Diplomatic Triumphs and FailuresTreaty of Versailles did not create an enduring peace by severely punishing Germany and triggering future resentment against the "dictated peace."League of Nations, without (US & USSR) didn't have will nor support to maintain peace.Washington Naval Conference, 1921-22: did not stop naval arms raceFive Power Treaty: created a 5-5-3 battleship ratio between U.S., Britain and Japan (others left out)

Diplomatic Triumphs and FailuresLocarno Pact, 1925: "spirit of Locarno" no longer relevant once Hitler took power Kellogg-Briand Pact, 1928: "war is illegal"; not enforceableJapanese invasion of Manchuria, 1931: League of Nations condemned, but did little; Japan pulled out of League as a result

Hitlers Foreign PolicyHitler withdrew from League of Nations, 1933: secretly begins rearmamentStresa Front, 1935: Mussolini and others concerned Hitler withdrew from Versailles TreatyItaly, France, and Britain protested strongly, understanding the danger; agreed to use force to maintain status quo.However only a year later, Mussolini allied with Hitler to help fascists win in Spain

Remilitarization of the RhinelandGerman reoccupation of the Rhineland, 1936: violated Versailles Treaty and Locarno PactFrance unwilling to enforce the treaty without British aid; British didn't want another war.Hitler knew of the allies desire to avoid war at all costs; took advantage of this.

Italian Aggression in EthiopiaItalian invasion of Ethiopia, 1935: League of Nations ineffective in its actions and protests.Ethiopian Emperor Haile Selassie appeals to League, who branded Italy an aggressor state.Embargo placed on Italy, but it did not include oil, which Italy needed to continue its invasion.Conquest complete in May 1936.

Haile Selassie

Spanish Civil War, 1936Mussolini and Hitler use conflict as a testing ground for their military forces: Italy's army; Germany's airforce -- LuftwaffeFascism prevails under Francisco FrancoLeague ineffective in helping republicans (Loyalists) against Franco.Rome-Berlin Axis formed ("Fascintern"): an alliance between fascist Italy and Germany

The Rome-Berlin-Tokyo AxisOct. 1936, Germany and Italy signed the Rome-Berlin Axis.Anti-Comintern Pact, 1937: Italy signed with Germany and Japan to oppose communism Japan invades China, 1937: world watches the destruction of Chinese cities like Shanghai and "Rape of Nanking," but does little. Marks the beginning of World War II in Asia.

Annexation of AustriaAnschluss: Germany annexes Austria, 1938Hitler bullies the Austrians into accepting German control of the nation.Nazis in Austria put pressure on the government.German troops moved in on March 13.A plebiscite in April had a majority of Austrians favor the unification.

The Czechoslovakian CrisisSudetenland: Hitler demanded the German-speaking province in Czechoslovakia or else there would be warMunich Conference, 1938 arranged by British Prime Minister Neville ChamberlainAttended by Britain, France, Italy & Germany; Czechoslovakia and Russia not invited!British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain adopted a policy of appeasementAppeasement: making concessions to an aggressor in order to achieve peace

The Czechoslovakian CrisisPacifism is prevalent in Britain and France: memories of horrors of WWI; large segments of the populace don't want warMunich Agreement: Czechoslovakia forced to give away SudetenlandChamberlain returns to Britain a hero, boasting: "we have secured peace in our time"German invasion of Czechoslovakia, spring1939: Hitler double-crosses Chamberlain

The Polish CrisisHitler makes demands on port city of Danzig (Gdansk) in the Polish CorridorChamberlain says if Germany attacks Poland there will be warHitler does not want a two-front war against France & Britain in west and Russia in east

The Polish CrisisNazi-Soviet Non-Aggression Pact, Aug. 1939World shocked that archenemies Hitler and Stalin would make such an agreementHitler sought assurances USSR would not attack Germany if Germany invaded PolandPublic agreement: nonaggression treatyPrivate agreement: Germany and USSR would invade Poland and split the country in half.

The Outbreak of WarGermany invades Poland, Sept. 1, 1939: marks beginning of World War II in EuropeSeptember 3, Britain & France declare war on Germany

Hitlers Conquests Blitzkrieg ("lightning war"): new form of warfare used by Germany to quickly defeat an enemy by poking a hole in enemy line and cutting off front lines from the rear thus surrounding enemy.Used coordinated attack on one part of enemy line with airforce, tanks, and artilleryPoland defeated in about a month; partition occurred when USSR attacked from east.Stalin invades Finland (1939) and annexes Estonia, Latvia, & Lithuania (1940) to create a buffer zone, believing Hitler will one day invade Soviet Union

Hitlers Conquests sitzkrieg (Phony War): After Poland, a 7-month lull ensued, causing some to say WWII was a myth. The world waited to see where Hitler might strike next.Spring 1940: Hitler invaded Denmark, Sweden, Norway, Netherlands, Belgium & Luxembourg

The Fall of FranceFall of France, June 1940 occurred in less than six weeksDunkirk: thousands of French and British soldiers trapped on beaches of FranceBefore Germans came in for the kill, thousands were rescued by armada of British vesselsVichy France: Hitler did not wish to waste time subduing all of FrancePuppet gov't created in southern France Free French led by General Charles De Gaulle, General Charles De Gaulle, who fled to Britain.DeGaulle

The Battle of BritainBattle of Britain: one of most critical battles of the warHitler sought to soften Britain up for an invasion ("Operation Sealion")Luftwaffe (led by Herman Goering, one of Hitler's inner circle) sent to destroy Royal Air Force (RAF)Winston Churchill emerged as inspirational war leader of Britain.Churchill

The Battle of BritainAfter almost defeating RAF, Hitler ordered bombing of London: fatal errorRAF and their Spitfire fighters recovered and ultimately defeated Luftwaffe: Hitler forced to call off invasion of BritainSignificance: Hitler had to guard against a future two-front war; (D-Day launched from Britain)

The Battle of the AtlanticGerman U-Boats were an effective weapon against the British.The British depended upon their fleet and their trade connections to feed their people.German U-Boats sank thousands of allied shipping in 1940-41.

War in North AfricaItaly invaded British Egypt in Sept. 1940 and were repelled; the British took control of Italys East Africa possessions.Hitler dispatched the Afrika Korps under Field Marshal Erwin Rommel, the Desert Fox to aid the Italians.The Germans renewed their advance into Egypt, meeting British General Bernard Montgomery.Rommel

Invasion of the Soviet UnionGerman invasion of Soviet Union, Operation Barbarossa, June 1941: Hitler's attempt at "lebensraum""Scorched Earth": Soviets destroyed anything of value as they withdrew to deprive German army of resources; 1,000's of towns disappeared!By winter, Germans at the gates of Moscow; lay siege to Leningrad in the North (lasted two years) and Stalingrad in the south.In Soviet Union, WWII became known as Great Patriotic War of the Fatherland

The Holocaust Holocaust resulted in deaths of 6 million Jews and 6 million othersHitler's "Final Solution" to the Jewish problemFormal plan came at Wanasee Conference in 1942Six death camps built in Poland in addition to hundreds of concentration camps.Auschwitz was most notorious camp.Auschwitz

The Atlantic CharterChurchill and FDR meet secretly after invasion of Soviet UnionDecide once Axis Powers defeated, there would be no territorial changes contrary to the wishes inhabitants (self-determination)Called for a permanent system of general security: later became the United NationsStalin endorsed the agreement soon thereafter

U.S. NeutralityNeutrality Acts in 1930s prevented FDR from drawing U.S. into the conflict earlier.In general, a mood if isolationism prevailed in the United States, leading the U.S. to stay out of the conflict.Lend-Lease Act (1941) gave large amounts of money and supplies to help Britain and Soviets; effectively ended U.S. neutrality.

U.S EntryJapanese attack on Pearl Harbor, Dec. 7, 1941, resulted in U.S. entry into the warHitler declared war on U.S.: (another fatal blunder!) Instead of focusing on Japan, U.S. (along with Britain) would instead focus on defeating Germany first.The Grand Alliance formed in 1942: Britain, Soviet Union and U.S. and 2 dozen other countries

The Soviet CounterattackThe Germans pushed toward the oil rich Caucasus region.Stalingrad was the key. Dec. 1942: first Nazi defeat on land; Sixth army surrenders. Soviets began the 2.5 year campaign of pushing the German army back to Berlin.By the end of 1943, the Russians had taken back 2/3 of Soviet Territory.

War Diplomacy Casablanca Conference,1943 FDR and Churchill declared a policy of unconditional surrender for all enemiesItaly would be invaded first before opening 2nd Front in France (to Stalin's dismay) Moscow Conference: 1943: US obtained Soviet agreement to enter the war against Japan after Germany was defeated and to participate in a world organization after the war was over.

Tehran Conference, 1943 First meeting of the Big Three: Roosevelt, Churchill, StalinAllies agreed to an invasion of the Western Europe in 1944.Stalin reaffirmed the Soviet commitment to enter the war against Japan

Tehran Conference, 1943Stalin insisted on Soviet control of Eastern Europe and the carving up of GermanyChurchill demanded free governments in Eastern Europe and a strong Germany after the war to preserve a balance of power in Europe.Roosevelt acted as a mediator and believed he could work with Stalin to achieve a post-world peace within the construct of the United Nations.

The MediterraneanOperation Torch, 1943: U.S. and British forces landed on North AfricaEl Alamein: British under Bernard Montgomery (Monty) drove the German Afrika Corps and General Erwin Rommel (The Desert Fox)out of EgyptGermany eventually defeated and suffered mass casualties and surrenders.Invasion of Sicily and Italy began in 1943

Allied Air CampaignIn 1944, the Allies began a directed aerial bombing campaign against Germany.American air crews specialized in daylight precision bombing, while the British conducted nighttime raids.During the following two years, German industry, railroads, and cities were destroyed.

Invasion of Western EuropeD-Day, Operation Overlord, June 6, 1944: invasion of Normandy (northern French coast) by American, British, Canadian, and other allied forces under he command of Gen. Dwight Eisenhower.Western front established; spelled end of Nazi domination of Europe; Paris liberated in August.Hitler now fighting on three fronts: east against Russians, west against U.S. and Britain (& France) and Italy against U.S. and Britain

Allied Victories in the WestBattle of the Bulge, Dec. 1944: Hitler's last gasp offensive to drive Allies away from western German border; after it failed, Allies quickly penetrated deep into Germany in 1945.

Ending the WarV-E Day, May 8, 1945: Germany surrenders (Hitler committed suicide a few days earlier)End of the war against Japan: U.S. dropped atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki, Russia invades Manchuria

Results of World War IIAbout 55 million dead (including missing); 22 million in USSR alone.Holocaust resulted in deaths of 6 million Jews and 6 million others.Millions homeless and millions relocated (especially Germans living outside Germany)Much of Europe lay in ruins: would take years to rebuild economyWomen played even larger role in the war economy than in WWI (gained more rights after war)The U.S. and Soviet Union emerged as the two dominant powers in the postwar world.

Roots of the Cold War Teheran Conference, 1943: USSR guaranteed to be only power to liberate Eastern EuropeYalta Conference, 1945: Stalin pledged to allow democratic elections in E. Europe (but later reneged)Germany would be divided into four zones controlled by U.S., France, Britain and USSRAfter war, Soviets dominated their zone and did not allow reunification of Germany

Securing the PeaceYalta Conference, 1945: "Big Three" met againStalin agreed to enter Pacific war within 3 months after Germany surrenderedStalin agreed to a Declaration of Liberated Europe which called for free elections.Called for United Nations to meet in U.S. beginning in April 1945Soviets would have 3 votes in General AssemblyU.S., Britain, USSR, France & China to be permanent members of Security Council.Germany to be divided into occupied zones and a coalition government of communists and non-communists was agreed to for Poland.U.S.S.R. allowed to keep its pre-1939 territory.FDR accepted Soviet control of Outer Mongolia, the Kurile Islands, the southern half of Sakhalin Island, Port Arthur (Darien), and partial operation of the Manchurian railroads.

Securing the PeacePotsdam Conference, July 1945: Stalin, Harry Truman and Clement AtleeIssued warning to Japan of unconditional surrender or face utter devastationStalin reversed his position on eastern Europe stating there would be no free electionsApprovals given to concept of war-crimes trials and the demilitarization and denazification of Germany.Reparations from Germany could be taken from each respective zone.During conference Truman ordered dropping of atomic bomb on Japan

International CooperationFollowing the war, nations met in San Francisco to sign the United Nations Charter (building upon the Atlantic Charter) and the UN was established in New York.In 1945, the Nuremberg war crimes trials began, trying the Nazi leaders for crimes against humanity.Goering takes the stand

American Perspective Stalin seemed intent on creating "spheres" of influence in Eastern EuropeBroke pledges at Yalta; refused to allow reunification of GermanyChurchhill's "Iron Curtain" speech in 1946 alerted Americans to a future conflict U.S. wanted democracy spread throughout the world with a strong international organization to maintain global peace

Soviet PerspectiveDemocracies traditionally hostile towards communism and the USSRe.g., Archangel expedition during WWI; non-recognition by U.S. until 1933US & Britain did not open western front in Europe early enough; millions of Soviet soldiers were dying fighting the brunt of Nazi armies alone until mid-1944.The US and Britain froze Russia out of the atomic bomb project. US terminated lend-lease to Moscow in May 1945 but gave Britain aid until 1946.Wanted "buffer zone" for the Soviet western border esp. in Poland

Partition of GermanyUSSR, U.S., Britain & France would each occupy a part of Germany but would allow for German reunification once she was no longer a threat.Germany was to pay heavy reparations to USSR in form of agricultural and industrial goods.

Partition of GermanySoviets dominated their Eastern German zoneDid not want revitalized Germany that could once again pose a threat.Stripped E. Germany of much of its resources.U.S. and W. Europeans felt German economy vital to recovery of Europe

Partition of Germany1949, West Germany became an independent country when US, France and Britain gave back each of their zonesFederal Republic of Germany led by Konrad Adenauer1949, East Germany formally established Democratic Republic of Germany led by Walter Ulbricht (1883-1973); communist regime influenced by MoscowKonrad Adenauer

ContainmentBy 1947, US pledged to prevent further spread of communismTruman Doctrine, 1947: U.S. gave aid to Greece and Turkey to defeat communist forces there.Marshall Plan, 1947: Massive aid package to help war-torn Europe recover from the warPurpose: prevent communism from spreading into economically devastated regionsResult: Western and Central Europe recovered economically -- the "economic miracle"Soviets refused to allow U.S. aid to countries in eastern Europe

Containment Berlin Crisis (1948-49): Soviets attempted to remove Allies from Berlin by cutting off accessOne of high tension points of the Cold War; close to World War IIIU.S. instituted a massive airlift; Soviets lifted blockade in 1949

NATONorth Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) formed in 1949Collective security organization consisting of democracies in Europe, U.S. & Canada to prevent against Soviet expansion in Europe.Radio Free Europe & Voice of America set up to send pro-democracy messages to countries behind the "iron curtain"

Eastern BlocCountries in Eastern Europe dominated by Soviet Union after WWIIIncluded Poland, Hungary, Czechoslovakia, East Germany, Rumania, BulgariaCommunist parties of eastern Europe established one-party states by 1948, with help of Red Army and KGB (Soviet secret police).The Warsaw Pact was established in 1955 to counter NATO in west.Only Yugoslavia, led by Marshal Tito, is not dominated by Soviets.Marshall Tito

Eastern BlocPostwar economic recovery in eastern Europe proceeded along Soviet lines.Changes went forward at slow & uneven pace; came to almost a halt by the mid-1960s.Five-year plans in USSR reintroduced to tackle massive economic reconstructionStalin reinstitutes oppressive ruleGreat Patriotic War of the Fatherland had fostered Russian nationalism and a relaxation of dictatorial terror.

Eastern BlocStalins new foe, the U.S., provided an excuse for re-establishing harsh dictatorship.After war, Stalin repressed millions of Soviet citizens living outside Soviet borders when the war ended.Stalin revived many forced labor camp, which had accounted for roughly 1/6 of all new construction in Soviet Union before the warCulture and art were also purged

CzechoslovakiaCzechoslovakia the economic exception in E. Europe: industrialized, strong middle class and industrial working class and experience of political democracy between the wars.During dualist period", President Benes and Foreign minister Jan Masaryk proposed to govern a social democracy while maintaining close voluntary relations with the USSR.In response to Marshall Plan in 1947, Stalin replaced govt in 1948 with 1-party communist rule to prevent nation from courting the West.

Post-War Political and Economic FrameworkBretton Woods Conference (1944): created International Monetary Fund (IMF), World Bank and WTOLay foundations for modern monetary system; based on U.S. dollarIMF (World Bank) designed to loan money to struggling countries to prevent economic crises and anarchy; instrumental in post-war economic boom.United Nations created in 1945.

Western Europe political recoveryEconomic hardship after WWII: scarcity of food, runaway inflation, black marketsMany people believed Europe was finished.Suffering was worst in Germany.Marshall Plan instituted to help recovery.

Political restructuringChristian Democrats inspired by common Christian and European heritage.Rejected authoritarianism & narrow nationalism; had faith in democracy and cooperation.Catholic parties also progressive in nature.Socialists and Communists also emerged with increased power and prestige, especially in France and Italy.Pushed for social change and economic reform with considerable success.Result: social reform and political transformation created foundations for a great European renaissance.

ItalyChristian Democrats gained control in 1946 led by Alcide De Gasperi Socialist influence: social benefits came to equal a large part of the average workers wages

FranceGeneral Charles De Gaulle, inspiring wartime leader of Free French, re-established free and democratic Fourth Republic (resigned in 1949)Catholic party provided some of best postwar leaders e.g. Robert SchumanSocialist influence: large banks, insurance companies, public utilities, coal mines, and the Renault auto company were nationalized by govt.

West Germany1949, Konrad Adenauer began long, highly successful democratic rule.Christian Democrats became West Germanys majority party for a generation

BritainClement Attlee, socialist Labour party leader, defeated Winston Churchill and the Conservatives in 1945 (later returned to power).Attlee moved toward establishment of a welfare state.Many industries nationalized, govt provided each citizen with free medical service and taxed the middle and upper classes more heavily.

The Economic MiracleUnprecedented economic growth in European historyEurope entered period of rapid economic progress lasting into late 1960s.By 1963, western Europe produced more than 2.5 times more than before the war.Causes:Marshall Plan aid helped western Europe begin recovery in 1947Korean War in 1950 stimulated economic activity.Economic growth became a basic objective of all western European governments.Governments accepted Keynesian economics to stimulate their economies.

The Economic MiracleGermany and France were especially successful and influential.In most countries many people willing to work hard for low wages; expanding industries benefited. Increased demand for consumer goods.Many economic barriers eliminated and a large unified market emerged: Common Market.

The Common MarketGerman economic recovery led by finance minister Ludwig ErhardCombined free-market economy & extensive social welfare network inherited from Nazi era.By late 1950s, West Germany had robust economy, full employment, a strong currency and stable prices.

The Common MarketFranceCombined flexible planning and a mixed state and private economy to achieve most rapid economic development in its history.Jean Monnet: economic pragmatist and architect of European unity.France used Marshall Plan aid money and the nationalized banks to funnel money into key industries, several of which were state owned.European Coal and Steal Community in 1958.

European De-ColonizationPostwar era saw total collapse of colonial empires.Between 1947 and 1962, almost every colonial territory gained independence.New nations of Asia and Africa deeply influenced by Western ideas and achievements. CausesModern nationalism and belief in self-determination and racial equality, spread from intellectuals to the masses in virtually every colonial territory after WWI.Decline of European prestige: Japanese victories; destruction of Europe during WWIIAfter 1945, European powers more concerned about rebuilding; let colonies go

IndiaIndia played a key role in decolonization and the end of empire.Indian National Congress: British had no choice but to develop a native political elite that could assist in ruling such huge country.Exposure of young Indians to Western ideas of nationalism, socialism, and democracy led to demands for independence by the early 20th century.Mohandas K. Gandhi: after WWI led independence movement with principle of passive resistance (civil disobedience)Jawaharlal Nehru led Congress party in its push for independence)

IndiaClement Attlee and others in Labour party wished to focus on internal affairs.Lord Louis Mountbatten: appointed to supervise transition of India to independenceDivided India into two nations: India (Hindu) and Pakistan (Muslim)

ChinaAfter WWII (defeat of Japanese invaders) a civil war broke out between communists led by Mao Zedong and Nationalists led by Jiang Jieshi (Chang kai-shek)Mao won the revolution and created a communist country: People's Republic of China

Indo-ChinaAfter Japanese removed after WWII, French tried to reassert control of IndochinaHo Chi Minh led the independence movement in the north1954, defeated French forces at Dien Bien Phu1954,Vietnam was divided into North (communist) and South (pro-Western); civil war resultedU.S. defeated in attempt to prevent communist takeover of South Vietnam; Vietnam unified in 1975

The Middle EastArab nationalists loosely united by opposition to colonialism and migration of Jews to PalestineIsrael and PalestineBalfour Declaration in 1917 indicated Britain favored creation of Jewish national home in Palestineopposed by Saudi Arabia & TransjordanGreat Britain announced its withdrawal from Palestine in 1948.United Nations voted for creation of two states, one Arab and one JewishPalestinians vowed to fight on until state of Israel destroyed or until they established own independent Palestinian state; led to several wars and numerous conflicts in late 20th century

The Middle EastEgyptArab defeat in 1948 by Israel triggered nationalist revolution in Egypt in 1952.1956, Egyptian president Gamal Abdel Nasser nationalized the Suez Canal, the last symbol and substance of Western power in the Middle East.France, Britain and Israel attacked Egypt, trying to take back control of Suez CanalU.S. and Soviet Union demanded their withdrawal and the canal remained in Egypt's control

Middle EastAlgerian Crisis (mid 1950s)Algerias large French population considered Algeria an integral part of France.This feeling led ensuing war; bitter and atypical of decolonization.General De Gaulle, who had returned to power as part of movement to keep Algeria French, accepted principle of Algerian self-determination.1962, after more than a century of French rule, Algeria became independent and the European population quickly fled.Crisis led to fall of the Fourth Republic and beginning of the Fifth Republic

Sub-Saharan AfricaDecolonization proceeded much more smoothly than in northern AfricaBritish Commonwealth of Nations: beginning in 1957, Britains colonies achieved independence with little or no bloodshed; entered a very loose association with Britain.Exception: Mao Mao society were a Kenyan group of terrorists/freedom fighters who fought to end English control of Kenya.

Sub-Saharan Africa1958, De Gaulle offered leaders of French black Africa choice of total break with France or immediate independence within a kind of French commonwealth.All but one of new states chose association with France.Cultural imperialism continued, France and Common Market partners saw themselves as continuing their civilizing mission in black Africa. Desired untapped markets for industrial goods, raw materials, outlets for profitable investment, and good temporary jobs for their engineers and teachers.