points

Drawing 3.1 indicates the assumed ingress points of wastewaterinto the river. The quantities of flows for each location aregiven in Table 3.2.

At present, wastewater flows into the river are only significantfor Ghazi. Therefore, the flows indicated in Table 3.2 are aconservative estimate of the wastewater flows that could becontributed to the river.

3.4

Possibility of Other Development in the Area

Left Bank. Apart from Ghazi and Khalo, the other villages on theriver bank are agricultural. To achieve the increase inpopulation presented in Table 3.2 over the life of the Project,most of the population will have to depend on some form ofindustry because the agricultural resources are alreadyrelatively well-developed. An industrial estate is underconsideration between the power channel and the railway oppositeHasanpur. An estimated industrial waste discharge to the river of0.10 cumecs gradually developing up to the year 2057 is assumedfor the purpose of this study. Other industry can be expected todevelop, but be located away from the river. It is also assumedthat this effluent would be treated to a standard of 80 mg/l BOD5before discharge to tne Indus, in accordance with EPArequirements.

Right Bank. The two villages on the right bank, Galla and Pontia,are away from the main commercial centre Topi, which is nowgrowing both commercially and industrially.

A technical institute is beinq built up in Topi which will have aproperly designed infrastructure including sewage treatmentfacilities.

Galla is expected to benefit from the increased traffic crossingthe barrage but this growth will be limited by the lack ofeconomic base to depend upon. The present contribution ofwastewater/sewage flows is insignificant.

Pontia is located about 1 km from the low-water channel of theriver. Wastewater soaks into the ground and therefore there isnot likely to be any contribution of wastewater/sewage from thisvillage.

3.3 WASTEWATER QUALITY

3.3.1 Sampling and Testing

Water sampling was carried out in November 1991. The pH valuesand temperatures were measured in the field, and pH was alsotested in the laboratory. Wastewater/sewage samples were taken insterilised bottles. All the samples were transported by road inice boxes and were delivered to and tested in the Institute ofPublic Health Engineering at the University of Lahore within 24hours. In view of questionhble results on bacterial counts,additional samples were taken :rom the same locations in January1992 and retested.

The results for river water, groundwater and wastewater/sewageare shown in Tables 3.3, 3.4 and 3.5 respectively.

3.5

3.3.2 Comments on the Results

River Water Quality (Table 3.3)

The dissolved oxygen (DO) concentration of 7.9 to 8.4 mg/l isclose to the saturation limit of 9.7 at an average temperatureof 170 C (Ref. 3.1). A BOD5 of 3 to 4 mg/l accounts for the slightdeficit. The DO level is much above the minimum required limitof 4 mg/l, even at the point of addition of sewage at Ghazi(Sample R-9) where the DO is 8.3 mg/l.

Other parameters were also within the acceptable stream qualitystandards. This quality was at an average river discharge ofabout 1700 cumecs.

Groundwater Quality (Table 3.4)

The results of the tests of samples of groundwater from Khalo,Qazipur and Ghazi have been compared with the WHO (1984)desirable limits for drinking water. The water is slightly harderbut is still within the recommended limit of 500 mg/l. Nitratesare in the range of 15 to 40 mg/l and thus are within the WHOguideline value of 45 mg/l. Slight coliform contamination ispresent, probably because of contamination from wastewatersoaking into the permeable ground from soakage pits of latrinesin the house, wastewater pools in unpaved streets, etc. If the,water were chlorinated, it would be reasonably fit for drinking.

Wastewater/Sewage Quality (Table 3.5)

The results of tests on wastewater/sewage samples taken at Ghazi,Khalo and also at WAPDA colony, where sewage collection andtreatment facilities now exist but where the sewerage treatmentworks are not at present operational, show that the BOD5 lies inthe range of 315 to 435 mg/l.

3.4 RIVER WATER ASSIMILATIVE CAPACITY.BY MASS BALANCE(DILUTION) METHOD

The terms of reference for this study have suggested the use ofthe Streeter-Phelp water quality model. In principle, the modelis based on the balance between the effect of BOD5 available inthe wastewater on the dissolved oxygen of the river/receivingstream and the re-aeration of the river water.

The equations used in this modelling technique (Ref. 3.1) takeinto account the time required for oxidation of biodegradablecontents of wastewater. The Indus is a fast-flowing river.Assuming a residual flow in the low-flow season of 28 cumecs, theaverage velocity in a channel with an hydraulic mean radius of

3.6

0.6 m and a bed slope of 1:700 will be about 1 m/s. Thus, waterreleased at the barrage will take only about 12 hours to reachthe confluence with the Kabul river, where the average flowduring the low-flow season is in the range 300 to 400 cumecs.

In practice, therefore, there will be insufficient time for theBOD to affect significantly the dissolved oxygen content in thereach between the barrage and the Kabul river. Furthermore there-aeration in this reach will offset the effect of the BOD.

The dilution by the receiving stream is therefore the over.d1rdirlj-process for studying the assimilative capacity of the river forestimating the compensation water requirements from the barrage.

The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) requires thaturban/industrial wastewater should be treated before it isdischarged to a stream so that the BOD5 does not exceed 80 mg/l(Ref. 3.2). Thereafter, dilution by the stream by a factor of 10is required (Ref. 3.3). On this basis, the dilution waterrequirements in the years up to 2057 have been evaluated and areshown in Table 3.2. The water required in the year 2057 fordilution is only 6 cumecs.

The progressive increases of required compensation water withdistance downstream of the barrage and with time over the life ofthe Project are shown on Drawing 3.2.

After the wastewater is mixed with the river water, the resultingminimum dissolved oxygen in the year 2057 has been determined as7.27 mq/l (Table 3.2) . The variation in the dissolved oxygencontent of the river water with distance downstream of thebarrage in the year 2057 are shown on Drawing 3.3. These resultsshow that the river water quality will be satisfactory foraquatic life and non-consumptive use.

However, the possibility that untreated domestic wastewater mayreach the river has also been considered. Based on an untreatedwastewater strength of BOD5 = 435, and assuming that all theflows from all these villages reach the river untreated, thedilution water requirement in the year 2057 has been evaluated atabout 25 cumecs. If it is also assumed that the industrialwastewater also reaches the river untreated, the dilution waterrequirement in 2057 becomes 28 cumecs.

The above analyses have been based on very conservativeassumptions regarding the population served, the wastewaterproduction and the proportion of untreated wastewater reachingthe river.

Preliminary estimates indicate that, in the initial years,significant flow could seep under the barrage. This is supportedby observations below Sulemanki barrage on the Sutlej river,Balloki barrage on the Ravi river, and Trimmu barrage on theChenab river. Even when the barrage gates are fully closed, theserivers have flows.

3.7

About 1.5 cumecs of groundwater outflow is expected to enter theIndus between Qazipur and the mouth of the Kabul river.

The monitoring programme, described in Volume 7 of theFeasibility Report (Ref. 3.4), will determine the additionalcompensation water required to maintain acceptable standards inthe river. Project energy calculations have been based on anassumed compensation release of 28 cumecs (including seepageflows) over the entire life of the Project, in order that therebe no obstruction to the release of more water, should it berequired. It appears, however, that the margin of error builtinto the calculations is such that water quality can bemaintained, over most of the Project life, without supplementalreleases.

If the monitoring shows the need for compensation releases inexcess of 28 cumecs, the necessary releases will be made. This isnot expected to have any significant impact on the Projecteconomics, particularly as any such requirement will be in thelatter part of the Project life.

The wastewater release into the river will be concentrated over afew hours every day, and it will be beneficial to release thecompensation water in a similar pattern. Thus, the peak releasecould be significantly greater than the daily average.

3.5 CONCLUSIONS

Conservative assumptions have been made regarding both the growthof the population in the villages along the banks of the Indusriver and the development of water supplies and seweragefacilities. Based on these, the peak total wastewater dischargedto the river is estimated to rise from 0.086 cumecs in 1997 to0.615 cumecs in 2057. The compensation release required to dilutethe treated wastewater by a factor of 10, rises from aboutI cumec in 1997 to about 6 cumecs in 2057. Therefore theallowance for compensation water releases of 28 cumecs in thecalculations of energy output will be more than adequate for theentire Project life.

The dissolved oxygen content of the river water will not fallsignificantly before the confluence with the Kabul river, largelybecause the travel time from the barrage to the confluence isonly about 12 hours.

Following the commissioning of the Project, the water quality inthe river downstream will be one of the aspects to be monitoredregularly, with compensation releases being adjusted as required.

3.8

REFERENCES

3.1 Peavy, Howard S. et al; Environmental Engineering,Article 3.9, Chapter 3, McGraw Hill International Edition(1986).

3.2 Environmental and Urban Affairs Division, Ministry ofHousing and Works, Government of Pakistan; EnvironmentalQuality Control Emission Standards, Circular No. 2 (19)184-E-II, August 20, 1986.

3.3 Peavy, Howard S. et al; Environmental Engineering,Article 3.1, Chapter 3, McGraw Hill International Edition(1986).

3.4 Pakistan Hydro Consultants; Ghazi-Gariala HydropowerProject, Feasibility Report, August 1991.

3.9

TABLE 3.1

POPULATION STATISTICS

ANNUAL ANNUALPOPULATION POPULATION INCREASE INCREASE POPULATION INCREASE INCREASE

NAME OF VILLAGE % ° % %1961 1972 1961-72 1981 1972-81

Ghazi 1484 2307 55.45 4.09 3450 49.50 4.57

Khalo 2190 - - 2692 22.73 2.32

Isa 138 257 86.23 5.82 454 76.65 6.53

Jallo 225 366 62.67 4.52 435 18.85 1.94

Bhai 425 642 51.00 3.82 678 5.60 0.61

Jammun 256 393 53.51 3.97 515 31.04 3.05

Oazi Pur 973 1474 51.50 3.85 1660 12.67 1.33

Hasanpur 603 944 56.50 4.16 923 -2.22 -0.25

Jabbi 693 888 28.13 2.28 1177 32.54 3.18

Sheikh Chuhr 344 406 18.00 1.52 502 23.64 2.39

Nakarchain 543 710 30.75 2.47 800 12.67 1.33

|Mian Dheri 1738 1751 0.74 0.07 1850 5.65 0.61

Sirka 1049 1317 25.54 2.09 1679 27.48 2.73

Garhi Matni 621 846 36.23 2.85 1092 29.07 2.88

Manser 1882 2967 57.65 4.22 6654 124.26 9.39

Mullah Mansur 1964 2311 17.67 1.49 2514 8.78 0.94

Average Annual 17579 _Increase 12938 19769 2.83 27075 3.56

* %age increase on population from 1961 to 1972 minus that of Khalo.

3.10

TABLE 3.2

POPULATION, WASTEWATER PRODUCTION,DILUTION REQUIREMvENTS AND RIVER WATER QUALITY

PRMI3CTED POPULATION'S * 'RCAPITA WATER (GPD) PEAK NO,ASTE FLOWA (Core .. DILLTION FLON%l DO Cmgf)) . DISTA.S4C

YOALRO 198!1 1991 1997 2017 2037 2057 1997 2017 2037 20371 19897 2017 2037 207j 1997 2017 2037 2057 1997 2017 21037 2057 '.

QIWG1~P,wri 'I 68 4258S 5OS4 8 2 0 583 29051 20 23 30 32 111 2.300 2.231 2.5 ' 0' 2.l 0.3) i .7 .9.98 7.96 7.93 5OGhar 3-51) 4h ,75773 9999 82,59 32617 20 20 39 30 37 2.13 2 36 (.22 2. 3 K2-4 0.66 6 - 98 97 7,92 >05 *

2692 3628 -3292 7802 14392 2545I 2 2' 30 30 2.305 .0 2 C C2'7 C33048 0l. .9 2.3'4 392 1.00 >98 96 2.88 71.79 l.sI*o 454 610 '29 316 2377 4~~~ ~~~~ ~~~~~ ~ ~ ~~292 19 10 20 0 X233 2.30) I 0. 0031 0• 05 0 .9 2.35 395 i.72 7.97 7.95 '.89 7.78 3.,6

11~~~~1k ~~~435 565 096 1261 2277 4113 10, I 2 20 0C C",300) 0.0 I. 32 0 9.0 28 1.77 2.97 71.05 7.2 78 4.9Bhai 678 911 3 88 !965 5549 64)9 10 1 0 i0 20 2 0 >3)01 ) I 2201 2.2r.4 23 01.20 !37 .2 ;.85 7.87 2.95 2.87 2.'5.3

J-- si~51 792 820 1493 2996 4869 1 0 0 29 2( <2r. C .2X0) -j *2...<3 23 I.2 2.3 .0O 1.91 7.S7 7.95 2.93 2,.70 t.0Qui Pur 1660 2231 26934 4611 8689 :564 20 20 20 30 .0 0.330. 2332 r'2.24 .44 1.1 7 2.2) 7.7 .94 2.85 2.72 6.7

H-p~~, 923 1240 1481 2975 48-32, 8726 1 0 23 20 29 0 .20 0.003 2.03 231 0.5 .4 123 .3 2.7 2.94 7.94 77 .

l.d-try ~~~~~~ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~0.925 0 05.3 C.075 0.13 0 2.0 0.~o .9 7 1.98 5.32 7.94 7,88 7.75 7.59 8.41*bbi 1177 1 582 1 889 '3411 t61 61 1if28 10C 20 280 30.2 I .301 2~.004 C .308 C..021 0 .51 1.02 2.06 3.53 7.93 -.87 7.74 7,.57 8.6WMe- Dberi 195 2496 2969 5362 96184 2 7490 20 20 20 30 2.3(4 0.007 2~.012 (033-K 0.55 1.08 2.1 8 3,88 7.83 7.86 7.5 ,53 12.6

INai.ar~~~~a6t 800 0(75 1284 21 9 4; 68 7563 1 0 230 20 20 6,30) C. 003 C. 005 0.010C 0.36 L.11 2.23 3 .96 7.83 7.86 77 7.2 )Sh.ekh Clh,h 592 r 75 806 z455 2628 4746 10 to 20 29 2..XI) C0.301 C..903 2.036 2 .56 1.12 2.26 4.02 7.83 21.86 7, 72 7.51 11.4

Li6' 25 2694 4996 8789 157 9 2 C 20 39 2.33 C,036 C. 01 1 0.030 0.00 .8 2.38 4.32 71.92 7.85 7.73 248 .G.,hi Moui) 092 i 468 i '52 5105 5716 10324 I C 23) 29 39 -2.0) j. 0342C.307 0.020 0.61 1.22 2.45 4.51 7.2 7.84 7.60 -7.45 3-2.8

H Maov 9654 8042 09')78 1928 34831 6290-9 30. 300 3 3 ~ 2.29 039 03r .: .) 1 3.1 1 5.0 7.0 .0 762 2.32 38.0

~ Mul0it M-.rr 2514 3379 4034 7286 13160 23,768 20 23 39 39 0.3D05 0.009 O.C25 0.045 0.88 1.68 3.36 6. I5 7.89 7.79 7.59 7.27 28.1

TTL 3,02343 43644 48531 87653 153,10 285928 0.086 0.168 0.338 0.615 :TOTAL RELEASE: 6 14,

N'OTES: ... A,tarning Lha 6.148 oa,e 166d. 0 mae artl-3o f-ot Ar b-rrge th-gaho a. Projeo life.LaoS -n pea8.irr if.- of 1.5 ore) 801 ~ar:*04041 river.Rftao w. growth .io'eo.r 3%

-Woae.worr .nd idrrari* --um t, be - traoSi BODS = 80 meg; hoforr dirarrbrg to t1w river cIrr.

-TIre popdti00 of! 991 ie olAeiond f-n Pekat- Na1oti.. ~are flji-n-R.I. of -wae oouemption 1*0*5i11acd m kb follaieg -hd.;a

i) PopWtllic ~1-2O10=l0pdii) Popularie2000iv I()32-0=23p001i) PnPirieuor> I 0,0w

3Ogjp*A

TABLE 3.3

RIVER WATER QUALITY

SR SAMPLE TEMP. f TURBIDITY DO BODS TDS SS COLIFORM E.COLiNO. NO. LOCATION C pH NTU mg/l mgil mg/I mg/A MPN/ MPN/

100 ml ioo0ml___ _Om . __O_m_

1 R-1 Right Bank River 15.8 8.10 12.0 8.2 3.0 65 _ _ xIndus, U/S Galla

2 R-2 Tarbela Power 16.2 x x x x x 6 x x

Station Tailrace

3 R-3 Left Bank River 16.7 8.12 12.0 8.1 2.5 104 10 22!: 30Inrdus, D/S Oazipur

4 R-4 Left Bank River 16.5 8.11 13.0 8.1 3.0 85 11 95 25Indus, U/S Qazipur

5 R-5 Left Bank River 7.98 14.0 7.9 2.5 78 19 15O> 70Indus, MIS Qazipur

6 R-6 Left Bank River 17.0 8.42 13.0 8.4 4.0 55 17 88 17Indus, D/S Khalo

7 R-7 Left Bank River 17-2 7.96 11.0 8.0 4.0 65 17 110 19Indus, U/S Khalo

8 R-8 Left Bank River 16.7 7.94 12.0 8.1 3.0 63 14 130 19Indus, U/S Ghazi

9 R-9 Left Bank River 16.7 7.91 14.5 8.3 3.0 83 14 80 12

Indus, D/S GhaziNormal River 4Quality Standards(Fishable andSwimable Quality)

WHO' (1984) 6.5- 5 _ 1000 Nil Nil _Guideline Value - 8.5for drinkingwater

World Health OrganizationU/S Upstream

DIS DownstreamMIS Midstream

3. 12

TABLE 3.4

GROUNDWATER QUALITY

TOTALSR. SAMPLE TEMP. TURBIDITY TDS SS HARDNESS COLIFORM E.COLI NITRATESNO. NO. LOCATION C. pH NTU (CaCO3) MPNI MPNI

mg/I mg/l mg/I 100/mI 100/mi mg/I

1 W-1 House Well 18.5 7.96 0.5 318 6.0 160 9.0 4.0 28.5Khalo

2 W-2 Mosque 15 7.82 0.2 382 3.0 188 5.0 2.0 15.0Qazi Pur

3 W-3 Mosque 15.5 8.29 0.5 463 2.0 204 4.0 2.0 31.5Khalo

4 W-4 Zamindara 15.5 7.48 0.5 380 5.0 288 3.0 2.0 35.5Mosque Ghazi

5 W-5 Dolan Khan 15.5 7.44 0.2 328 4.0 284 3.0 2.0 40.0Mosque Ghazi

WHO (1984)Guideline 6.5 - 5 1000 500 Nil Nil 45Values for 8.5DrinkingWater.

3 . 13

TABLE 3.5

WASTEWATER/SEWAGE QUALITY

TOTAL FAECALSR. SAMPLE TEMP. BOD5 TDS SS COLIFORM COLIFORMNO. NO. LOCATION C. pH mg/I mJ/l mg/l MPN/100 ml MPN/100 ml

5 41. S-1 Wastewater 7.2? 217 66 90 x 10 46 x 10

from KhaloVillage

5 42. S-2 Wastewater 22.2 7.37 435 256 86 90 x 10 16 x 10

from Ghazi3 3

3. S-3 Sewage 18.9 8.31 316 159 9 70x 10 23x10WAPDA Colony(Filtered)

7 44. S-4 Sewage 18.6 7.16 ,.400 162 39 16x10 35x10

WAPDA Colony(Untreated)

Pakistan Environmental 40 6-9 80 5000 400Protection AgencyEmission Standards forMunicipal LiquidEffluents after 1990 (Ten times minimum dilution is required in receiving water)

_ __________ _ _ 1 1 1 1 1 . __3

3 , 14

CHAPTER 4

CHAPTER 4

PUBLIC AND ANIMAL HEALTH

4.1 INTRODUCTION

The Nasser Lake dam in Egypt, the Volta Lake dam in Ghana and theMangla dam in Pakistan provide examples of the problemsassociated with impoundment of large bodies of water undertropical conditions. The backwaters of the first two lakesprovide ideal breeding grounds for the vector snails thattransmit bilharzia. Construction of the Mangla dam in Pakistan issaid to have led to increased transmission of malaria (Ref. 4.1).

The Environmental Review Panel, in their review of the draftEnvironmental Report of the Project, expressed concern thathealth problems could arise when the Project is operational dueto

the reduced flows in the Indus river during the low-flowseason, which could result in an increase in theincidence of malaria as a result of larvae breeding inthe pools along the river, and

the bodies of water formed by the construction of thebarrage and the headponds at the power complex, whichcould also result in an increase in vector-bornediseases.

This Chapter presents the results of a study of the possibleeffects of the Project on vector-borne diseases. It is alsointended to assist planners in avoiding the creation of healthproblems in the Project area that could result from theconstruction and operation of the Project.

4.2 APPROACH TO STUDY

4.2.1 General

The study has been based on a four-step programme, as follows

, - a comprehensive literature search;

- interviews with health workers in Pakistan;

- a field survey of vector breeding sites in and adjacentto the Indus river, and

- an analysis of health risks associated with the Projectand methods by which they could be monitored andmitigated.

4.1

The results of each step of the programme are presented anddiscussed in the following sections.

4.2.2 Literature Search : Vector-borne Diseases in Pakistan

The assumption has been made that diseases which are rarelymentioned in research literature in a country are not of greatimportance in that country. A review has been carried out of theliterature dealing with vector-borne diseases in Pakistan duringthe past decade, comprising dozens of articles each year. Fromthis review, it became obvious that most of the pertinentresearch dealt with mosquitoes and malaria. Approximately 12articles dealt with cutaneous leishmaniasis and visceralleishmaniasis and their sandfly vectors. One article dealt withfilaria and its mosquito vectors, one with guinea worm, threewith arboviruses and their mosquito vectors, three with liverflukes and four with blackflies. Reports cited are listed in thereferences or given in Appendix C, which also includes additionalreferences.

4.2.3 Interviews with Pakistani Health Workers

Twelve health workers, selected from all levels ofresponsibility, were interviewed. These included Directors ofInstitutes, Parasitologists, District Health Officers, MedicalOfficers in charge of regional hospitals or Basic Health Units,and local Malaria Supervisors. A list of those interviewed isprovided in Appendix B.

Much of the background information of this Report is based oninterviews with Dr. Imtiaz Shah, Director, National Institute ofMalaria Research and Training, and Dr. Ch. A. N. Mujahid,Director of Malaria Control, both of whom have had long andoutstanding careers in the field of malariology.

The general consensus was that the Project area was relativelyrisk-free so far as vector-borne diseases are concerned.

4.2.4 Field Survey

A field survey in the Project area was carried out duringOctober 1991. A total of 21 sites was visited, covering bothbanks of the Indus river between Tarbela dam and Barotha(Drawing 4.1 and Appendix F).

At each selected site, a water dipper with a long handle was usedto collect samples by taking repeated dips of water with thesampler and examining the water for mosquito larvae or pupae.

4.2

Cobbles in fast water were examined to find Simulium larvae andpupae. An effort was made to sample a variety of habitats todetermine the kinds of sites that support Anopheles and Simuliumbreeding and those that do not. Drawing 4.1 shows the approximatelocation of each of the sites investigated.

4.3 GENERAL HEALTH CONDITION IN PAKISTAN

The health of people in Pakistan is generally poor, althoughsignificant improvements have been made since 1960. Lifeexpectancy at birth is 50 years; the crude death rate is 16deaths per year per 1,000 population and the infant mortalit7rate (IMR) is 120 deaths per 1,000 live births among children upto one year of age, as shown in the Table below (Ref. 4.2). Theserates cause Pakistan to be ranked among the poorest nations ofthe world in terms of health conditions. The major causes ofdeath are respiratory and gastrointestinal diseases. Malaria is amajor health problem and periodically erupts in epidemic form,despite long-standing control efforts.

HEALTH INDICATORS FOR PAKISTAN AND NEARBY COUNTRIES FOR 1981(GOP, 1988)

COUNTRY CRUDE DEATH LIFE EXPECTANCY INFANT(RATE PER 1000 (YEARS) MORTALITYPOPULATION) RATE

Afghanistan 26 37 200Bangladesh 18 48 130India 11 58 100Pakistan 16 50 120

The IMR is one of the most sensitive measures of general healthcare and sanitary conditions. Although the IMR decreased in the1950's and early 1960's, it has held fairly steady since then,with estimates of between 120-140 (Ref. 4.2). The current IMR inPakistan ranks among the world's highest and correlates mostclosely with the education of mothers and rural versus urbanresidence.

4.4 HEALTH RISKS ASSOCIATED WITH THE PROJECT

4.4.1 Malaria

Background

The two main vectors of malaria in the Project area are Anophelesculicifacies and Anopheles stephensi. An. culicifacies is,primarily, a rural vector that breeds in clean water andtransmits both benign malaria, Plasmodium vivax (60-70%), andmalignant malaria, Plasmqodium falcilaum (30-40%).

4.3

An. stephensi, the urban vector, breeds ubiquitously andtransmits Plasmodium vivax. The incidence of P. vivax is usuallylow .

A third species of mosquito, Anopheles maculatum, is a minorvector of malaria in the North West Frontier Province (MukhtarShah, personal communication, 1991).

Monitoring and Mitigation

These activities are currently beinq carried out routinelythroughout Pakistan, subject to some budgetary limitations. Thereare, reportedly, Malaria Supervisors assigned to every UnionCouncil. Patients with fevers of unknown origin at Basic HealthUnits (BHU) are routinely treated for malaria with chloroquine.At the time of treatment, blood smears are taken and examined formalaria, either locally or at a central laboratory. Records ofpositive and negative slides are kept. These can be very usefulfor monitoring the disease and, especially, detecting unusualincreases in incidence.

In addition to treatment with drugs, the dwellings of malaria-positive patients and adjacent dwellings are sprayed with aresidual insecticide (malathion) as an epidemiological measureto reduce transmission. Plasmodium falciparum first developedresistance to chloroquine in Pakistan in 1981. Resistance is nowwidespread (Ref. 4.3). Resistance to Malathion in An.culicifacies was detected in India in 1977 (Ref. 4.4) and in An.stephensi in Pakistan (Ref. 4.5). These findings emphasise theimportance of the continued funding for research on malaria andAnopheles resistance by the Pakistan National Institute ofMalaria Research and Training.

community Participation

Both the World Health Organization (Ref. 4.6) and the PakistanNational Institute of Malaria Research and Training (Ref. 4.7)favour community participation using volunteer collaborators toassist in malaria control. Permanent reductions in transmissionmay be achieved by efficient local management of mosquitobreeding, by providing screens for windows and doors and by usingbednets, repellents and antimalarial drugs, etc. Instruction onmalaria and how to prevent it at the grass roots level, by meansof television, radio, pamphlets, posters and discussions withextension workers, can be helpful.

During the construction phase of the Project, large numbers ofworkers will be living in close proximity to the Project at sitesnear Ghazi and near Barotha. The recommendations given aboveapply particularly to these workers and Project management,because malaria is a debilitating disease that can greatlydecrease staff productivity.

4.4

The methods described above are far less costly and areenvironmentally benign when compared to the use of insecticideswhich currently takes some 60% of the malaria control budget(Ref. 4.7).

Mosquito Control in Areas Associated with the Indus River

This Section evaluates the likelihood of malaria vectormosquitoes breeding in the Indus river as well as the barragepond, channel and headponds.

Drawing 4.2 shows the average daily water level fluctuationsexpected each month in the barrage pond. During the low-flowseason, these fluctuations will have a great impact on mosquitolarval and pupal populations. Water levels will rise rapidly eachevening as a result of peaking operation of Tarbela's turbines.This rise will flush any larvae or pupae from their protectedmicrohabitats along the margins of the pond and wash themdownstream. When the water level goes down, larvae and pupae willbe stranded on land out of the water.

During the high-flow season, favourable conditions for mosquitobreeding may occur in the barrage pond when Tarbela dam isdischarging in excess of the 1,600 cumecs capacity of the powerchannel. Thus water will be continually passed through thebarrage and the barrage pool will stay relatively full and at aconstant level. This flood period coincides with the peak periodfor malaria mosquito breeding.

During the high-flow season, it is recommended that a fluctuationof about 40 cm be created in the barrage pool, once every week or10 days. If the level is raised by about 40 cm above the normalfull pool level, it will not exceed the freeboard of the barragepond and there will be no loss of power. This 40 cm 'spike' canbe of any duration (1 hour to several days). Water levelfluctuation is a proven method of controlling mosquito breedingand is extensively used by the Tennessee Valley Authority(Ref. 4.8).

The swift current (2.33 m/s) will prevent anymosquito breedingin the power channel.

The fluctuations in the forebay and headpond water levels,resulting from the turbines operating to meet daily peak powerdemands, are estimated at between 2 m and 5 m (Drawing 4.3). Thisfluctuation will prevent mosquito breeding in the forebay and inthe headponds. Even if the Project is not operated for peakingfor a certain period, the water levels can be fluctuated asrequired to prevent mosquito breeding.

4.5

During the high-flow season each year, the releases from Tarbelawill be much greater than the amount of water diverted into thepower channel, and therefore conditions downstream of the barragewill be little changed from those at present.

During the low-flow season, soiae water will be released in theIndus river, downstream of the zarrage, at all times in order tosupply the needs of the downstrpam villages and their cattle andto ensure acceptable water qua tty standards. Some of this waterwill seep under the barrage and some will come from groundwateroutflow. In addition, there will be releases of compensationwater from the barrage. These can be released as pulses, ratherthan at a steady rate, to take advantage of their flushingaction.

At present, during the low-flow season, there are pools outsidethe main river channel, and embayments where .ne sand and silthave accumulated. These will continue to al ow mosquitoes tobreed because they will not be affected by th limited flushingaction of the pulsed releases of water from the barrage pond.

Non-Indus River Mosquito Control

There are four major breeding areas for malaria mosquitoes notnecessarily associated with the Indus river. These are

- excessive or wasteful irrigation,

- waterlogged soils with freestanding water,

- village ponds and pools, and

- ditches containing village wastewater.

It should be noted that none of the water passing through thepower channel and power complex will be used directly forirrigation in the Project area. The irrigation of the spoil banksby tubewells is not expected to create conditions suitable formosquito breeding as these banks will be elevated and sloped.Thus production of mosquitoes due to irrigation is outside thescope of this Report.

Activities associated with the construction of the channel shouldavoid interfering with natural drainage patterns in such a waythat would cause pools of water to accumulate. Similarly, anywater accumulations either in the channel bed itself duringconstruction or in the spoil banks resulting from thisconstruction should be monitored for mosquito production. Both-excavations and fill areas should be graded so as to prevent theaccumulation of water in pools during the rainy season.

4.6

After the Project is completed, monit&einq -",ild continue sothat the formation of any pools or wather!uqqge-d--a-reas that couldform a habitat for mosquito breeding can be detected andappropriate remedial measures put in hand.

Responsibility for 7onitoring and Mitigation

The responsibility-f-e-r 1tonitoring and mitigating malaria andvector mosquito production in the Project area could best andmost economically be carried out as part of a cooperativeagreement between t-e 4zroject and the National Institute ofMalaria Researhl' _and '2raining or the Directorate of-MalariaContru~.

Climatic Variables and Malaria Transmission

The monthly malaria Slide Positive Rate (SPR), ie slides positivex 100/total population examined, is a useful index of diseasetransmission. The data used in this Report were extracted from anunpublished document (Ref. 4.1). The Mosquito Increase Rate (MIR)is also of interest. It is equivalent to the SPR data two monthsearlier. The difference between MIR and SPR takes into accountthe time required for the mosquitoes to develop from eggs, theinfection of the mosquito itself, the extrinsic malaria cycle inthe insect, the intrinsic malaria cycle in man and the timebetween onset of the disease and the seeking of medicalassistance. Drawing 4.4 shows the difference between the SPR andthe MIR. Drawing 4.5 shows a high correlation between MIR andrainfall. The amount of rainfall in a given period can, in thisarea, be considered a good predictor of the malaria incidence two-months later. Drawings 4.6 and 4.7 show that there is littlecorrelation between Indus river water temperature or airtemperature and the MIR.

4.4.2 Other Vector-borne Diseases

General

The other vector-borne diseases recorded in Pakistan includecutaneous and visceral leishmaniasis, commonly called orientalsore and kala azar, respectively. These occur in the Projectarea. Filariasis and guinea worm are also present in Pakistan butnot in the Project area. Although bilharzia (schistosomiasis)does not presently occur in Pakistan it is included because ofits importance in relation to dams built in the tropics. ThisSection describes these parasitic diseases and evaluates thelikelihood that they might become established in the Projectarea.

4.7

Cutaneous Leishmaniasis (Leishmania troPica) and VisceralLeishmaniasis (Leishmania donovani).

Cutaneous leishmaniasis (CL) is reported throughout Pakistan(Ref. 4.9). It occurs from as far north as Gilgit Agency andsouth to the extreme southern Balochistan. There were 640 humancases reported between 1977 and 1986. The disease results inlesions or scars that may be disfiguring but are not normallyfatal. The sandfly vectors that have been incriminated (in othercountries) are Phlebotomus papatasii and Phlebotomus serqenti.Thus far, CL has not been isolated from sandflies in Pakistan.Gerbils and other rodents may act as reservoirs of the disease.

Visceral leishmaniasis (VL) was first reported from Pakistan inthe Northern Areas in 1960 (Ref. 4.10). It has been detected inAzad Jammu and Kashmir, Northern Punjab and the NWFP. It isreported from Tarbela, Abbottabad, Gilgit and Rawalpindi and sois endemic in the Project area (Ref. 4.9). During the period 1960to 1986, 101 human cases were detected. The disease may be fatalif untreated. Infection rates of 43% were reported from Baltistanin an immunological screening survey. The vector sandflies arePhlebotomus arqentines and Ph. salehi in India and Ph. chinensisin China, and other species elsewhere. The vector species has notbeen established for Pakistan. Some forms of VL appear to have noanimal reservoir other than man and others have dogs as a majorreservoir.

It is possible that there will be occasional cases in the Projectarea despite the best of efforts. Residual spraying on walls withan appropriate insecticide for mosquito control will help tocontrol sandflies because they are weak fliers and do not movefar before alighting. Destruction of rodents and rodent burrowsmight be desirable in case of an outbreak.

Filariasis (Bruqca bancrofti)

Only one recent article on filariasis in Pakistan was located.The paper deals with the importation of bancroftian filariasisinto Pakistan (in the vicinity of Lahore) by immigrants fromBangladesh (Ref. 4.11). These parasites are transmitted to man byCulex mosquitoes. Culex guinauefasciatus mosquitoes infected withfilaria were found near the immigrant camp.

These filaria occur almost entirely in coastal areas and islandswhere there is a fairly long hot season with high humidity.Although it is highly unlikely that they will become establishedin the Project area, improved disposal of wastewater is desirableas it will greatly reduce annoyance by these Culex mosquitoes andalso reduce the possibility of transmission of filariasis andvarious arboviruses.

4.8

Bilharzia (Schistosomiasis)

Although bilharzia does not occur in Pakistan, it is includedhere because of the problems it has caused due to increases intransmission in some tropical countries where large dams havebeen built. The developmental stages are passed only in certainspecies of snails. These are not present in the Project area,apparently because the waters of the Indus river are too cold.

Water temperatures must exceed 200C for extended periods in orderfor them to do well. This is not the case with the Indus riverwhich originates in northern mountainous glaciers. It appearsthat all other ecological conditions are favourable for thesesnails in the Project area.

Guinea Worm (Dracunculus medinensis)

The guinea worm has a very limited distribution in Pakistan. Itoccurs mainly in the areas near Dera Ghazi Khan, Dera Ismail Khanand the Thar desert in southeastern Pakistan. Because thegroundwater in these areas is saline and unpalatable, theinhabitants use surface water (from step wells or standing waterpiped from surface pools to houses). The infection occurs whensurface water containing infected copepods (a minute crustacean)are swallowed. A filter can be used to remove the copepods andthus prevent infection (Ref. 4.12). The copepods are infectedwhen they ingest the immature worms which leave their human hostvia a characteristic boil-like lesion, usually on the legs ofhumans. The adult worms cause the lesion to develop. The immatureworms are expelled when the legs of the human host is immersed inwater. It is highly unlikely to occur in the Project area as thewater for drinking is obtained from groundwater or from the Indusriver.

Arboviruses

A few viruses have been recorded from Pakistan, including WestNile Virus in Punjab (Ref. 4.13) and Japanese Encephalitis Virus(vector Culex tritaeniorhynchus) in the Karachi area (Ref. 4.14).Many arboviruses occur in nature but are not detected unless theycause a disease outbreak and viral surveys are undertaken.

Liver Flukes of Livestock (Fasciola igcantica andF. hep4tica)

Liver flukes are cosmopolitan parasites of livestock (sheep,goats, cattle) and are found from the tropics of Africa tonorthern countries such as Finland. Liver fluke infections ingrazing animals (fascioliasis) is not likely to be affected bythe Project because the habitats for parasitic transmission andthe amphibious snails which transmit the parasite are found inlow-lying marshes or waterlogged depressions (Ref. 4.15) such as

4.9

occur on the Chhachh plain, not in the river bed. At theirinfective stage, the liver flukes are present as cysts onvegetation on which the livestock feed. If borrow pits and spoilareas are not constructed according to the Project plan, somedepressions may be created which could grow vegetation attractiveto the grazing animals. These depressions could support snailvectors and transmission of the liver flukes. Such depressionsmust be filled or drained. This same requirement is true in theevent of malaria mosquitoes breeding in these depressions. Theprecise extent of economic losses due to liver flukes in Pakistanis not known (Ref. 4.16).

4.4.3 Blackfly (Simuliumn)

Simulium (blackflies) spend their immature stages (eggs, larvaeand pupae) in rapidly-running water. In many areas of the worldthey are extremely annoying to man and livestock because of thelarge numbers produced and their blood-sucking habits. Specieswhich feed on livestock can kill them in a period of several daysdue to anaphylactic shock. The power channel will provide about52 km of rapidly moving water (2.33 m/s), an ideal breeding sitefor Simulium. These flies are present in the Project area in someof the nullahs but not in the river itself, although there aregood breeding sites. This is probably due to the rapidfluctuations in the river that are presently occurring. IfSimulium becomes a serious pest, a sudden lowering of the waterlevel during a sunny day will greatly reduce populations bydesiccating the exposed larvae and pupae. The larvae would dryout in an hour or less in the sun, but the pupae may surviveseveral hours or move out of the water.

4.5 TYPICAL BREEDING SITES OF ANOPHELES AND SIMULIUM IN THEINDUS RIVER AND ASSOCIATED NULLAHS.

The following generalisations apply to Anopheles and Simuliumbreeding in the environs of the Indus river :

- Rapid fluctuations of water level will minimise mosquitobreeding.

- Clean sloping margins of pools and ponds withoutdepressions will minimise mosquito breeding.

- A thick layer of cobbles and gravel on the river bed willpromote drainage, inhibit plant growth and minimisemosquito breeding.

- Vegetation, especially grass in embayments ordepressions, supports breeding.

- Erosion of soil that results in cut channels into thebanks of low islands, or meadows withtdepressions thatcontain water can support mosquito larvae.

4.10

Mosquitoes will breed in almost any accumulations ofwater in depressions if they can find shelteredmicrohabitats.

Village ponds or pools are favourite breeding places formosquitoes.

Simulium larvae and pupae require rapidly moving water.

4.6 CONCLUSIONS

4.6.1 General

Only factors relating disease with construction of the Projectand its operation thereafter have been considered. There isconsiderable 'background transmission', especially of malaria,that is not Project-related.

After malaria, cutaneous and visceral leishmaniasis are the mostserious vector-borne health threats in the Project area. They areendemic to the area. Isolated cases are to be expected. Promptmeasures such as residual spraying can minimise transmission andinterrupt epidemics of the disease.

4.6.2 Project Zones of Health Influence

The two major zones of health influence of the Ghazi-BarothaHydropower Project are :

- The primary health zone around the Project structures andthe Indus river flood plain between Ghazi and Barotha,largely a rural agricultural area containing about150,000 people.

- The secondary health zone which will receive healthbenefits from additional electrical power suppliedthrough the national electricity distribution network.This secondary zone of influence is largely urban andcontains several million people. Additional electricitymeans additional pumped supplies of drinking water, theimproved operation of hospitals and other health-carefacilities and improved amenities of life.

The primary zone will be small, essentially the flight range ofmalaria mosquitoes around the various water bodies in the Projectarea. The secondary zone will be much larger, covering citiessuch as Peshawar, Rawalpindi, Islamabad, Lahore, etc.

4.11

4.6.3 Changes in Aquatic Environment

The major changes in the aquatic environment in the proposedProject area, and thus opportunities for changes in thetransmission of malaria and other water-associated diseases inthe primary zone are :

- a fast-moving flow of water in the power channel;

- a reduction in the amount of water flowing through theoriginal bed of the Indus river, particularly during thelow-flow season, and

- the creation of a pond at the barrage and the headpondsat the power complex, both being subject to rapidfluctuations in water levels.

4.6.4 Malaria

The production of large numbers of vector AnoPheles mosquitoesand subsequent increase in malaria transmission appear to beclosely correlated with rainfall in the Project area.

Malaria mosquitoes presently breed in embayments and low meadowsalong the margins of the Indus riverbed created by the recedingsummer flood, and in waterlogged depressions in the Chhachhplain. The Project will reduce these, thus reducing the overallbreeding of malaria mosquitoes.

An analysis of seasonal flows and water levels in the barrage andhead ponds indicates that they will be poorly suited to mosquitobreeding.

4.6.5 Leishmaniasis

There is a danger of cutaneous and visceral leishmaniasis aroundthe new settlements of construction workers. These diseases aretransmitted to man and rodents by sandflies. However, sandflieshave not yet been reported in the Project area. The transmissioncan be controlled by spraying residual insecticides inside thedwellings, by destroying the rodent burrows where sandflies andtheir rodent hosts may dwell, and by other measures.

4.6.6 Bilharzia

At present, this disease is not found in Pakistan, nor are theaquatic snails which transmit bilharzia to man. Apparently thewaters of the Indus river are too cold for the snails, but allother conditions are appropriate. Although the Project will notincrease the water temperature enough to support bilharziatransmission, development of the river basin with thermal powerplant using the river water for cooling, additional dams,

4.12

irrigation systems and drainage works could eventually do so.This factor should be considered in any comprehensive basinplanning.

4.6.7 Guinea Worm

This water-associated parasite is not found in the Project areaand would not invade the area after construction of the Project.Transmission requires the use of stagnant water for drinking,whereas tubewells and river water are used in the Project area.

REFERENCES

4.1 Tirmizi, F.; Intersectorial plan of water resources toensure incorporation of health safeguards. Unpublisheddocument 5 pp, 5 annexes, 1 map.

4.2 Sather, Z.; Infant and child mortality in Pakistan -Some trends and differentials. Biosoc. Sci. 17: 351-359.1985.

4.3 Shah, Imtiaz; Chloroquine resistance to falciparummalaria in Vehari District, Punjab and Muhmand AgencyNorthwest Frontier Province. Ann. Rpt. National Instituteof Malaria Research and Training: 1-23. 1989.

4.4 Rajagopal, R.; Malathion resistance in An. culicifaciesin Gujarat. Ind. J. Med. Res. 66: 27-28. 1977.

4.5 Rathor, H. and Toqir; Malathion resistance in An.stephensi Liston in Lahore, Pakistan. Mosq. News 40:526-531. 1980.

4.6 WHO; Vector control in primary health care. Tech. Ser.755:pp. 61. 1987.

4.7 Rai, A.; Preliminary Report on the field study for thedevelopment of alternative malaria control methodsfeasible for use through community participation. AnnualReport. National Institute of Malaria Research andTraining: 53-62. 1990.

4.8 TVA; Malaria control on impounded water. USGPO.Washington, D.C. 1946.

4.9 Munir, M. et al.; A review of the status ofleishmaniasis in Pakistan for 1960-1986. In:Leishmaniasis: the current status and new strategies forcontrol. Proc. NATO Advanced Study Institute onLeishmaniasis. Plenum Press, ISBN 0-306-43146-7 pp. 47-56, NATO ASI Series A, Life Sciences 63: 47-56. 1989.

4.13

4.10 Ahmad, N.; Fascioliasis in Pakistan. Pakistan Vet. J.4:44. 1984.

4.11 Aslam Khan, M. and Pervez S.; Imported filariasis inPakistan. Trans. R. Soc. Trop. Med. and Hyg. 75(6): 869-871. 1981.

4.12 Shah Imtiaz et al.; Monofilament nylon filters forpreventing dracunculiasis: durability and copepoodretention after long term field use in Pakistan. Trop.Med. and Parasit. 82(5): 40-45. 1988.

4.13 Reisen, W. et al.; West Nile Virus in Pakistan. II.Entomological observations in Changa Manga NationalForest, Punjab Province. Trans. Roy. Soc. Trop. Med. andHyg. 76: 437-448. 1982.

4.14 Kamimura, K. et al.; A survey of mosquitoes in theKarachi area, Pakistan. J. Pakistan Med. Assoc. 36(7):

* 182-188.

4.15 Malik, M.; Incidence of fascioliasis amongst livestock inSargodha Division (years 1974-1976). Pakistan Vet. J.4(1): 31-32.

4.16 Chaudhry, N., et al.; A note on economic losses due tofascioliasis in cattle and sheep. Pakistan Vet. J. 4(1):45-46. 1984.

4.14

CHAPTER 5

CHAPTER 5

ARCHAEOLOGICAL AND AESTHETICAL ASPECTS

5.1 RESUME OF THE PREVIOUS ARCHAEOLOGICAL STUDIES

Archaeological aspects of the Project structures and spoil areaswere covered in the Environmental Assessment presented inVolume 7 of the Feasibility Report (Ref. 5.1). The Reportidentif ied the sites of archaeological and historical importancein the Project area in general and particularly within the powerchannel corridor. Of these, two sites near Musa Kudlathi will bedisrupted by the power channel. The Feasibility Report proposedsalvage of these sites. In addition, one site near Hasanpur liesin the area of the power channel spoil banks. The Reportrecommended the protection of this site.

5.2 FURTHER STUDIES

5.2.1 Archaeological Study of the Borrow Areas

The Feasibility Report did not cover the archaeological aspectsof the borrow areas, because these areas had not been finalisedat that time. The Environmental Review Panel had recommended thatan archaeological survey of borrow areas should be carried out aspart of the supplementary environmental studies.

During the tender design stage, major potential borrow areas havebeen identified and an archaeological survey of these areas hasbeen carried out during January 1992. These areas are listedbelow and shown on Drawing 5.1.

Silt sources

GallaGhazi

Sand Sources

- Ghazi- Qibla Bandi- Lawrencepur- Musa- Hattian- Golra- Dhok Tarbethi- Nurpur Karmalia

5.1

Aggregate/Riprap Sources

- Galla riprap- Sandy gravels of Haro river bed- Dhok Kunharan limestone- Bura limestone- Mirza limestone- Dher sandy gravels- Dakhner limestone

The survey was carried out by two archaeologist from theDepartment of Archaeology and Museums, Government of Pakistanduring January 1992.

5.2.2 Aesthetic Aspects of the Attock Gorge

The Environmental Review Panel had also recommended a study ofthe effects of the reduced flows in the Indus river on aestheticand cultural aspects of the Attock gorge, particularly on theAttock bridge and the black shale of Ghiri Island. These aspectshave been studied by a team of three environmentalists, whichsurveyed the area by boat in October 1991.

5.3 FINDINGS OF THE STUDIES

5.3.1 Archaeological Study of the Borrow Areas

The survey has indicated that all the sites except Galla riprapdo not contain archaeological remains and the Department ofArchaeology and Museums has no objection to the use of thesesites as borrow areas.

The Galla riprap area is a hill starting from the Pehur pumpingstation to Galla village. on this hill, there are extensiveremains of the Pehur Fort, as well as the plundered remains ofmonasteries and stupas.

The remains of the Pehur Fort are represented by high standingwalls and bastions at the top of the hill near the Pehur pumpingstation. The fort belongs to Hindu Shahi period (8th-9th CenturyA.D.). Further eastward, near Galla village, the hill contains acourtyard of a monastery with standing walls-belonging to the4th-5th Century A.D.

In view of these discoveries, it has been decided to abandon thissite as a potential borrow area and an alternative riprap quarryhas been identified on the left bank of the river.

Further archaeological surveys will be carried out for any newborrow areas proposed to be used.

5.2

5.3.2 Aesthetic Aspects of the Attock Gorge

At the Attock gorge, the features of interest are the blackshales of Ghiri island and the three-span, two-deck road andrailway bridge built at the end of the last century.

The diversion of part of the flows released from Tarbela dam intothe power channel will reduce the flows in the Indus down to theoutfall of the tailrace at the power complex. However, The flowsin the gorge also include a significant contribution from theKabul river. The effect of the reduced flow on river levels hasbeen assessed from the discharge rating curve for Khairabad, nearthe Attock bridge.

Low-flow Season

During the period from 1965 to 1982, the average daily flow atthe Khairabad gauge in January was 812 cumecs and the minimum was249 cumecs. At this average daily flow of 812 cumecs, the waterlevel is at about El. 264.8 m. The average daily release fromTarbela during January was 464 cumecs. With all but thecompensation flow of 28 cumecs diverted into the power channel,the level at Khairabad would reduce to El. 263.5 m, ie areduction of about 1.3 m. This reduction in water level will nothave a significant effect on the aesthetic appeal of the gorgeand railway bridge.

When the installation of the additional four units at Tarbela iscompleted and Tarbela is operated in a peaking mode, the flowsreleased from Tarbela could be close to zero for most of the dayduring January. Thus the addition of the Project would not changethe minimum water levels expected in the Attock gorge.

High-flow season

During July, the average flow at Khairabad gauge for the years1965 to 1982 was 8,780 cumecs, giving a water level at Khairabadgauge of El. 273.5 m. For a flood with a return period of10 years, the water level would be about El. 281 m, which is morethan 15 m above the January water level given above.

The effect of the Project will be to reduce flows during thehigh-flow season by 1,600 cumecs. The water level at Khairabadgauge for 7,180 cumecs would be E1.272.0 m. There would thus bea reduction of about 1.5 m, which will not affect the aestheticsof the Attock gorge.

5.3

5.4 CONCLUSIONS

The survey of potential borrow areas has shown that they do notcontain archaeological remains except for the Galla site whichhas been abandoned. Any new areas proposed for obtainingconstruction materials would be surveyed for archaeologicalimportance.

The existing variation of water levels in the Attock gorge isvery large, varying from about El. 265 m during the period ofminimum flows to over El. 280 m during high floods. Even duringaverage July flows, the water levels are about 10 m higher thanthe minimum levels. Furthermore, the additional peaking capacitybeing installed at Tarbela will reduce the minimum levels evenfurther.

The Project will reduce the contribution of the Indus river tothe flows through the gorge, but that from the Kabul river willremain unchanged. The minimum levels in the gorge will remain thesame as those expected from future peaking operations at Tarbela,and the annual range of variations is expected to be similar tothe existing range.

Therefore, the Project is not expected to affect the aestheticappeal of the gorge.

REFERENCES

5.1 Pakistan Hydro Consultants; Chazi-Gariala HydropowerProject, Feasibility Report, August 1991.

5.4

DRAWINGS

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DRAWING 5.1I

APPENDIX A

APPENDIX A

LIST OF PREPARERS AND CONTRIBUTORS

A.1 PAKISTAN HYDRO CONSULTANTS

A.1.1 Environmental Team

Mr. Anis A. Chaudhry Soil/Water Scientist

Dr. Peter L. Ames Zoologist

Mr. M.A. Bodla Botanist

Dr. Hugo Jamnback Entomologist

Mr. M. Saleem Chaudhry Water Quality Engineer

A.1.2 Other Contributors

Mr. Iftikhar Khalil Project Manager

Mr. A.C.J. Baker Sr. Deputy Project Manager

Dr. William Jobin Public Health Engineer

A.2 DEPARTMENT OF ARCHAEOLOGY AND MUSEUMS

Mr. M. A. Haleem Archaeologist

Mr. Gulzar Muhammad Khan Archaeologist

Mr. Muhammad Yousaf Archaeologist

A.1

APPENDIX B

.

APPENDIX B

LIST OF CONTACTS

B.1 CONTACTS IN RESPECT OF ECOLOGICAL STUDIES

Mr. M. Shabir Baig Deputy Director and Incharge ofEcological Unit, Soil Survey ofPakistan, Lahore.

Dr. Syed Razi Abbas Shamsi Professor, Department of Botany,University of the Punjab,Quaid-e-Azam Campus, Lahore.

Dr. Abdul Rehman Beg Forest Botanist, Pakistan ForestInstitute, Peshawar.

B.2 CONTACTS IN RESPECT OF RIVER WATER QUALITY

Dr. Khurshid Ahmed Professor & Officer Incharge,Institute of Public HealthEngineering and Research,Univesity of Engineering &Technology, Lahore.

B.3 CONTACTS IN RESPECT OF PUBLIC AND ANIMAL HEALTH

Mr. Mukhtar Ahmad Shah Parasitologist, DirectorateGeneral Health, Lahore.

Dr. Imtiaz Shah Director, National Institute ofMalaria Research And Training,Lahore.

Dr. Ch. A.N. Mujahid Directorate of Malaria Control,Islamabad.

Dr. Sabz Ali Khan Medical Officer Incharge TopiRegional Hospital, Topi.

Dr. Ayub Khan Medical Officer, Rural HealthCentre, Ghazi.

Shams-ul-Qamar Malaria Supervisor, Rural HealthCentre, Ghazi.

Dr. Sardar Saeed Assistant District HealthOfficer, Basic Health Unit,Harripur.

B.1

Major (Rtd.) Dr.Sayed Raza Hussein Medical Superintendent, Tarbela

Hospital, Tarbela.

Dr. Abdul Hammed Medical Officer, Basic HealthUnit, Ghurghushti.

Dr. Mohammad Afzal Malik District Health Officer, Attock.

B.2

APPENDIX C

APPENDIX C

OTHER LITERATURE STUDIED

C.1 IN RESPECT OF RIVER ECOLOGY

Ahmed, S.; Botany Deptt. Punjab University, Grasses and Sedgesof Lahore District, Publication No. 12 (1954).

Baig, M.; Shabbir and Q. Ali; Vegetation Ecological Zones ofPakistan. Proc. XII Int. Forum on Soil Taxonomy andAgrotechnology Transfer, Lahore, Pakistan (1985).

Chaudhry, H.M.; Evaluation of Salinity Control and ReclamationProject No. 1., M&P (P&I) WAPDA Pub. No. 3 (1973).

Daubenmire, R.; Plant Communities - A textbook of PlantSynecology. Harper & Row Pub. Newyork (1968).

Witton, B.A.; River Ecology, Blackwell Scientific Publication(1975).

C.2 IN RESPECT OF PUBLIC AND ANIMAL HEALTH

General

Environment and Urban Affairs Div., Government of Pakistan(GOP), Islamabad; Environmental profile of Pakistan. pp. 246.1988.

Mosquitoes and Malaria

Nadeem, G.; Determination of effective and economical insecticidespraying regime in the field. Annual Report, National Instituteof Malaria Research and Training: 105-109. 1989.

Reisen, W. et al.; Population dynamics of some Pakistanmosquitoes : temporal changes in reproductive status, agestructure and survivorship of Anopheles culicifacies, An.stenhensi and Culex tritaeniorhynchus. Ann. Trop. Med. andParasit. 80(1): 77-95. (Contains extensive references onmosquitoes). 1986.

Suleman, M.; Malaria in Afghan refugees in Pakistan. Trans. Roy.Soc. Trop. Med. and Hyg. 82(1): 44-47.

Sandflies and Leishmaniasis

Burney, M. and Lari, F.; Status of cutaneous leishmaniasis inPakistan. Pakistan J. Med. Res. 25: 101. 1986.

C.1

Ghazi, R. and Ali, R.; Cutaneous Leishmaniasis in Uthal,Baluchistan, with a note on its status in Pakistan. Proc.Parasit. 1988(5): 40-45. 1988.

Lewis, D.J.; The phlebotomine sandflies of West Pakistan. Bull.Brit. Mus. (N.H.) 19:1. 1967.

Nasir, A.; Sandflies as vectors of human diseases in WestPakistan. Pakistan J. Health; Karachi 14: 26. 1964.

Rab, M. et al; Cutaneous leishmaniasis in Baluchistan: Reservoirhost and sandfly vector in Uthal, Lasbella. J.P.M.A. 36: 134-138.1986.

WHO; The leishmaniasis. WHO Tech. Rep. Ser. 701. 1984.

Viruses

Go, T.; Seroepidemiological studies of Flavivirus infectionsamong domestic animals in and around Karachi, State of Sindh,Pakistan. Jap. J. Ver. Res. 38(2): 50. 1990.

Camicas, J.; Les arbovirus a tiques en zone tropicale. MedicineTropicale 40(5): 499-508. 1980.

simulium

Lewis, D.J.; The Simuliidae of Pakistan. Bull. Ent. Rest, 62:453-470. 1973.

Datta, M. and Dad Gupta, B.; Host preferences of black flies(Diptera: Simuliidae) of Darjiling, West Bengal. Proc. Zool. Soc.Calcutta 28 (1975): 147-153. 1978.

Saito, K. et al.; The blackflies (Diptera: Simuliidae) collectedin the northern part of Pakistan. Jap. J. Sanitary Zoology 40(supplement). In, Zoogeographical studies on the medicallyimportant Diptera in southwest Asia (Edited by Kamimura, K. etal., Dept. Parasit. School Med., Yokohama Univ. 1989.

Liver fluke

Chaudry, A. and Niaz, M.; Liver fluke, a constant threat tolivestock development. Pakistan Veterinary J. 4(1): 42-42. 1984.

C.2

APPENDIX D

APPENDIX D

SPECIES OF FLORA ENCOUNTERED

Shot 1 of 2RIVER REACH SUCCESSIONAL POSSIBLE USE

SPECIES BRAIDED ATOCK ALLUVIAL STATUSRIVER GORGE BASIN

CHANNEL

TREES:

Acacia nilotica + + + Climax Timber, FuelForage. Industry

A. hydaspica + Climax Fuel. ForageA. modesta + + Climax Fuel, ForageAilanthus glandulosa + ClimaxCassia alesus + Climax FuelDalbergia sisso + + + Climax Timber, FuelProsopis julif lora + Climax FuelTamarix aphylla + Climax FuelZizyphus Jujuba + + Climax Food, Fuel, Forage

SHRUBS:

Aeura javanica + Intermediate -

Anisomeles sp. + CllmaxCalotropis procera + + Intermedlate -

Lautana camera + Climax -

Prospis gland ulosa + + Climax FuelRhamnus cachemirica + + Cllmax FuelRuellia sp. +Rumex hestatus + + ClImax ForageZizyphus nummularia + + Intermediate Food, Fuel, ForageZ. oxyphylla + Climax Fuel

FORBS & GRASSES:

Agrostis ciliaris + Poineer ForageAlpuda mutica + + + Intermediate ForageAnthroxon lancifolius + + Intermediate ForageArgyrolobium roseum + + Intermediate ForageArtemisia scoparia t t IntermediateArundo donax + PolneerBidens biternata + + IntermediateBoerhaavia diffusa + Intermediate ForageBotrhrlochloa intermedla + + Intermediate Forage

D. 1

APPENDIX D

SPECIES OF FLORA ENCOUNTERED

Sheet 2 of 2RIVER REACH SUCCESSIONAL POSSIBLE USE

SPECIES BRAIDED ATTOCK ALLUVIAL STATUSRIVER GORGE BASIN

CHANNEL

FORBS & GRASSES: (Contd)

Cannabis sativa + + ClimaxCenchrus ciliaris + + + Climax ForageComosum sp. + + Intermediate ForageCrotalaria medicaginea + + Intermedlate ForageCymbopogan jawarencusa + + + IntermedlateCynodon dactytlon + + + Polneer ForageCyperus difformis + PoineerDesmostachya bipinnata + t + Intermediate ForageEleusine sp. + + Intermediate ForageEragrostis poaeoldes + + + Intermediate ForageEuphrobia pilulifera + + + Poineer -

Fumaria Indica + + Polneer -

Heteropogan contortus + + Polneer -

Indigofera linitolia + + + Intermediate -

Juncellus pygmeus + + Poineer -

Lactuca sp. + Intermediate -

Launea nudicaulis Intermediate -

Oryzopsis latilolia i Intermediate ForageOxalis corniculata + + + IntermodiatePoa supina + + + Intermediate ForagePloygonum barbatum + Poineer -

Saccharum grifithii + + + Poineer -

Saccharum spontaneum + ' Polneer -

Saccharum munja + + Intermedlate -Solanum sorathansis + + + Intermedlate -

Tritolium pretense Intermediate ForageTypha angustata 4 Poineer

(+) indicates the presence of the species in the respective morphological zone.

D. 2

APPENDIX E

;~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~I-k

APPENDIX E

SPECIES OF FAUNA ENCOUNTERED

Shea I of 2

COMMON NAME SCIENTIFIC NAME STATUS

BIRDS-*

Grey Heron Ardea cinerea Uncommon

Little Egret Egretta garzetta Uncommon

Cattle Egret Bubulcus ibis Scaree

Pond Heron Ardeola grayi One

Spot-billed Duck Anas poecilorhyncha Uncommon, 40-50

Pintail A.acuta Common, 200±

Common Teal A.crecca Common, 300±

Black Kite Milvus migrans Rare, only at Mulla

Mansoor Mandori

Harrier Circus sp Ono only

Long-legged Bu7zard Buteo ruftinus Several, nr Jabaand Dhcr

Shikra Accipiter badius One, Tarbela Colony

Kestrel Falco tiinunculus Two, nr Gorge

Great Stone Curlew Esacus recurvirostris 3, on bars

Little Pratincole Glareola laicteA 400+, together

Little Ringed Plover Charadrius dubius 25-50, together

Red-wattled Lapwing Vanellus indicus scarce, 8

Wood Sandpiper Tringa glareola 6-8, scattered

Marsh Sandpiper T. stagnatilis Scarce

Common Sandpiper T. hypoleuca Uncommon

Redshank T. totanus 6, together

Greenshank T. nebularia S-10, scattered

Black-bellied Tern Sterna

Rock Dove Columba livia Common in Gorge

Collared Dove Streptopelia decaocto Scarce

Litde Brown Dove S.sonegalensis Scarce

Common Cuckoo Cuculus canorus One, Pontia

Rose-ringed Parakeet Psittacula krameri rare, Kabul R. only

House Swift Apus Bltinis Scarce, Attock Br. only

White-br. Kingfisher Halcyon smyrnensis Scarce, 4-6

Pied Kingfisher Ceryle rudis Uncommon

Common Kingfisher Aleedo attliis scarce, 3

Eurasian Bee-eater Merops apiaster Flock,.cf 20+

Blue-tailed Bee-eater M.philippensis Flock of 10-12

Little Bee-eater M.orientalis Flock of 5-6, nr

Pontia

El .

APPENDIX E

SPECIES OF FAUNA ENCOUNTERED

Sheo 2 of 2

COMMON NAME SCIENTIFIC NAME STATUS

Hoopoe Upupa epops One, ur Barotia

Indian Roller Coracias benghalensis 3, along roads

Crested Lark Galerida cristata Scarce, nr Barotha

Short-toed Lark Calandrella cinerea Common, on islands

Red-winged Bush Lark Mirafra erythroptera Uncommon, river banks

Barn Swallow Hirundo rustica Uncommon

Red-rumped Swallow H.daurica Gorge & Kabul R.

Sand Martin Riparia paludicola Common, over water

White Wagtail Motacilla alba Common

YeRlow Wagtail M. flava Scarce

Large Pied Wagtail M. maderaspatensis Uncommon

White-checked Bulbul Pyononotus leucogenys Nullahs, in Gorge

Red-vented Bulbul P. cafer Tarbda Colony

Black Drongo Dicrurus adsimilis Uncommon, nr river

Rufus-backed Shrike Lanius sclach Tarbdla Colony

Great Grey Shrike L. excubitor One, Barotha

Whistling Thrushi Myiophoneus cacrulcus One, Haro R.

Humes Wheatear Oenanthe alboniger One, nr Barotha

Indian Robin Saxicoloides fulicata Uncommon

Pied Bushchat Saxicola caprata one, nr Barotha

Streaked Fantail Warb. Cisticola juncidis Several, Gorge

Red-headed Bunting Emberiza brunneiceps One, nr Dher

Common Babbler Turdoides caudatus Common

Wall Creeper Tichodroma muraria One, nr Haro R.

House Sparrow Passer domesticus Common, villages

Common Mynah Acridotheres tristis Common, agriculturo

Bank Mynah A. gingianus Scarce.

House Crow Corvus splendens abundant, but

more so away from river

Raven C. corax Pair nr Mandori

MAMMALS:

Jackal Canis aureus Road kill just

inside Tarbeda gate

Rat. Species Burrows ca. 2'dia,

common on permanent

islands

Swine Sus scrofa Tracks and diggings

on one island.

* Includes all species observed in 1990 and 1991 field surveys.

E.2

APPENDIX F

APPENDIX F

DESCRIPTION OF ANOPHELES AND BIMULIUMBREEDING SITES INVESTIGATED

A water dipper with a long handle was used to collect samples bytaking repeated dips of water with the sampler and examining thewater for mosquito larvae or pupae. Cobbles in fast water wereexamined to find Simulium larvae and pupae. An effort was made tosample a variety of habitats to determine the kinds of sites thatsupport Anopheles and Simulium breeding and those that do not.Drawing 4.1 shows the approximate locations of the sitesinvestigated.

Site a. Tarbela dam face; a small grassy seep near thebase of the dam, about 50 first or second instarAnopheles larvae per dip, no Simulium larvae ontrailing grass although it was a favorable site.

Site b,c,d. Accumulations of polluted water along roadside onright side of Indus river heading towards Topi.No Anopheles breeding.

Site e. Right bank small village (Batakara), open drain,stagnant water, heavily polluted, 100's of Culexlarvae and pupae per dip. No Anopheles breeding.

Site g. Main channel right side of Indus river,downstream from Pontia; shallow clear water siltbottom, protected by grassy vegetation, littlewater movement, small first or second instarAnopheles larvae present, about 2 per dip.

Site h. Same area as Site g but further downstream, grassand shallow clear water, silty substrate, smallfirst and second instar Anopheles larvae present.

Site i. Main channel, same area as Site g, substrategravel and cobbles, no vegetation, water clear,not moving, no Anopheles breeding.

Site k. Near Aldo on left bank in, Indus river, fastclear water flowing over cobbles, looks like agood Simulium breeding site, no larvae or pupae.

Site 1. Same area as Site k, but in still pools withcobble and gravel substrate, no Anophelesbreeding.

Site m. Left bank Indus river, near barrage site, sandymargins in embayment with sparse vegetation, noAnopheles breeding.

F.1

Site n. Same area as Site o, pools of still water withcobble and gravel substrate, no Anophelesbreeding.

Site o. On left bank, similar to Site n, no Anophelesbreeding.

Site p. Ghurghusti area downstream of nullah on banks ofIndus river, substrate all gravel and cobbles,water clear, moving slowly, no Anophelesbreeding.

Site q. Same area, in nullah about 3 m wide, 3 kmdownstream of Jalalia, water clear, rapidlyflowing over cobbles, imuliu larvae and pupaepresent, about 50 per cobble.

Site r. A little further downstream in a silty field withshort grass vegetation. Very small Anophlelarvae present in small open pool of still waterthat connected with an eroded channel leading tothe river; also present in adjacent pools withemergent grass.

Site s. Same area as Site r, main channel, slow watermovement, silty bottom, no Anopheles breeding.

Site t. Near Site r, good Simulium site in Indus river,fast flowing water over cobbles, no Simuliumbreeding. Water has receded drastically about0.5 m today. Such rapid fluctuation of waterlevel would inhibit or prevent Simulium breeding.

Site u. Near Akhundheri, right bank with a wide band ofcobbles observed on right bank, not sampled asinaccessible, left bank appears silty with novegetation, slow water movement, both probablyunsuitable for Anopheles breeding, not sampled.

Site v. Indus river just before junction with Kabulriver. Right and left banks, both gently slopingsilty substrate, beachlike, probably unfavourablefor Anopheles breeding but not sampled.

,Site w. Barotha village, slowly moving nullah with siltysubstrate polluted, shallow, about 3 m wide, noAnopheles breeding.

F.2

ENAD