worlds within words; the unesco courier: a window open...
TRANSCRIPT
We invite readers to send us
photographs to be consideredfor publication m this feature.Your photo should show a
painting, a sculpture, piece ofarchitecture or any othersubject which seems to be anexannple of cross-fertilizationbetween cultures.Alternatively, you could sendus pictures of two worl<s fromdifferent cultural backgroundsin which you see somestriking connection orresennblance. Please add ashort caption to allphotographs.
1980, wood and horse'steeth (height 80 cm)by Chico Tabibuia
"You ¡earn from books, 1
fearn from dreams," saysChico Tabibuia, a formerwood-cutter who hasbecome one of themasters of contemporaryBrazilian folk art. Thesculpture showrt here,like his other works, firstappeared to him in a
dream. It depicts Exu, adivinity of fertility andthe power of creation in"umbanda", an Afro-Brazilian cult. TheBrazilian museologistPaulo Pardal, whodiscovered Tabibuia andhas encouraged his work,sees in his sculptures "theunconscious presence ofage~old universal myths."
4 iNmmwwiTH
Yves Coppens r «iKentsFEBRHARY IM4
WORLPS
WITHIN WORDS
41 UNESCO IN ACTIONNEWSBRIEFS
44 UNESCO IN ACTION- ARCHIVES
The way to coexistencefc/ Arnold Toynbee
46 UNESCO IN ACTIONHERITAGE
The royal palacesof Abemeyby]asmma Sopova
49 RECENT RECORDINGSby kabelte Leymaríe
50 LETTERSTO THE EDITOR
i 0 The 9iH of tongues
by Stephet) Wurm
1 6 Babel revisitedby Peter Mühlhäusler
1 1 Nigeria's ciioiceby Ayo Bamgbose
3 1 Language death in Siberiaby Vladimir Belikov
3 1 The chicken and the banana
38 Of gifts and gaffesbyjia Tlan
Cover:L'arc du verbe (1993), a computer-
generated image specially produced by
Ezéchiel Saad for this issue.
Languages are visualized as waves ofcolour propagating thought through
the universe.
Greenwatch
41COHHEMÏARY
by Federico Mayor
TÏÏÏÏT '^'NESCO
OURIER47th year Publahed monthlyin 32 lar\guages ond in Braille
"The Governments of the States parties to this Constitution on behalf of their peoples declare,"that since wars begin in the minds of men, it is in the minds of men that the defences of peace must be constructed . . .
"that a peace based exclusively upon the political and economic arrangements of governments »rould not be a peace which could secure theunanimous, lasting and sincere support of the peoples of the world, and that the peace must therefore be founded, if it is not to fail, upon theintelleaual and moral solidarity of manl<ind.
"For these reasons, the States parties ... are agreed and determined to develop and to increase the means of communication between their peoplesand to employ these means for the purposes of mutual understanding and a truer and more perfect knowledge of each odicr's lives. . . ."
£XTfMaf/!0A1 7H£ PREAMBLE TO THE C0NS7ÍTUTÍ0N OF UNESCO, LONÛON, (6 NOVU^BER 1945
INTERVIEW
YVES COPPENStalks toFrancis Leary
A palaeontologist of international reputation, Yves Coppens
is professor of paleoanthropology and prehistory at the Collège de
France (Paris). He has carried out extensive fieldwork which has led to thediscovery of many fossil hominids and the oldest known manufactured
stone tools (over three million years old). He has also constructedmodels to explain the origin of hominids (eight million years ago), and the
origins of Man (three million years ago), as well as a culturalmodel to explain the evolution of thought
Among his recent publications are: Préambules, Les premiers pas de
l'Homme (1988); Le rêve de Lucy (1990, in collaboration with Pierre Pelotand Tanino Liberatore); and "The Origin and Evolution of Man", which
appeared in From the Stars to Thought, no. 155 of DIOGENES, thequarterly review of the International Council of Philosophy and Humanistic
Studies (published with Unesco support by Berg Publishers, Providence,U.SA, and Oxford, U.K).
Gauguinpaintedafamous triptych that
depicted naked dream figures of Tahitian
women together with animals anda native
goddess. He made this brilliant fantasy ofcolour and imagery a haunting symbol ofthe human situation by entitling it: "Where
do we comefrom ? Who are wef Where are
we going?" Could we say that Gauguin's
questions summarize the goals of anthro¬
pological investigation ?
Absolutely. They were probably also
the first three questions that occurred to
man's earliest conscious mind, what some
recent philosophers have termed "existen¬
tial anguish". This triptych by Gauguin is
so symbolic of these basic questions in our
field that I used it on the cover of a volume
in the series of scientific publicationsFRANCIS LEARYis an American writer and journalist
entitled Les Cahiers de Paléoanthropologie,
which I have edited for fifteen years.
Dinosaurs are a subject ofgreatpopular
interest, these monsters that roamed the
Earth 220 million years ago, persisting
through theJurassic and Cretacious before
disappearing about 70 million years ago.
Various explanations have been advanced
for the extinction ofthe dinosaurs. What is
your viewfThe problem of massive extinction of
species is linked to the different episodes of
Earth's history, such as expansion and con¬
traction of the seas. During the last 500
million years, thirty-five such extinctions
have been known. This means that the
extinction of the dinosaurs, with that of
certain molluscs at the same time, is not an
exception. The meteorite theory of the
"Death Star" crashing into Earth is for me
a romance as big as some dinosaurs! For
cosmic reasons, the position of the Earth
on its parallax and consecutive alterations
of climate mean that the history of life
consists of successive periods of expan¬
sion alternating with periods of slow
decrease or even a quite rapid extinction of
species.
Is it not possible that the very size ofthese monsters has influenced theories con¬
cerning their extinction? Afierce carnivore
such as Tyrannosaurus Rex, 15 metres
*L
INTERVIEW
YVES COPPENStalks toFrancis Leary
A palaeontologist of international reputation, Yves Coppens
is professor of paleoanthropology and prehistory at the Collège de
France (Paris). He has carried out extensive fieldwork which has led to thediscovery of many fossil hominids and the oldest known manufactured
stone tools (over three million years old). He has also constructedmodels to explain the origin of hominids (eight million years ago), and the
origins of Man (three million years ago), as well as a culturalmodel to explain the evolution of thought
Among his recent publications are: Préambules, Les premiers pas de
l'Homme (1988); Le rêve de Lucy (1990, in collaboration with Pierre Pelotand Tanino Liberatore); and "The Origin and Evolution of Man", which
appeared in From the Stars to Thought, no. 155 of DIOGENES, thequarterly review of the International Council of Philosophy and Humanistic
Studies (published with Unesco support by Berg Publishers, Providence,U.SA, and Oxford, U.K).
Gauguinpaintedafamous triptych that
depicted naked dream figures of Tahitian
women together with animals anda native
goddess. He made this brilliant fantasy ofcolour and imagery a haunting symbol ofthe human situation by entitling it: "Where
do we comefrom ? Who are wef Where are
we going?" Could we say that Gauguin's
questions summarize the goals of anthro¬
pological investigation ?
Absolutely. They were probably also
the first three questions that occurred to
man's earliest conscious mind, what some
recent philosophers have termed "existen¬
tial anguish". This triptych by Gauguin is
so symbolic of these basic questions in our
field that I used it on the cover of a volume
in the series of scientific publicationsFRANCIS LEARYis an American writer and journalist
entitled Les Cahiers de Paléoanthropologie,
which I have edited for fifteen years.
Dinosaurs are a subject ofgreatpopular
interest, these monsters that roamed the
Earth 220 million years ago, persisting
through theJurassic and Cretacious before
disappearing about 70 million years ago.
Various explanations have been advanced
for the extinction ofthe dinosaurs. What is
your viewfThe problem of massive extinction of
species is linked to the different episodes of
Earth's history, such as expansion and con¬
traction of the seas. During the last 500
million years, thirty-five such extinctions
have been known. This means that the
extinction of the dinosaurs, with that of
certain molluscs at the same time, is not an
exception. The meteorite theory of the
"Death Star" crashing into Earth is for me
a romance as big as some dinosaurs! For
cosmic reasons, the position of the Earth
on its parallax and consecutive alterations
of climate mean that the history of life
consists of successive periods of expan¬
sion alternating with periods of slow
decrease or even a quite rapid extinction of
species.
Is it not possible that the very size ofthese monsters has influenced theories con¬
cerning their extinction? Afierce carnivore
such as Tyrannosaurus Rex, 15 metres
*L
long, couldn 'tjust quietlyfade away. Surely
some great catastrophe was neededfor its
exit?
I think that you are right. The extinction
of the invertebrates called trilobites 200
million years before, or the disappearance
of the beautiful molluscs, the ammonites,
at the same time as the dinosaurs, have not
inspired such romantic theories.
Are the birds we see today descended
from dinosaurs?
Definitely, yes. The earliest birds known,
the Archaeopteryx, of the UpperJurassic,
were very like dinosaurs, with anatomical
similarities, such as teeth and long savage
claws, to the small dinosaur, Deinonychus,
discovered by Dr. John Ostrom of Yale in
1964. Archaeopteryx, however, was also
warm-blooded, with feathers for insula¬
tion, like birds.
To get the time-scale ofMan 's origins
intofocus, true apes, the very remote ances¬
tors of Man, emerged about 20 millionyears ago. Afterseveralmillion more years,
the line ofprimates split, giving rise to
apes such as chimps and gorillas on the
one handandhominids on the other. What
brought about this split, without whichwe wouldneverhave existed, at least in our
presentform?
After fifteen years of digging in East
Africa between 1963 and 1978, 1 was sur¬
prised not to have collected any fossil rem¬
nants of chimps or pre-chimps and gorillas
or pre-gorillas among hundreds of thou- I
sands of fossil vertebrates distributed along 1
geological levels dating from eight to one j
million years. In contrast, I found in these j
sites hundreds of hominid remains. As i
molecular biologists and geneticists were j
then claiming that the African apes were j
obviously Man's closest relatives as far as \
the genetic card and proteins were con- Í
cerned, that is, chimps and gorillas were j
cousins and we shared with them common í
ancestors, I thought it interesting to try |
to solve this curious enigma. The African i
apes and ourselves were cousins, yet in the j
field were never found together. )
In 1982, 1 suggested at a conference in I
Rome and subsequently in other places j
and in many papers a model to explain this j
There is a good possibility
that Man had an Australopithecus as
progenitor. But which one? It's not yet
known for sure.
: apparent discrepancy, a model that I called
i "The East Side Story". Just before the split
occurred between apes and hominids, eight
million years ago, our common ancestors
: were living all across Equatorial Africa,
from the Atlantic to the Indian Ocean, in
very low-lying humid country, covered
with a dense forest and wooded areas.
A tectonic event intervened. The RiftValley sank 4,000 metres, while its
; périmètre thrust up 4,000 metres, forming
a barrier between west and east. This had
: important ecological consequences. Cutoff from the east, the western region
; between the Rift and the Atlantic remained
\ humid and wooded, while the eastern area
; between the Rift and the Indian Ocean
. became open country, much less humid
: and only seasonally watered by the new¬
born system of monsoons.
Our common ancestors, the apes, were
'- divided into a large western group and a
small eastern one. The western apes, in
; their forested niche, could have been ances-
\ tors of chimps and gorillas, while the
' eastern apes, having to adapt to the new
: open grasslands, could very well have been
the precursors of hominids, Australop-
; ithecus and Homo in succession.
: So that's how our ancestors got down
from the trees.
: They got down because they had to!
i With the trees disappearing, they had no
: choice.
Thefossil skeleton ofafemale was dis¬
covered in the Afar Valley ofEthiopia in1974. Dating from about three millionyears, this skeleton was more complete
than that of any previous find. She was
christened "Lucy", after the Beatles' song
Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds. Can
you discuss this Afar expedition and its
significance forpalaeontology?
The Afar palaeontological sites were
found by a French geologist, Maurice
Taieb, in the 1960s. As I knew him well, I
was the first to be consulted and I gave
him the approximate geological age of these
sites, according to the determination ofthe fossil remains collected, which was
two to three million years.
In 1972, Taieb organized an expedi¬
tion under international leadership: two
French scientists, Taieb and myself, and
two Americans, Don Johanson and Jon
Kalb, which constituted the International
Afar Research Expedition. We conducted
five field campaigns over a period of six
years. The chief discovery was that of Lucy,
an Australopithecus about three millionyears old. It was the first time that such a
complete skeleton from that epoch had
been found and we could as never before
get a good idea of the size of the specimen,
the proportions and how the jointsworked.
In my own lab, I had ten theses done on
this analysis, each one over three years; in
other words a total of thirty years trying to
understand Lucy's behaviour! We finallycreated the extraordinary picture of a pre¬
human female, probably twenty years old,
between 1 metre and lm. 20 in height and
weighing 20-25 kilos, with long arms and
short legs. She ate fruit, roots and tubers
and may have had primitive stone tools.
She stood erect and walked as a biped but
with short steps, rolling her shoulders and
hips. With her flat feet and prehensile big
toe, the curved phalanges of her hands and
feet, she was still climbing trees.
Where would you place Lucy in our
family tree?
Lucy was probably a cousin butdescended anyway from one species ofAustralopithecus to which we gave the sci¬
entific name Australopithecus afarensis,
which also became the genus Homo that
appeared in East Africa three million years
ago. This appearance was linked to another
environmental event that I had discovered
in 1970 in the sediment of the Omo River
Valley, in southern Ethiopia. That's why,
making a pun, I called it the (H)OMOevent.
Between 3.3 million and 2.4 millionyears ago, an important climatic crisis
occurred a prolonged drought. The
number of trees drastically decreased, as we
know from fossils contained in geological
levels of three million to two million years.
The entire fauna altered, trying to adapt to
the changed environment. For hominids,
the genus Homo, with a much larger brain,
was the solution. Poor Lucy had a brain ofonly 340 cc, while Homo's brain was 800
cc. Homo was also equipped with a denti¬
tion adapted to a much more varied diet
than that oí Australopithecus.
In 1972 the Kenyan anthropologistRichardLeakey discovered on the shores ofLake Turkana in Kenya some hominidfossils datingfrom about two million years.
There is a good possibility
that Man had an Australopithecus as
progenitor. But which one? It's not yet
known for sure.
: apparent discrepancy, a model that I called
i "The East Side Story". Just before the split
occurred between apes and hominids, eight
million years ago, our common ancestors
: were living all across Equatorial Africa,
from the Atlantic to the Indian Ocean, in
very low-lying humid country, covered
with a dense forest and wooded areas.
A tectonic event intervened. The RiftValley sank 4,000 metres, while its
; périmètre thrust up 4,000 metres, forming
a barrier between west and east. This had
: important ecological consequences. Cutoff from the east, the western region
; between the Rift and the Atlantic remained
\ humid and wooded, while the eastern area
; between the Rift and the Indian Ocean
. became open country, much less humid
: and only seasonally watered by the new¬
born system of monsoons.
Our common ancestors, the apes, were
'- divided into a large western group and a
small eastern one. The western apes, in
; their forested niche, could have been ances-
\ tors of chimps and gorillas, while the
' eastern apes, having to adapt to the new
: open grasslands, could very well have been
the precursors of hominids, Australop-
; ithecus and Homo in succession.
: So that's how our ancestors got down
from the trees.
: They got down because they had to!
i With the trees disappearing, they had no
: choice.
Thefossil skeleton ofafemale was dis¬
covered in the Afar Valley ofEthiopia in1974. Dating from about three millionyears, this skeleton was more complete
than that of any previous find. She was
christened "Lucy", after the Beatles' song
Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds. Can
you discuss this Afar expedition and its
significance forpalaeontology?
The Afar palaeontological sites were
found by a French geologist, Maurice
Taieb, in the 1960s. As I knew him well, I
was the first to be consulted and I gave
him the approximate geological age of these
sites, according to the determination ofthe fossil remains collected, which was
two to three million years.
In 1972, Taieb organized an expedi¬
tion under international leadership: two
French scientists, Taieb and myself, and
two Americans, Don Johanson and Jon
Kalb, which constituted the International
Afar Research Expedition. We conducted
five field campaigns over a period of six
years. The chief discovery was that of Lucy,
an Australopithecus about three millionyears old. It was the first time that such a
complete skeleton from that epoch had
been found and we could as never before
get a good idea of the size of the specimen,
the proportions and how the jointsworked.
In my own lab, I had ten theses done on
this analysis, each one over three years; in
other words a total of thirty years trying to
understand Lucy's behaviour! We finallycreated the extraordinary picture of a pre¬
human female, probably twenty years old,
between 1 metre and lm. 20 in height and
weighing 20-25 kilos, with long arms and
short legs. She ate fruit, roots and tubers
and may have had primitive stone tools.
She stood erect and walked as a biped but
with short steps, rolling her shoulders and
hips. With her flat feet and prehensile big
toe, the curved phalanges of her hands and
feet, she was still climbing trees.
Where would you place Lucy in our
family tree?
Lucy was probably a cousin butdescended anyway from one species ofAustralopithecus to which we gave the sci¬
entific name Australopithecus afarensis,
which also became the genus Homo that
appeared in East Africa three million years
ago. This appearance was linked to another
environmental event that I had discovered
in 1970 in the sediment of the Omo River
Valley, in southern Ethiopia. That's why,
making a pun, I called it the (H)OMOevent.
Between 3.3 million and 2.4 millionyears ago, an important climatic crisis
occurred a prolonged drought. The
number of trees drastically decreased, as we
know from fossils contained in geological
levels of three million to two million years.
The entire fauna altered, trying to adapt to
the changed environment. For hominids,
the genus Homo, with a much larger brain,
was the solution. Poor Lucy had a brain ofonly 340 cc, while Homo's brain was 800
cc. Homo was also equipped with a denti¬
tion adapted to a much more varied diet
than that oí Australopithecus.
In 1972 the Kenyan anthropologistRichardLeakey discovered on the shores ofLake Turkana in Kenya some hominidfossils datingfrom about two million years.
These hominidshadwalkederect, "with an
easy striding gait like that of modern
humans." Homo habilis could have been
aprogenitor ofMan, with a brain capacity
of 800 cc, or more than half that ofMan
today.
As the earliest men had been found in
East Africa, where the earliest Australop¬
ithecus had also been found; as australop-
ithecines are the beings with the nearest
resemblance to Man; and as the earliest
australopithecines are older than the earliest
men, there is a good possibility that Man
had an Australopithecus as progenitor. But
which one? It's not yet known for sure.
Australopithecines were vegetarians
and only exceptionally carnivores out of
necessity. Because of the climatic crisis of
three million years ago, the Homo (Homo \
habilis) are both vegetarians and meat- \
eaters; thus, they could very well have been !
the first killers, sometimes scavengers but '
hunters as well.
Controversy over whetherMan inher¬
ited an instinct for killing from ancestors ;
millions ofyears agofirst began with Ray- :
mondDart. This South Africanprofessor ofAnatomy concluded that a skullfound in ;
1924 at Taung near the Kalahari Desert I
was that ofan Australopithecus, sixyears
oldandliving three millionyears ago. The
creature walked erect, with a brain the
size ofa gorilla's. The evidence ofthe teeth
convinced Dart that it had been a carni¬
vore. Was he right?
Dart's interpretation of some animal ;
bones that he associated with Australop- ;
ithecus as tools, called by some writers
"Danifacts", was perhaps partly correct. ;
But now it seems more likely that,
according to the analysis of marks on the
occusal surface of their teeth and the
analysis of the tooth morphology, the aus- -
tralopithecines were vegetarians, not car-
nivores.
One day in Antanarivo, Madagascar, I ;
had to give a lecture on the "Taung baby"
and the organizers of the event had the :
idea of making a large poster with the :
restored image of the Australopithecus
infant. Shortly before the lecture, I saw
two Malgache ladies looking at the poster
and one said to the other, "This lecturer
seems really very young!"
NeanderthalMan, whosefossil was dis¬
covered nearDusseldorfin 1856, was said \
to have descendedfrom Australopithecusrobustus, a slow-brained, heavy-jawed,
plant-eating hominid. Hefadedfrom the
picture, the pace a million years ago too
much for him, but was said to have sur- ,
vived in NeanderthalMan, who hadsome- \
what similar characteristics. Hegave way
in turn to Cro-Magnon Man. What hap¬
pened to NeanderthalMan?
Australopithecus robustus is one of the
answers of the hominid family to the
(H)OMO climatic crisis, that is, a new
Australopithecus, heavier, taller and
stronger, with a very peculiar dentition,
tiny front teeth and enormous molars fora quite specialized tough vegetarian diet.
And it now seems to us urn robustus
became extinct one million years ago.
It seems also that the first Homo,
because a bigger brain had made it more
daring and because of an omnivorous diet,
which made it more mobile, was the first to
expand its territory. These adventurers soon
reached the Middle East from East Africa
and then went on to Europe and Asia, grad¬
ually transforming themselves into what
we used to call Homo erectus and Homo
sapiens, which are not in fact true species.
But the successive glaciations of the
quaternary period, covering the Alps and
Scandinavia as well as Germany and
Poland, isolated the first hominid popula¬
tion. In such a case, a genetic drift hap¬
pens to the population. In western Europe,
Homo habilis became Homo erectus as
elsewhere, but a particular Homo erectus,
already with some Neanderthal features,
and this Homo erectus became Homosapiens as elsewhere, but a very distinc¬
tive Homo sapiens that we call Homosapiens Neanderthalensis.
So Neanderthal Man is not the descen¬
dant of robustus but is what Homo became
in an island called western Europe. Thisgenetic drift only came to a stop between
30 and 40,000 years ago, when Homosapiens sapiens came from the Middle East
to Western Europe. Otherwise, the Nean¬
derthal phenomenon could have given
birth to a new Humanity, unable to inter¬
breed anymore with the other one, that is,
with Cro-Magnon Man.
Darwin 's thesis ofthe "survival ofthe
fittest" has often been used to justify a
claim to the superiority of white people
over others, blacks and Amerindians, forexample. What do you think about this?
Every scientist, in any discipline, has,
like any layman, more or less preconceived
ideas. Everything is all right as long as such
ideas are just working hypotheses. If these
hypotheses are confirmed, it's fine, but ifthey are not, the true scientist must forget
them and change his thinking. That's the
way to recognize a good scientist.
Darwin was an outstanding scientist,
with particularly clear and synthesizing
concepts, but he was quite wrong when he
tried to apply, without any correction, his
conclusions obtained from plants or ani-
mais to Man and human societies. He
forgot that Culture interfered, bringingliberty and responsibility while dramati¬
cally changing the rules.
On entering the Paris Musée de
l'Homme, ofwhich you wereformerly the
director, a large sign tells one to leave "Cul¬
ture" in the cloakroom and concentrate
on the universal biological affinity ofhumankind. Yet, as we may see every day
on TV, people can be violently aroused by
bothphysicalandcultural differences, pro¬
ducing outbursts ofrage and hatred.
It's true that there are differences
between people and it's true that people are
often divided by economic, territorial and
religious rivalries, causing violent behav¬
iour. But it's also true that these differ¬
ences are essentially superficial. We are all
Homo sapiens sapiens and share the same
genetic characteristics, separating us from
the apes.
Somepeople have seized upon discov¬
eries in anthropology as demonstrations
ofdivine intervention, on thegrounds that
no scientist has been able to explain fullythe development ofthe human mind, withall its complexities andachievements. Howdoes one accountforMan 's unique stature
in the animal kingdom?
The invention of the first stone tools
was an essential stage in Evolution, the
introduction of culture in Nature. My own
expedition in southern Ethiopia found the
earliest tools, 3.3 million years old. Afterthe natural environment has prevailed forfour billion years, suddenly, three millionyears ago, a new environment is created bya hominid. This changes everythingbecause Man will respond to the sollicita¬
tions of the natural environment faster
than Nature, adapting to them before
biology does. Thus, biological evolution
will decrease and finally stop.
Man is the only animal to have
"chosen" to develop his nervous system
at this level for his adaptation.
The quest for an explanation beyond
Evolution, born of consciousness and the
effort to reduce the "angoisse existentielle",
is outside the realm of science. The end ofour scientific research is to describe the
world through its history; to find an expla¬
nation of how it works. And the natural
explanation cannot solve the supernatural
question.
Every step in the history of life has
been extraordinary the origin of life itself,
only known for a brief hour in palaeonto-
logical time, the appearance of pericel¬
lular beings and of sexuality, the respiration
of air, the development of vision, ofthought, of speech, the invention of culture.
Thanks to prehistorical studies, we know
about the intermediate steps between the
first tool-maker and Cro-Magnon, as well
as, for example, those between Cro-Magnon and the civilization of Sumer and
Akkad.
Man is the only animal to have
"chosen" to develop his nervous system at
this level for his adaptation. Other ani¬
mals have chosen the transformation oftheir limbs in order to run faster or of their
teeth to improve their diet. A scientific
answer would be: confronted by such an
environmental event, it so happened that
Man adapted to the new conditions by the
development of a big brain, but it might
just as well have been the horse. A philo
sophical response would be: this event
occurred in this area and not elsewhere
and at that time and not at another time and
Man was the member of the animal
kingdom who developed his brain.
Can human nature be so modifiedas to
prevent the extinction ofour race by all-out
war, by the destruction ofourfragile envi¬
ronment, or by runaway demographic
problems?
I must say that I am optimistic. Since the
emergence of consciousness about three
million years ago, humanity has developed
knowledge of itself and of its environment,
losing its primeval instincts and gaining
its liberty. Though formidable individual or
collective problems remain, the way we
are organizing answers to these problems
is very impressive.
Overall, humanity is becoming a
thinking, rational and organized society,
aware of its responsibilities. But it is not
easy: over three million years we have had
to learn to deal with hundreds of thou¬
sands of people, then with millions. Nowwe have to cope with billions. Education,
the acquisition of more knowledge, the
colonization of our solar system and, in the
distant future, of other systems will bring
us to a better understanding of our world,better control of ourselves and of ourplanet and an increase in freedom.
mais to Man and human societies. He
forgot that Culture interfered, bringingliberty and responsibility while dramati¬
cally changing the rules.
On entering the Paris Musée de
l'Homme, ofwhich you wereformerly the
director, a large sign tells one to leave "Cul¬
ture" in the cloakroom and concentrate
on the universal biological affinity ofhumankind. Yet, as we may see every day
on TV, people can be violently aroused by
bothphysicalandcultural differences, pro¬
ducing outbursts ofrage and hatred.
It's true that there are differences
between people and it's true that people are
often divided by economic, territorial and
religious rivalries, causing violent behav¬
iour. But it's also true that these differ¬
ences are essentially superficial. We are all
Homo sapiens sapiens and share the same
genetic characteristics, separating us from
the apes.
Somepeople have seized upon discov¬
eries in anthropology as demonstrations
ofdivine intervention, on thegrounds that
no scientist has been able to explain fullythe development ofthe human mind, withall its complexities andachievements. Howdoes one accountforMan 's unique stature
in the animal kingdom?
The invention of the first stone tools
was an essential stage in Evolution, the
introduction of culture in Nature. My own
expedition in southern Ethiopia found the
earliest tools, 3.3 million years old. Afterthe natural environment has prevailed forfour billion years, suddenly, three millionyears ago, a new environment is created bya hominid. This changes everythingbecause Man will respond to the sollicita¬
tions of the natural environment faster
than Nature, adapting to them before
biology does. Thus, biological evolution
will decrease and finally stop.
Man is the only animal to have
"chosen" to develop his nervous system
at this level for his adaptation.
The quest for an explanation beyond
Evolution, born of consciousness and the
effort to reduce the "angoisse existentielle",
is outside the realm of science. The end ofour scientific research is to describe the
world through its history; to find an expla¬
nation of how it works. And the natural
explanation cannot solve the supernatural
question.
Every step in the history of life has
been extraordinary the origin of life itself,
only known for a brief hour in palaeonto-
logical time, the appearance of pericel¬
lular beings and of sexuality, the respiration
of air, the development of vision, ofthought, of speech, the invention of culture.
Thanks to prehistorical studies, we know
about the intermediate steps between the
first tool-maker and Cro-Magnon, as well
as, for example, those between Cro-Magnon and the civilization of Sumer and
Akkad.
Man is the only animal to have
"chosen" to develop his nervous system at
this level for his adaptation. Other ani¬
mals have chosen the transformation oftheir limbs in order to run faster or of their
teeth to improve their diet. A scientific
answer would be: confronted by such an
environmental event, it so happened that
Man adapted to the new conditions by the
development of a big brain, but it might
just as well have been the horse. A philo
sophical response would be: this event
occurred in this area and not elsewhere
and at that time and not at another time and
Man was the member of the animal
kingdom who developed his brain.
Can human nature be so modifiedas to
prevent the extinction ofour race by all-out
war, by the destruction ofourfragile envi¬
ronment, or by runaway demographic
problems?
I must say that I am optimistic. Since the
emergence of consciousness about three
million years ago, humanity has developed
knowledge of itself and of its environment,
losing its primeval instincts and gaining
its liberty. Though formidable individual or
collective problems remain, the way we
are organizing answers to these problems
is very impressive.
Overall, humanity is becoming a
thinking, rational and organized society,
aware of its responsibilities. But it is not
easy: over three million years we have had
to learn to deal with hundreds of thou¬
sands of people, then with millions. Nowwe have to cope with billions. Education,
the acquisition of more knowledge, the
colonization of our solar system and, in the
distant future, of other systems will bring
us to a better understanding of our world,better control of ourselves and of ourplanet and an increase in freedom.
THE GIFT OF TONGUßby Stephen Wurm
=SEr5=^^
lO
STEPHEN WURM,of Australia, is Professor ofLinguistics in the ResearchSchool of Pacific Studies of theAustralian National Universityin Canberra. Among his 300publications are Papuan
Languages of Oceania ( 1 982),Language Atlas ofthe Pacific Area(1981-1983) and Language At/as
of China (1987-1990).
NORE than 5,000 different languages are
currently spoken in the world, with a
very much larger number of dialects.Many of them are mutually unintelligible orvirtually so, and are spoken by small groups ofpeople.
The need for communication across lin¬guistic and cultural boundaries which has
become even more pressing and widespread inrecent decades as a result of dramatic increasesin the movements of people in many parts of theworld can be met in a number of differentways. One common method is for speakers oftwo different languages that are used adjacentlyto each other to learn to speak, at least to someextent, the language of their neighbours. This is
called active two-way bilingualism. If only one
of two groups that speak different languageslearns the language of its neighbours, this is
called active one-way bilingualism. For instance,
if two neighbouring groups live near theseashore but only one of them has access to thesea and possesses a commodity such as salt orfish that the other group is eager to acquire, thesellers of such commodities are in an economi¬cally more powerful position than the potentialbuyers, and their language takes precedenceover that of the inland tribe when contact occurs.
Ambassadors and negotiatorsOne interesting case of bilingualism has beenobserved among certain traditionally hostiletribes in Papua New Guinea who speak dif¬ferent languages but need to communicate with
each other in order to settle disputes. Thesetribes customarily exchange children who thenlearn the language of the tribe that has adoptedthem, in addition to their own. Afterwards,they act as ambassadors and interpreters, helpingto negotiate settlements or other matters arisingfrom tribal disputes. Their safety is ensured bystrict laws on both sides.
Members of very small language communi¬ties which are surrounded by larger linguisticgroups usually learn to speak several of theirneighbours' languages. Such people may play an
important cultural role as interpreters, nego¬
tiators and intermediaries.Another solution to the intercommunication
problem occurs when the speakers of two orseveral closely related neighbouring languages
Above, a dancer oftheTrobriand Islands (Papua
New Guinea) during a
festivity associated withthe kula, a ceremonial
form of economicexchange.
Opposite page, the leaderof a village community at
Ccatca in the departmentof Cuzco (Peru) holding his
silver-tipped staff of office.
I I
learn to understand, but not to speak, theirneighbours' languages. Participants in such sit¬
uations speak their own language and are under¬
stood by all their communication partners, andvice versa. This is called passive bilingualism orpassive multilingualism. It is especially commonbetween speakers of different Turkic or Mon¬golian languages in Central Asia, but is alsofound in parts of Africa and New Guinea.
Lingua francasThe cases mentioned so far involve languages
that are native to at least one of the communi
cating groups. However, there are many situa¬
tions in which languages not native to any of thespeakers are used as a means of intercommuni¬cation. They occur frequently between speakers
of European and non-European metropolitanlanguages, such as when a Frenchman, a Nor¬wegian, a Hungarian and a Japanese communi¬cate with each other in English. Such a contactlanguage used for wider communication is called
a lingua franca.There are many of these languages in the
world, and they achieve their status for a varietyof reasons, one of which may be that their
It
Left, sports day at a
school in a Paris suburb.
Opposite page, villagers
wall< to the fields on theisland of Java (Indonesia).
speakers possess some appealing cultural features
or achieve cultural or political supremacy, whichmakes their language prestigious in the eyes ofspeakers of other languages. Many of thememerge as a result of trading relations in whichthe speakers of a given language take their waresfar and wide for sale, and use only their own lan¬
guage, which their customers have to learn, atleast rudimentarily, in order to trade with them.Examples of such traders' lingua francas areKiswahili in East Africa, Bazaar Malay in theEast Indies (though it is now receding beforeIndonesian), and several trade languages in theNew Guinea area. In centuries past, Iranian lan¬
guages such as Sogdian and Middle Persian, andlater Modern Persian, were used as trade linguafrancas on the silk route across Asia.
ridgin languagesThe majority of such trade lingua francasbecome simplified when used as such, but theycontinue in their original full form within thecommunities that use them as their nativetongues. Some trade languages have becomepidgin languages, that is languages that aresharply reduced in their grammatical complexityand vocabulary. Examples include a Russian-Chinese pidgin used in the Chinese-Russian
border areas in Siberia from the eighteenth to thetwentieth centuries, a number of pidgins devel¬
oped from local indigenous languages in parts ofNew Guinea before the time of European con¬
tacts, and an Inuit pidgin used between Inuit andAlaskan Indians in northern Alaska during thenineteenth century.
A more common way for a pidgin languageto emerge is as a means of communication whenrepresentatives of a metropolitan culture estab¬
lish a colonial-type rule over indigenous popu¬lations. Quite often, however, such tonguesbecome lingua francas that permit wider inter¬communication between speakers of differentlocal languages. This is especially true in areas inwhich many different tongues are spoken, as is
the case in Papua New Guinea, and parts ofAfrica, northern Siberia and South America.The grammars and sound structures of thesepidgins reflect, in varying degrees, features ofthelanguage or languages of the local indigenouspopulation, while their vocabularies are usu¬
ally, but not always, based on the metropolitanlanguage with an admixture of indigenous ele¬
ments. Most such pidgins, where they are stillspoken, have become the first language of com¬munities, replacing their original native lan¬guages. Such languages are called creóles. 13
There are, however, some parts of the worldin which very prominent and widely-usedpidgin languages have not, or have only to a
very limited extent, replaced local languages.These areas include New Guinea and regionsadjacent to it, where several large pidgin lan¬
guages play very important roles because of theenormous multiplicity and diversity of the localtongues. Nevertheless, the indigenous popula¬tions adhere tenaciously to their native lan¬
guages, which are their most cherished sym¬
bols of cultural and ethnic identity.Many pidgin languages that are in close con¬
tact with the metropolitan languages on whichmuch of their vocabulary is based tend to grad¬
ually approximate to that language in bothvocabulary and grammar and to move towardsthat language via what is called the post-pidgin(or post-creole) stage. Eventually they becomesub-standard forms of the metropolitan lan¬
guage concerned.
iVlessages of religion and powerThe so-called mission languages, also knownas church languages, constitute another type oflanguage of wider intercommunication. Theseare local languages originally adopted by Euro¬pean mission organizations as the vehicle oftheir activities. When the missions extendedtheir work beyond the boundaries of the indige¬nous language they had adopted, they usuallycontinued to use the adopted local tongue in thenew areas, making it thereby an artificially-introduced lingua franca. With the reductionof missionary work in many parts of the worldand the nativization of religious activities intro¬duced by Westerners, such languages have insome cases turned into secular lingua francas.
A somewhat similar situation is that in whicha local language is adopted as the language ofadministration by a colonial or conqueringpowen The language chosen for this purpose is
usually fairly widely spoken in the area in ques¬
tion and enjoys some prestige. The Dutch intro¬duced Standard Malay as the official adminis¬trative language and general lingua franca inwhat is now Indonesia. In the same way, thepost-colonial rulers of Indonesia adoptedIndonesian as the official language even beforethe country became officially independent.(Indonesian is based on Standard Malay, whichmade its introduction fairly easy.)
An example of the introduction of a con¬
queror's language as the general language in theinvaded area was the compulsory introductionof the Quechua language of the Incas in what istoday Peru in South America. This took place a
comparatively short time before the arrival of theSpaniards.
The metropolitan languages of present orpast colonial or similar rulers constitute anothertype of lingua franca in certain areas. Even aftermost colonies become independent, the lan¬
guages remain lingua francas, usually amongmembers of elite groups. Their use is beginningto spread in former colonial areas, especiallyamong members of the young generation, atthe expense of other lingua francas, in particularof pidgin languages.
A procession of gods chanting ritualwords is depicted in this Zapotee painting(c. 5th-7th centuries) which adornsa tomb at Monte Albán, a pre-Columbian
site in Mexico.
14
ÛéstBfn Maf^y
SíHílf}tfn M^ls-y
/\N
í^.iíiu
, ^ ^4, .^^^tfsU^^fJSjtíiBSt
languages
on the map
Peninsular Malaysia
tlHÜij\ /f\.¿'\ ;L
mS
Thailand
3^^gT|¿ffT»^ >. - r^^^^ "^r.
k/C-k ! I
/f (:> ^J
lese three mops are details from Language
Atlas ofthe Pacific Area* {1981) produced
under the general editorship of Stephen Wurm
and Shirô Hottori. The Atlas is one of o series
sponsored fay the Internotionol Council for
Philosophy and Humonistic Studies with the
financial assistance of UNESCO, which
encourages the safeguarding and
revitalization of endangered longuoges as port
of Its progromme for the preservation ofthe
culturel heritoge. Atlases on the longuoges of
China and Korea have aiready appeared, and
an Atlas of the World's Languages has just
been published by Routledge, London. Other
otloses are in preparation on languages of
Interculturo/ communicotion ¡n the Pacific,
African languages, and the indigenous
languages of South America.
* Published (in Canberra) by the Australian Academy oftheHumanities in colloborotion with the japan fltodemy.
Oirtributed by GEO CENTER, D-7000 Stuttgart 80,
Poitfoch 80 08 30, Germany (fox; 49111 1669354).
Sfek 7 _S*^Jt fBÀ S .1
«l^P**t V '^ ' Ifcmr , 1»
^H
Northern Borneo
mm^^.
sÀbEl REmiTEDby Peter Mühhousler
Unguistíc diversity is a resource whose value has beer) widelymderestimated
ÍO
IN the biblical story of the Tower of Babel, thedescendants of Noah tried to build a towerleading to heaven, but God frowned on their
presumption and sabotaged the common lan¬guage that enabled them to communicate. Thisstory, which portrays linguistic diversity as a
divine punishment, has dominated Westernthinking about languages for centuries and as a
result many people believe that a multiplicity oflanguages is undesirable.
I believe, on the other hand, that linguisticdiversity should not be seen as a problem but as anessential resource and that there is an urgent needto reverse policies and practices that currently
Left, The Tower of Babel
( 1 990), acrylic on canvas by
the French artist RobertCombas.
Right, desert greeting
(Egypt).
threaten thousands of small languages. Unlessthis is done, the chance to learn from the cumula¬tive insights, successes and errors of a large pro¬portion of the human species will be lost forever.
¡he attractions of a single languageThere have been many attempts to replace thediversity of human languages with a single lan¬guage. This goal was vigorously pursued by thephilosophers of the European Enlightenmentand, in the latter half of the nineteenth century,by the supporters of artificial languages suchas Volapuk and Esperanto which attracted mil¬lions of followers around the globe. ManyEsperantists hoped not only that Esperantowould one day become a universal auxiliarylanguage but that at a later stage it would bethe world's only language.
The idea of the modem nation-state also pro¬vides a powerful inspiration for those who arecommitted to reducing linguistic diversity: a
common language is often seen as a necessarybinding ingredient for new nations. Only 200years ago, French was not the mother tongue ofthe majority of people born in France, whereastoday, non-French-speakers living in Francebelong to a small and shrinking minority. Whathappened in Western Europe in the past is beingrepeated nowadays in states such as Indonesia,where Bahasa Indonesia developed from being a
small auxiliary language into the country's mainlanguage and will soon be the mother tongue ofmore Indonesians than any other language.
It would be no exaggeration to say that thechoice of a single national language is oftenregarded as a precondition for all moderniza¬tion. No matter what language is chosen anintroduced language such as English, French,Mandarin or Russian, or a newly-developed lan¬
guage such as Filipino a basic requirement is
that it should be fully intertranslatable, that is,capable of expressing the concepts and distinc¬tions that are needed in the modem world. But the
. need for intertranslatable languages has an unfor¬tunate side effect the destruction of small lan¬guages as outmoded and irrelevant.
The processes of streamlining which aretaking place in the field of language can be com¬pared to the streamlining of the world's plantand animal species. Both developments have beenpromoted by people acting with the best of inten¬tions reducing the cost ofcommum'cation in thefirst case and feeding the world's growing popu¬lation in the second. Regrettably, those people hadonly a very limited understanding of the natureand function of diversity.
In recent years there has been a growing real¬
ization of the importance of biological diversity,and even more recently the voices of those advo¬cating linguistic and cultural diversity havebecome louder. However, the importance of lin¬guistic diversity has not yet aroused widespreadpublic concern; nor has the notion that "lin¬guistic ecology" needs the same amount of careas natural ecology. There are, however, a numberof parallels between the two. First, all present-daydiversity is the outcome of processes that took a
very long time: millions of years in the case of bio¬diversity, at least 100,000 years in the case of lin¬guistic diversity. And once genuine diversity islost, it cannot be easily restored, in spite ofprogress in bioengineering and linguistic engi¬
neering. A second, equally important similarityis that linguistic diversity and diversity in thenatural world are both functional. The 10,000or so languages that exist today reflect necessaryadaptations to different social and natural con¬ditions. They are the result of increasing special¬ization and finely tuned adaptation to thechanging world.
18
yJne world or many?To understand the nature of this fine-tuning,we need to contrast two theories about the rela¬tionship between language and the world. Onetheory, known as the mapping or labeling view,maintains that we live in one world that consistsof many parts and each language provides a dif¬ferent set of labels for the same set of parts.According to this theory, the differencesbetween languages are only superficial and alllanguages are fully intertranslatable.
The second theory holds that most percep¬tions of the world and parts of the world arebrought into being and sustained by languages.Speakers of different languages, therefore, donot perceive the same world. Instead, differentlanguages emphasize and filter various aspectsof a multi-faceted reality in a vast number ofways.
If we accept this theory, each language may beseen as a provisional interpretation of a world socomplex that the only hope for understanding itis to approach it from as many different per¬spectives as possible. If we regard each languageas the result of a long history of human endeavourto gain knowledge ofthe world, we may begin to
see why linguistic diversity is an invaluableresource rather than an obstacle to progress.
Different languages communicate differentperceptions of reality in a number of ways. Theseinclude differences in vocabulary, differences inthe grammatical information that is expressed, anddifferences in the boundary between what isregarded as literal truth and what is regarded as
metaphorical.Virtually all human knowledge depends on
having criteria with which to determine similar¬ities and differences. Doctors need to know, forinstance, whether or not the red spots on theforeheads of two patients are symptoms of thesame disease. Psychologists need to knowwhether two forms of behaviour are manifesta¬tions ofthe same psychological state, and biolo¬gists need to know whether two animals aremembers of the same species. In most instances,reliable criteria for similarities and differencesare difficult to come by and decisions are usuallydetermined by the available lexical resources.
One well-known area is that of colour names.The same area of the colour spectrum may haveone name in one language, two names in a secondlanguage, and three names in a third. Not makinga lexical distinction between, say, green and blue
Re/otiVity (1953),
a lithograph by
the Dutch graphic artistMaurits Cornelis Escher
(1898-1972).
(as in the Welsh g¿ís), means not focusing on thedifference between the two colours in real life. Inthe field of plants, there are again considerable dif¬ferences. Where certain plants are central to a
culture, an amazing degree of lexical fine-tuningcan occur. Many New Guinea languages, forexample, make dozens of distinctions betweendifferent types of cordilync leaves, according towhether such leaves are used for dressmaking,decoration, magic or other purposes. Similarfine-tuning can also be observed in the sub-lan¬guages spoken by specialist groups in Westernsocieties, for example, the sub-language of motormechanics, painters, doctors or bankers.
Suddenly to get rid of all these fine distinctions
developed by specialists over centuries wouldgreatly impoverish a language such as English,making it incapable of referring to anythingexcept in general terms. Abandoning languagediversity could have similar consequences on a
global scale. Specialist vocabularies and specialistknowledge about phenomena as diverse as typesof snow, useful plants, types of weather or waysof dealing with children would suddenly be lost.
Language and the breakdown oftraditional societiesOne area that offers many examples of differencesof this kind is kinship. Anthropological linguistshave accumulated a vast amount of evidence as tohow different languages focus in different wayson the shared properties and differences amongfamily members. While in English, the word"sister" refers to the female sibling of both malesand females, in Tok Pisin of Papua New Guinea,a pidgin language that often reflects a Melanesianinterpretation of the world, the word "sister"means sibling of the opposite sex. A brother callshis sister "sister" and a girl calls her brother"sister". In some Aboriginal languages in Aus¬tralia and other languages in Melanesia, the sameword is used to refer to both grandfather andgrandchild. In these instances, having the samelabel usually means getting the same treatment.Such labels reinforce solidarity within the group.For example, giving the same name to membersof different generations can be a way of reducinggenerational conflict. The rather impoverishedinventory of words in most modern Westernlanguages may not be sufficient to sustain com¬plex extended family networks, and the replace¬ment of an indigenous language with more dis¬
tinctions by a Western language with fewerdistinctions could be a factor in the breakdownof traditional societies.
Another area in which there are considerabledifferences between languages is the naming ofparts of the body. In many languages, includingsome spoken in West Africa, the term "hand"covers either the whole arm or the arm up to theelbow. The West African practice of grippinganother person's lower arm when "shaking" is a
reflection of a different linguistic organization. Inmy own native Alemannic, the terms "foot" and"leg" are not distinguished lexically, somethingthat caused me considerable confusion whenlearning High German, where the distinction ismade. In Melanesia, dogs are said to have twoarms and two legs rather than four legs, and cen¬
tipedes are perceived as having many arms ratherthan many legs.
Most of the examples given so far have dealtwith the different ways in which languages lexi¬cally subdivide a fairly tangible reality the realityof colour or the reality of plants and people.There are other less tangible realities where per¬ception is even more closely linked to language:for example, the names of emotions or states ofmind. The German word Gemütlichkeit does
not compare neady with the English word "cosi¬ness", nor is "depression" the same as the out¬moded "melancholy". The absence of words fordepression or sadness in certain Polynesian lan¬guages would seem to correspond to the absenceof the associated phenomena.
Language is even more direcdy involved in thecreation of philosophical and religious approachesto the world. It sustains the meaningfulness ofideas such as solipsism, "the view that self is allthat exists or can be known" or of elements in sys¬
tems used to explain the workings ofthe universesuch as "phoneme" in linguistics or "phlogiston"in eighteenth-century science. Death in tradi¬tional Polynesian languages is described by a
number of words, ranging from initial permanentunconsciousness to the ultimate disintegration ofthe body. The practice of "reburial" reflects thislinguistic distinction.
Another important difference between lan¬guages relates to the ways in which they requirespeakers to make important choices about thepeople they are addressing. This is well known toEnglish speakers who find that when they learnFrench the neutral English second person singularpronoun "you" has to be translated into "tu" or"vous", depending on the degree of politeness orsolidarity being shown towards the personaddressed. When using nouns, some languages donot have number distinctions at all, while otherslike Fijian need to express at all times whether thespeaker is talking about one, two, three, a few ormore than a few entities. In some New GuineaHighland languages, a sentence such as, "Thepig broke the fence", cannot be said in this kindof neutral manner. Using grammatical endings,the speaker has to indicate whether this is a reportof what he or she has actually observed orwhether it is an inference from indirect evidencesuch as pig droppings or hearsay.
iVletaphorically speakingThe expression of social distinctions, numbers orthe credibility of a piece of information can leadto interesting quandaries. One wonders whatadvertising is like in Aiwo, a language spoken inthe Solomon Islands in which all words referringto useless objects have to be given a prefix indi¬cating uselessness. How could one describe anuclear power station in Aiwo? Would one haveto use a prefix indicating the class of entities thatare dormant but liable to sudden change?
The influence of certain semantic distinctionsmay be so strong that it leads languages to inter¬pret reality in very different ways, that may bedescribed as either event-dominated or object-dominated. Many standard European languagescan be regarded as object-dominated because oftheir strong tendency to convert processual verbsinto abstract, object-like nouns. For example,the subject matter of linguistics is not perceivedas the activity of speaking but as an object termed"language". One of the consequences for thisarea of enquiry is that, while speaking alwaysinvolves people, and a spatial, temporal situa¬tion, the abstract term language suggests an object
that can be analysed as something self-contained.Equally important in Western languages is
the very strong presence of causalit)'. Verbs suchas "to teach" or "to cure" can be paraphrased as
"to cause to leam" and "to cause to get better".However, there is a very different, equally validway of looking at what goes on in the classroomor in a doctor's practice, as seen in languagessuch as Wintu, an American Indian languagespoken in California, which favours comitative,or "being with" interpretations. In a Wintu'sperception, the doctor takes part in the patient'srecovery and the teacher shares the learner'slearning progression. It is not at all clear that a
causative view of these matters necessarily leadsto better teaching or healing practice.
Languages, finally, differ according to themetaphors their speakers live by. Western lifetends to be dominated by a small number ofmetaphors. The saying "time is money", forinstance, reinforces cultural practices such as
charging by the hour, trying to save money bygetting things done more quickly and the viewthat there are more economical and less eco¬nomical uses of time. Needless to say, such a
metaphor does not occur in non-monetary, tra¬ditional societies where work and gain are mea¬sured in terms other than quantity of time"spent". Another prominent Western metaphoris that of "rule", the idea that there is an abstractruler of the universe who has laid down the rulesof nature. So deeply entrenched is this metaphorthat scientists believe that it is literally true and areconvinced they can discover the rules of nature,a belief that has only recendy begun to weaken as
a consequence of discoveries by chaos theoreti¬cians. Researchers on neural networks are nowbeginning to question the idea that language
Right, a dancer from theFine Arts University ofPhnom Penh (Cambodia).Her dress consists of arectangle of cloth specially
fitted and sewn before
each performance.
Delow, a Tahitian woman(French Polynesia).
1 ^
f^^
wL,. J
yiÊ^Ê^j^j^^^ ^v
PETER MÜHLHÄUSLER,of Germany, taught linguisticsat the Technical University ofBerlin and then at OxfordUniversity (United Kingdom).Since 1 992 he has beenFoundation Professor ofLinguistics at the University ofAdelaide (Australia). He Is a
Fellow of LInacre College,Oxford, and a Fellow of theAcademy of the Social Sciences
of Australia.
learning involves rules and mle systems, a dogmaof linguistics for many decades. It is quite likelythat metaphors of other cultures not dominatedby the idea that the world needs to be governedby rules may produce future breakthroughs inscientific thinking.
Environmental discourse provides a strikingexample of why learning from different languagesmay be very important. Western languages havemany gaps in their ability to express aspects of theenvironment. The number of edible plants theaverage Westerner can name contrasts veryunfavourably with the many hundreds of namesknown to the average speaker of a South Amer¬ican Indian language.
There is now a growing awareness of "green"issues, and "green" vocabulary is on the increase.We have words such as "biodiversity", "recy¬cling" and "lead-free petrol" but not all of theseterms are equally suitable for environmental dis¬course. For instance, the word "resource" sug¬gests that the notion of regeneration is applicableto both renewable and non-renewable resourcesand the very term "environment" suggests a divi¬sion between humans and what is around them,an idea that is not widely found in the languagesof the world.
The combined propensity of Western lan¬guages to emphasize human causativity and con¬trol and their object-dominated character suggeststhat the best course of action is one of estab¬lishing control over a small bounded area and not,as other languages would suggest, learning tounderstand an undivided whole.
Note also the underdifferentiation between
different types of control in languages such as
English, where the possessive pronoun "my"can be used to express three situations:
A controls B = my child (A's child)B controls A = my father (A's father)A and B reciprocally control one another =
my partner.
In Barrai, a language of Papua New Guinea,these three categories are clearly distinguished bydifferent pronominal forms. Interestingly, toexpress the notion of "my land" in Barrai, one uses
the pronoun for mutual control suggesting inter¬dependence, the need for balance and co-operationbetween people and the land. Western metaphorsof the land are dominated by the distinctionbetween human beings and the non-human world,and the idea that human beings are a privilegedspecies, the rulers or controllers for whose benefitthe rest of the world was created. Recentmetaphors such as "Spaceship Earth" reinforce theidea that the Earth exists predominandy for thebenefit of its human inhabitants, and the idea ofenvironmental management and eco audits is justanother version of the old picture of human beingsas rulers over the rest of creation.
I would suggest that Westerners are trappedwithin the limitations imposed on them by theirlanguages and this is one of the principal rea¬sons for the lack of genuine progress in the envi¬ronmental sciences. This example of environ¬mental discourse illuminates the dangers ofmonolingualism and monoculturalism and showshow many different interpretations and manydifferent languages are necessary to solve theproblems facing the world.
NIGERIA'S CHOICEby Ayo ßamgbose
^----^^-"dsrS:^^^
12
AYO BAMGBOSE,formerly Professor ofUngulstlcs at the University ofIbadan (Nigeria), has been
involved in linguistic researchand language planning activitiesIn West Africa for almost 30
years. His publications includeA Grammar of Yoruba
(Cambridge University Press.
1 966), Mother Tongue EducoOon:
The West African Experience(Hodder & Stoughton/UNESCO,
1 976), and Longuoge and theNation (Edinburgh UniversityPress, 1991).
DEVELOPING nations, in general, rarely con¬
sider language questions a priority unlessproblems arise in connection with the
implementation of controversial language policies.Nigeria is no exception, and economic problemsare popularly perceived there as being more imme¬diate and important than language problems.
However, social, economic and politicalupheavals since independence have brought lan¬
guage into the spotlight as a crucial factor forthe country's social and political stability. As a
result, questions about language have featured inthe deliberations of two Constituent Assembliesset up to create new constitutions, in the nationaldebate over the framework for political gover¬nance, and in successive constitutions since 1960.
Like most African countries, Nigeria is mul¬tilingual. There are about 400 languages notdialects and three of these languages, Hausa,Igbo and Yomba, are spoken by about half of the88.5 million population of the country. In addi¬tion, another 10 per cent of the population is
made up of speakers of other languages whoare nevertheless able to speak at least one of themajor languages as an additional language.
Although Nigerian languages are usually clas¬
sified as either major or minority languages, thisis grossly misleading because next in numbers andimportance to the three major languages areabout ten main languages that serve as the prin¬cipal languages of some of the states. Such lan¬
guages include Kanuri, Ibibio, Efik, Tw, Ijo, Edo,Fulfulde, Urhobo, Nupe and Igala. The otherlanguages should not be dismissed as "minority"languages, since the combination of all thosewho speak them adds up to a substantial pro¬portion of the population. We may thus con¬clude that there are three functional types of lan¬
guages in Nigeria: major languages that have a roleat the national level, main languages whose roleis at the state level, and small-group languages thatfunction mainly at the local level.
Uiversity and divisivenessThe fact that a country has several languages isoften seen as an intrinsic problem. Nigeria, withits 400 languages, is deeply concerned with theproblems of divisiveness and tribalism, and theneed to achieve national integration. One of thepopular myths in multilingual countries is theassociation of a multiplicity of languages withdivisiveness. In spite of the prevalence of thismyth, it is important to stress that it is not mul¬tilingualism as such that causes divisiveness, butthe exploitation of ethnicity, by linking it withlanguage differences. In some countries themyth of divisiveness has been used to oppressspeakers of small-group languages. Fortunately,this has not happened in Nigeria.
A complementary myth to that of divisive¬ness is the myth that a single language can unite.In Nigeria, the English language, which was
TO KEEPNIGERIA ONE
IIS A TASK THATMUST BE DON^
.T t .' t '
lÍHIüiltlíJtltMIIIIItilllItlIII HtllMlllliilll'^
,î^7&^ iifcv-j^
the official language in the colonial period, is
widely considered the best candidate for a uni¬fying role. It is well-entrenched, having beenused as the language of government and educa¬tion, thereby "uniting" elites from the differentethnic groups. Furthermore, because it doesnot belong to any ethnic group in Nigeria, it isbelieved to be a "neutral" language. However, a
common language does not automatically induceunity unless there are already unity-inducingfactors in the communities concerned, and it issimply not true that a language can be neutral,since it inevitably comes with the baggage of theculture it represents.
Three major questions have dominatedNigeria's language policy since independence:What should be the country's official language?Which ofthe languages should be accorded thestatus of a national language? What languageshould be used in education?
tingUsh: overwhelmingly dominantFor some, the question of an official language has
been predetermined. Given the colonial heritageof the use of English for practically all officialpurposes in the pre-independence era, the possi¬bility for change in this practice is almost nil. Thedominance of the English language is truly over¬whelming. It is the language of government andadministration, including the proceedings in theNational and State Assemblies, the language ofeducation at almost all levels, the main language ofthe media, the language of science and technology,and the language used by many Nigerian novelistsand poets. Even the debate on the desirability ofchange has to be conducted in English!
Attempts to reduce the use of English as anofficial language have been singularly unsuc¬cessful. For example, the 1979 constitution pro¬vides for the use of the three major languages as 13
additional languages in the National Assembly,but only subject to adequate arrangements. Sucharrangements include the compilation of leg¬
islative terminology, the training of translatorsand interpreters, the installation of simulta¬neous interpretation facilities and printing equip¬
ment, and hiring personnel for the productionof the Hansard, the official record of the pro¬ceedings ofthe Assembly. Of all these require¬ments, only the first one has been completed todate. Hence, no Nigerian language is used for theproceedings of the National Assembly.
A much-discussed and recurrent languagequestion is that of the evolution of a linguafranca as a national language for the country.
While nationalistic sentiments ensure majoritysupport for an indigenous national language,that is where consensus ends. The real problemis how to decide which of the 400 Nigerian lan¬
guages should be selected for this prestigiousrole. Here is where the fear of domination cropsup again, with speakers of smaller languagesfearing that they may be overwhelmed politi¬cally, economically and linguistically by speakersofthe major languages. Even among speakers ofthe three major languages, there is no consensusabout which one should become the nationallanguage. In frustration, some Nigerians haveoffered solutions ranging from the absurd pro¬posal to create an artificial language from a com-
14
Left, the market atCalabar.
Right, election posters ona wall in a Nigerian town.
posite of elements of several to the deliberateadoption of a small-group language in order tomarginalize speakers of larger group languagesand so put most people at an equal disadvantage.
While the difficulties of choosing an indige¬
nous national language have led others to proposethe adoption of a foreign African language such as
Kiswahili from Eastern Africa, or the promotionof English from official language status to nationallanguage status, the official government policyhas been to encourage the learning of the threemajor languages in schools in the hope that one ofthem may emerge in the future as an acceptablenational language. This, of course, means thatEnglish, by default, will continue to perform thefunctions expected of a national language, even
though it is not called by that name. It is thisunsatisfactory position that has led some otherobservers to propose that Nigeria should opt forthree or more national languages in much thesame way as Switzerland operates nationally inthree official languages (German, French, Italian)and one regional language (Romansh). Althoughthis may turn out to be very expensive in theNigerian context, it is at least a positive way ofresolving an impasse that effectively leaves thecountry with English as a national language bydefault.
education as the key to changeChanges in language habits are not easy toenforce, but education provides a good oppor¬tunity to modify language use. It is for this reasonthat much of Nigeria's language policy is predi¬cated on the educational system. The principleson which the educational language policy are
based are: equal opportunity of access to the lan¬
guage of education; thorough grounding in thechild's own language; thorough mastery of Eng¬lish; and bilingualism in two Nigerian languages.
Equality of access to the language of educa¬
tion is promoted by starting primary educationin a child's mother tongue or, failing this, the lan¬
guage of the immediate community. Adult lit¬eracy is also taught in the local language of theadult learners. Through this policy, a languageis not ignored simply because it is small. How¬ever, there are practical constraints. Some lan¬guages are not yet written languages, and somehave not been studied enough for literacy mate¬
rials to be produced in them. In such cases, edu¬cation is conducted in the language of the imme¬diate community. The situation is not static as
more and more languages are being analysedby linguists and becoming written languages.
A thorough grounding in the child's mothertongue is supposed to be ensured through an IS
A school class in the townof Aba, in southern
Nigeria.
16
introduction to reading, writing and arithmeticin the child's native language, and the use ofthis language as a medium of instruction forthe first three years of primary education. Apartfrom the constraints mentioned above, whichmay militate against the realization of this objec¬tive, the attitudes of parents and guardians oftenrun counter to the principle of mother tongueeducation. This is because many children fromelite homes are sent to fee-paying schools wherethey are taught in English.
Thorough mastery of English is promotedthrough the introduction of English in the firstyear of primary school and its later adoption as
the medium of instruction for the rest of thechild's education. In spite of the enormousamount of time devoted to the study of English,a frequently heard complaint is that the standardof English in Nigeria is poor. Proof of this inad¬equacy is the poor performance often recordedin school certificate as well as university entranceexaminations. The underlying cause of thisproblem appears to be the dissociation of mothertongue teaching from the teaching of English. Inexperiments where the two have been related,significant success has been recorded. The pointis that it is not how long one learns English buthow well.
One drawback of the present practice is thatit assumes that every- primary school teachercan teach English well. Yet this is not alwaystrue: some primary school teachers have very
poor spoken and written English. An approachthat provides for specialist teachers of Englishalongside teachers for other subjects taught inthe mother tongue has been shown to provideexcellent results in terms of mastery of bothEnglish and the mother tongue.
The requirement that every Nigerian childshould leam one of the three major languages inaddition to his or her own language is meant tofacilitate the eventual emergence of a Nigerianlingua franca. The policy is meant to be enforcedat the secondary school level, subject to avail¬ability of teachers. Alany schools have soughtrefuge in this escape clause and several state gov¬ernments have not made any effort to produceteachers for major Nigerian languages. Instead,soft-option alternatives such as the use ofuntrained native speakers to teach only spokenforms of the language have been adopted, with dis¬astrous results. There does not seem to be muchenthusiasm for the implementation of this policy,which may well be connected with ambivalentattitudes to the national language question.
In Nigeria, there is an acute awareness ofsome of the most important language problems.There are also spirited attempts to tackle themthrough the formulation of appropriate lan¬guage policies. What has been lacking is the willto implement the policies. This may be due to a
lack of faith in the policies not only on the partof the people, but also on the part of the policy¬makers themselves.
THE UNESCO COURIER -FEBRUARY 1994
CM Mffli BE SAVED?
BY FRANCE BEQUETTE
Restorers have decided to
leave some Angkor ruins in
the powerful hands of giant
trees. Here, the roots of a
kapok tree grip stonework of
the temple of Ta Prohm.
TV ENEATH the aircraft's wfing atI I simset, the broad marshy moatr\ dotted vdth white egrets, theI I three rectangles ofcovered gal-1/ leries, the terraces and the fivehigh, sculpted towers ofAngkor Watare all tinged pink. We are privilegedto be flying over the best-knowntemple of the unique complex ofmonuments that is Angkor in oldKhmer, the name means "the city"
or "the capital". Here, on a plain 200square kilometres in extent innorth-eastern Cambodia, betweenthe Kulen plateau and the Tonle Sap("Great Lake"), a dozen Khmerrulers of the ninth to the twelfthcenturies built seven capitals con¬taining many temples. Some arehidden in the jimgle, where they areeven more inaccessible because ofthe presence of the Khmer Rouge,
who after holding power from 1975to 1978 and killing upwards ofa mil¬lion Ciambodians, took refuge in thisregion near the Thai border. Thetemples are all that now remains ofthe ancient capitals, for only thegods had the right to stone or brickbuildings. The palaces and dwellingswere built of wood, and they havesince disappeared without trace.
RECONCILINC TOWRISN ANDCONSERVAnON
Nature, not human wrath, hasdestroyed these marvellously richmonuments. The heat and humidityof the tropical climate encouragedthe unbridled growrth of kapok and"strangler fig" trees, popularly asso¬ciated with ruins because their rootsdestroy monuments.
Today the principal temples havebeen freed ofthe vegetation that heldthem in its grip. Only the Ta Prohmtemple has deliberately been left inthe midst of the thickets in whichthe French missionary CharlesBouillevaux and, later, the naturalistHenri Mouhot foimd it in the mid-nineteenth centiu^'. Since 1898, theyear in which the French Far EastemSchool (the Ecole Françaised'Extrême-Orient, or EFEO) wasfounded, a steady stream ofarchae¬ologists have worked on the site.They patiently cleared away theundergrowth, dismantled and thenreassembled the monuments, andin 1908 created the "Conservationd'Angkor" to which the most threat¬ened statues were taken.
According to Bernard PhilippeGroslier of the EFEO, a formercurator ofthe site, "There is hardlyanything in the world comparable
to the Angkor complex in terms ofthe number, size and perfection ofits buildings." But this masterpieceis in grave danger, and in 1989 thefour main Cambodian political par¬ties asked Unesco to assume the co¬ordination of international activi¬ties for the preservation of themonimients ofAngkor. In December1992 Angkor was placed on theWorld Heritage List.
In view of the scale of the conser¬vation problems involved, Unesco'sWorld Heritage Committee placeda number ofconditions onAngkor'sinclusion on the List, insisting that alegal framework for conservationwork and a management planshould be drawn up, and that anauthority should be established withthe resources to manage the entireAngkor area. Unesco's first task wasto help the government to set up aCambodian Authority for the Pro¬tection of the National Heritage,which was formally approved in Feb-mary 1993. Unesco has also workedwith the Cambodian governmentand a group of international expertson a Zoning and EnvironmentalManagement Plan (ZEMP) for theauthorities, donors and local peopleas well as visitors. This comprehen¬sive document takes into accountAngkor's assets as well as the dangersthreatening the site.
The archaeological treasures areparticularly at risk from lichens,microscopic algae and bacteria thatproliferate in the guano ofthe manybats living in the ruins. The ZEMPalso cites the destructive effects ofmonsoon rains, the vegetation, andvariations in the undergroundaquifer that influence the stability ofthe buildings. Other factors include
18
Sculpturesin the
conservation
area of Siem
Reap are
protected by
barbed wire to
prevent theft.
uncontrolled agricultural develop¬ment after deforestation, the influxof thousands of tourists and theconstruction of hotels to replaceexisting facilities that are not up tointernational standards. The regionbadly needs revenue from tourism,but there is also a risk that it maysuffer from it. Angkor is a "new"destination that travel agencies arenow adding to a circuit that includesThailand, Laos and Viet Nam.
Statistics show that in 1992 35,000tourists visited Siem Reap, the basefor excursions to the temples. Ifforecasts turn out to be accurate,between 300,000 and 700,000 for¬eigners and between 100,000 and500,000 Cambodians will visitAngkor in the next five years. Thefigures represent a sizeable market,and fourteen big hotel chains arealready hoping for a share of it.There is growing concern since twohotels had been built previouslybeside the moat ofAngkor Wat withlitüe regard for the site. (They weresubsequentiy burned down by theKhmer Rouge). Is it only a matterof time before there are pleasureboats, theme parks and neon signs?
To avoid this kind of desecrationwhile permitting sustainable devel¬opment of the region, the ZEMPsuggests dividing the site into zones.The Angkor Parks, comprising fiveof the ancient capitals includingAngkor Wat, Angkor Thom andPreah Khan, would be given max¬imum protection. They would belocated within an Angkor CulturalReserve. On the other hand therewould be no restrictions on newresidents coming to join the 350,000people already living in the area,nor on their techniques of farmingor forest management.
A WAT THR0V6H THENINEFIELBS
Much remains to be done for themanagement of water resourcesbefore Angkor can reclaim the rep¬utation it once had as a "hydrauliccapital". The prosperity of die earlyAngkor empires was closely linkedto irrigation. A network of dykes andcanals served to control floodingand to provide water in the dryseason from huge reservoirs called"barays", all ofwhich are now aban¬doned with the exception of theWestern Baray, which has beenrestored in this century. The templemoats were both sacred boundariesand sources ofwater and of food inthe form of fish and lotus, whosefruits contain a mealy substancefrom which bread can be made.Now, however, they have silted upand are clogged with vegetation.
Other, more immediate dangers
also threaten the Angkor region.There are estimated to be twelve mil¬lion mines in northern Cambodia.A French company, COPRAS, whichhas trained Cambodian mine dis¬posal squads, has been attempting toclear the eight minefields identifiedatAngkor. Three hundred and sixtymines have already been removed.The only way one can reach thetemple of Ta Nei and the easternentrance to Angkor Thom ^the so-called Gate of Death is by followinga mine disposal squad. Countlesspeople adults and children havebeen killed by the mines or have lostlimbs. In addition, armed andtrained Khmer Rouges are operatingin the vicinity, terrorizing the localpopulation by sporadic raiding.
In these circumstances, it is verydifficult to prevent the looting ofsculptures that every year causes thesanctuaries to deteriorate further.The thieves prize loose with chiselsthe wonderM faces ofthe heavenlydancers known as apsaras, cut theheads offstatues, and in some casesremove the statues wholesale, eventhose weighing more than a ton. Theprotests of the Cambodian govern¬ment, of Unesco and ofthe Interna¬tional CouncU of Museums (ICOM)
have no effect on the traffickers, whoknow where they can get vast sumsofmoney for the statues.
The task of co-ordinating inter¬national aid that the Cambodiangovernment has entrusted to Unescois a difficult one. Only one archaeo¬logical excavation is currenüy underway, and that is the EFEO's investi¬gation of the Terrace of the LeperKing. Without co-ordination andpolitical determination to protectthe site, Angkor could well fall intothe hands of unscrupulous busi¬nessmen seeking quick profits fromthe curiosity of tourists and thepoverty ofthe local population.
Angkor has a special place inthe memory of humanity. Let ushope that the international com¬munity wUl wake up to the fact soonenough to take the urgent actionthat is needed to save, protect andrationally develop this irreplace¬able treasure.
FRANCE BEQUETTEis a Franco-American journalistspecializing in environmentalquestions. Since 1985 she has beenassociated with the WANAD- Unescotraining programmefor Africannews-agency journalists.
Aerial view of the temple of Angkor
Wat, masterwork of Khmer architecture
(early 1 2th century).
A traditional technique is used toextract sap by fire. The sap is used as a
fuel for lighting or for caulking boats.
WORLD
THE DANGERS OF MINERAL DUST
According to World Health Organization (WHO)experts, the health of millions of workers aroundthe world involved in the extraction, refining anduse of minerals may be at risk. People who areexposed to mineral dust over many years inhale par¬ticles which stay in their lungs, where they can causeserious illnesses such as the pneumoconioses (e.g.silicosis and asbestosis), bronchitis, emphysemaand lung cancer. The degree of risk is related to theduration of exposure. In Zimbabwe, 20 per cent ofworkers were found to suffer from silicosis after 20years or more of exposure in gold, copper andchrome mines. In India, silicosis rates were higherthan 50 per cent among slate pencil workers, 35 percent among stonecutters and 30 per cent amonglead and zinc miners. WHO recommends closermedical surveillance ofworkers, which is not alwayseasy to implement in poor countries. Perhaps a goodfirst step would be to take a hard look at miningmethods.
CARTOONS AGAINST
LOCUSTS
Boukari is a small farmer in theSahel. Tired of standing by help¬lessly while his crops aredestroyed by clouds of locusts, hetakes a course that teaches himhow chemicals can be used tofight these devastating insects.When he has learned how to usethe insecticides, he returns to hisvillage and shares his knowledgewith the community. This story istold in an unusual full-colour stripcartoon book published forFrance's Centre de Coopération
Internationale en RechercheAgronomique pour le Déve¬loppement (GIRAD), and aimedat the countries in the Sahel andon the coast ofthe Gulfof Guinea.Fifty thousand copies have beenprinted. There is no charge for thebook, which is published inFrench. For further information,please contact CIRAD/PRIFAS, BP5035, 34032 Montpellier cedex 1,
France.
INTRODUCTION
TO THE
ENVIRONMENTUnesco has contributed photo¬graphic material to Manuel d'ini¬tiation à l'environnement {"A FirstEnvironmental Reader"), a newbook that presents major eviron-mental issues to non-specialist
MANUEL
D'INITIATION
AÜÉNVIRONNEMTFMWÇmS CAZAUS
readers. The book gives a plane¬tary overview of environmentalproblems followed by a series offact sheets on a range of subjectsincluding nuclear energy, biodi¬versity, acid rain and the green¬house effect. It also features amultiple-choice quiz. Written byFrançois Cázalas, Manuel d'initi¬ation à I'environnment is pub¬lished by Les Editions de l'Envi¬ronnement, Paris.
THREATS
TO MARINE LIFE
Two centuries ago a marinemammal weighing up to 10 tonsknown as the Steller's sea cow livedpeacefully in the icy waters of theNorth Pacific. It took just 27 yearsof harpooning to make this harm¬less, edible species extinct. A newstudy entitled Global Marine Bio¬logical Diversity, published by theCenter for Marine Conservationin Washington, D.C. (U.S.A.),shows that the sea creatures oftoday are increasingly endangeredand calls for action to protect thewhole chain of global marine life.Pollution and overexploitation ofmarine flora and fauna are respon¬sible for the most visible damage,but other factors also play a partsuch as trawling and coastal con¬struction, the introduction ofalienspecies, and the addition to theatmosphere of substances thatincrease ultra-violet radiation andcause climate change. GlobalMarine Biological Diversity, AStrategyfor Building Conservation
into Decision Making is partlyfunded by the World Bank andincludes contributions from morethan 100 authors from 40 differentcountries. It can be obtained fromthe Center for Marine Conserva¬tion, 1725 DeSales Stteet NW, Suite500, Washington D.C. 20036, U.SA(price $27.50).
BHUTAN'S LUCKY CRANES
Ever since the day in 1600 when aBuddhist monk spotted twoblack-necked cranes near a siteat lakar where a monastery wasbeing built, these birds have beenconsidered sacred in Bhutein. Thecranes, which arrive from Tibetin October and stay till March, aretreated with reverence by theinhabitants of the valleys wherethey feed. But the tourists whoflock to see them often go tooclose to their roosting places anddazzle them with flashlights ortorches. Local people advise thevisitors not to disturb the birds,and their efforts seem to be payingoff: 175 cranes were spotted lastyear in the Phobjekha Valley, asopposed to 139 in 1992.
A SANCTUARY FOR
WHALES?
At the 45th meeting of the Inter¬national Whaling Commission inKyoto last year, Dominica,Grenada, lapan, the Republic ofKorea, Norway, St. Lucia, St. Vin¬cent and the Grenadines, and theSolomon Islands voted againstcontinuing the internationalmoratorium on commercialwhaling. Norway subsequentlygave notice of its intention to kill296 minke whales for scientificpurposes. (The North EastAflanticmitike population is estimated tobe aroimd 80,000). There are hopesthat a proposal to establish aSouthern Ocean Whale Sanctuaryin the Antarctic will be adoptedprior to this year's IWC meeting inMexico. Meanwhile, the whale sit¬uation remains critical.
An outdoor
green turtle
(Chelortia mydas)
hatchery on the
coast of
Pakistan nearKarachi.
Tuareg nomads
drawing water
from a well in
the Aïr massif
(Niger).
THE World Conservation Union(lUCN) has its headquarters ina light, airy building set amidmaize-fields near the shores ofLake Geneva in Switzerland.
This influential body, set up jointiyby Unesco and France in 1948,brings together 62 sovereign states,99 government agencies and 575non-governmental organizations,and is backed by the work of 6,000specialist volunteers worldwide. Itspelled out its programme in Caringfor the Earth, prepared in partner¬ship with the United Nations Envi¬ronment Programme (UNEP) andthe World Wide Fund for Nature(WWF) in 1 99 1 . This document out¬lines a sttategy that, if implemented,would bring our lifestyles and devel¬opment paths within the limits ofwhat nature can sustain. But thetask is immense: "In less than 200years the planet has lost six millionsquare küometres of forest. . .; waterwithdrawals have grown from 100 to3,600 cubic kilometres a year. . . .
Since the mid-eighteenth century,human activities have more thandoubled the methane in the atmos¬phere; increased the concentrationof carbon dioxide by 27 per cent;
and significantly damaged thestratospheric ozone layer."
Confronted wdth this situation,lUCN has prepared, in co-operationwith governments, national conser¬vation strategies for some 50 coim-tries. It is increasingly decentralizingits operations in order to improveefficiency: more than two-thirds oflUCN's secretariat is now based inregional and country offices aroundthe world. The regional emphasisalso helps to get local people moreinvolved the onlyway to reconcileenvironmental protection and sus¬tainable development. lUCN's pri¬orities are saving species, main¬taining biodiversity, managinghabitats and preserving wetiands,national parks and protected areas.
In Congo, for instance, lUCN ishelping to plan the management of \
the Conkouati Faima Reserve and of ;
the immense wetiand forest of LacTélé. In Costa Rica, where the lastlowland tropical rainforest on theAtlantic coast is being destroyed ata rate of 8 per cent a year all roundthe relatively small Tortugueronational park, lUCN has workedwith the government and the Euro¬pean Commission to persuade themain local landowner to reduce thespraying ofpesticides on his bananaplantation and to stop expandingthe plantation into the forest.
One of the biggest lUCN countryprogrammes is in Pakistan, where aNational Conservation Strategy wasadopted in March 1992. The policychanges it advocates are being car¬ried forward in the 8th Five Year Plan,which has a section on the environ¬ment for the first time. Since 1987,lUCN has also been carrying out amajor programme in Africa's Sahelregion, where it is helping the gov¬ernments ofBurkina Faso, Mali, Mau¬ritania, Niger, Senegal and Chad toprepare national conservation strate¬gies and plans for the management ofwetlands, forests, semi-arid grass¬lands and protected areas. The plansstress the importance oferdisting thesupport of local residents.
lUCN makes its experience avail¬able not only to states but to non¬governmental organizations, asso¬ciations and individuals. It producesa steady flow of documents, books,brochures and bulletins, many ofthem in several languages. For fur¬ther information, contact the Infor¬mation Office of lUCN at 28 rueMauvemey, CH-1196 Gland, Switzer¬land (Tel: 41 22 999 00 01; fax: 41 22999 0002.
'language death in SIBERIA- by Vladimir Belikov
"yf*e world's longuage. today face e*c^V,n.
WHILE cultural change in many parts ofthe world is usually spontaneous, inRussia it has been the direct result of
decisions made by the Communist Party.Shortly after the communist revolution, a policyof "cultural engineering" was announced, withthe aim of developing different national cul¬
tures, languages and traditions in order to builda new type of culture that would be "national inits form and communist in its content".
Some of the early achievements of this policywere actually very impressive. A tiny village inthe Poltava district ofUkraine, populated mainlyby Swedes, used Swedish as the official lan¬
guage of the local administration; the first (and
perhaps the only) school primer in the Gypsylanguage was published; the state financed peri¬
odicals in the native languages of small com¬
munities of Estonian and Latvian immigrants inSiberia. Indeed, for a time, "the blossoming ofnational cultures", became a common phrase
in official communist propaganda.
{cultural assimilationUnfortunately, by the mid-1930s the blossomshad begun to fade. The authorities had discov¬
ered that their policy did not accelerate thedevelopment of communism and sometimeseven hindered it. Although it was never publiclyannounced, a policy of cultural assimilation forminority groups began to be encouraged.
In many parts of the country, especiallythose traditionally influenced by the RussianOrthodox Church, the cultural differencesbetween rural people of different ethnic originswere not great, and the ethnic identities of var¬
ious minority groups were not very pronounced.In these regions, acculturation was a slow butsteady process, and as the years went by lin¬guistic and cultural boundaries disappeared.
For example, Russians had lived for cen-J\ team of reindeer in the
Kamchatka peninsula.
turies among the Komi, a Finno-Ugric peoplewho formed the majority of the local populationon the banks of the lower Pechora river in thenorth of European Russia. Over time, thenumber of Russians living in the area grew and
so did the influence of their language, untilRussian came to be used in the school systemand all the local Komi became bilingual.
Many years ago, I met a Komi fishermanwho told me a story which ended with a quiteextraordinary sentence. Although the speaker
didn't realize it, all the roots and auxiliary wordshe used were Russian, though the grammar was
still Komi. It went something like this: Takeoff-tim ring-ie and ñndout-tim that duck-js spend-
winter-íowíí France-;)'«. (In this anghcizationthe Komi suffixes have been left as they wereused by my informant.)
I have not been in this part of Russia fortwenty-five years and do not know for surewhether this dialect is still in use, but even if itis, it has been so strongly influenced by Russian
that it is no longer an effective tool for main¬
taining Komi culture. This linguistic mixturehas no chance of competing with Russian even
as a basic means of communication, especially
since thousands of newcomers came to theregion in the 1970s to work in the oilfields and
many of the Komi fisherman became industrialworkers.
This story illustrates a typical process of lin¬
guistic change within the acculturation process.
However, it is not the only possible result ofcross-cultural contact. If two ethnic groupscome into sudden contact and a marked gap
exists between them, it is very likely that one ofthe cultures will die quickly, especially if it is gen¬
erally perceived to have less prestige than theother. Deculturation may have tragic conse¬
quences for the weaker ethnic group. It usu¬
ally leads to widespread distress within the com¬
munity, high crime rates, mass alcoholism,declining life expectancy. A culturally uniquehuman group may even become extinct. Thisthreat now hangs over many small ethnicminorities that are scattered in the depths ofthe Siberian taiga forests and Arctic tundra of theFar North. 13
¡he threat of cultural extinctionIn the late sixteenth and the seventeenth centuries,
the Russians took over the area known as Siberia
^vithout much fighting. They did not e\'en consider
the area to be foreign territorj'. For centuriesRussia had no eastem border and Russian pioneers
simply moved further and further eastward. Mostof them settled permanently on a narrow strip ofland in southern Siberia, where cultivation was
possible, and the few who settled further northoften lost their Russian language.
The local societies were highly stable untilthe 1930s, when the importance of the timberand mineral resources in the Far North was
realized. They had no special educational insti¬tutions, but from early childhood girls learnedfemale skills from their mothers, and youngboys learned male roles from their fathers andolder brothers. The authority of grandparentswas undisputed and any serious problemcuring the sick, locating hidden things, sendinga dead soul to the upper world was solvedwith the help of a shaman. (The word shamancomes from theTungus language.)
The situation began to change in 1924 withthe formation of the Committee for Assistingthe Peoples ofthe Far North. This committee led
to the creation of administrative offices to help
different ethnic groups change their ways fromtraditional to communist "in one step, duringthe life of one generation".
The first Russian teachers came to remoteSiberian areas in the late 1920s. At that time, text¬
books for primary schools were written in at
least thirteen of the languages of the North, buttheir content was the same: biographies of Leninand Stalin, the crimes of the predatory czarist
regime, the deeds of the heroes of the revolu¬
tion, the achievements of industrialization and
collectivization.The books for Siberian minorities also had a
section dealing with local affairs. The essence ofit was that old people lack any true knowledge,all their habits are wrong, traditional culture is
a silly jumble of ignorance and prejudices, and
shamans are servants of the counter-revolutionwho deceive people to achieve their ignoblegoals and stop the development of communism.
Komnata
ausikci
tatusikci
jlUMKCl. JatuMKcl.
gagBini.
digasikci
guasikci
ÍDlgaMKCl. ITtlOAiHCl.
îa »,
Right, a Komi story-teller.
Left, illustrations from a
primer in the Udihe
language showing boarding
school life. The book was
burned by the authorities
in 1938.
In those days, no-one even consideredwhether or not communist concepts made sense
for traditional societies of hunters and gatherers.
It was assumed that collectivization and indus¬
trialization would form the economic foundationof their new cultures, and traditional land tenureand social organization were declared reactionary.
Thus people were deprived of their lands and
rivers, the very foundations of their life.
An enemy ofthe peoplewhile traditional cultures were ruined, nativelanguages were sometimes still used, especiallyin schools for a time. However, in 1938,
Eugene Schneider, the author and translator ofthe first books in the Udihe language, wasdenounced as "an enemy ofthe people", arrested
and shot. One of my informants remembershow KGB agents came to his village, gathered all
the books from families and the school libraryand took them into a courtyard, where theywere set on fire. The bonfire burned through the
night and in the morning my informant, whowas a young boy at the time, managed to steal a
half-burnt favourite book of folklore. Thewritten language of Udihe was banned.
For many other languages, misfortunearrived soon afterwards as a result of a newpolicy whereby children were sent away fromtheir families to study in boarding schools. Atfirst, the boarding schools were intended forchildren from semi-nomadic groups in whichfamilies were scattered across large stretches ofterritory because they were shepherding Arctic 35
»'à -r f r .7 rî;-;.».».t
V r* H ^ BB^ _:_T« ï » ff a:5 ! ! »
R
IthEït
A camp of Komi reindeerfarmers in the tundra(above left).
/\ residential quarter in
Syktyvkar, capital of theKomi Republic (above
right).
VLADIMIR BELIKOVis the senior research fellow ofthe Pacific Department at theInstitute of Oriental Studies ofthe Russian Academy ofSciences. Since 1989 he has
been working on a series oftextbool<s on the ethniclanguage of the Udihe minorityof the Russian Far East
reindeer or hunting wild animals. But soon theboarding schools were established even in large
villages and children were only allowed to spend
time with their relatives on Sundays.Gradually, the only language of instruction
became Russian. Sometimes children were for¬
bidden to speak their mother tongue in the schoolbuilding. Parents did not protest, and even ifthey had protested it might not have made muchdifference because their children considered themarchaic because ties between the generations had
been broken. Even folk-tales, which were centralto traditional cultures, were lost.
Meanwhile, Russians became more numerous
in the remote parts of Siberia, and more influen¬tial in local administration. Neither they nor theRussian communist elite paid any attention to thetraditions and real needs of the people. Then, in1957, the death sentence was imposed on manySiberian languages by a Communist Party reso¬
lution, "On the Measures for Further Economicand Cultural Development of the Peoples of theNorth."
f\n irreversible processA key measure within the resolution called forcombining the settlements of ethnic minoritiesand transferring them, which meant closingschools, shops and medical posts in small, old vil¬
lages and forcibly relocating Siberian minorities.With this measure, people were deprived of theirtraditional hunting and fishing grounds and scat¬
tered among large numbers of newcomers. As a
result, even those groups that used to have offi¬cial territorial autonomy became small minoritiesin the new settlements. The history of the ethniccomposition of the Chukchi AutonomousRegion serves as an example. Between 1926 and1989, the total population of the region increased
elevenfold, from 15 thousand to 164 thousand. Inthe same period, the Chukchi component sankfrom 79 per cent to 2.4 per cent, while the per¬
centage of Russian and other newcomers rosefrom 2 per cent to 95.3 per cent.
These days, the degree of knowledge of an
ethnic language depends on general ethno-ecology in the region in which it is used; thewritten status of ethnic languages isn't changingvery much. Extreme examples of this are pro¬vided by the modern position of two Siberianlanguages, Oroks and Nganasan, neither ofwhich have been used in schools or in print.
The homeland of the Oroks people lies onthe mainland opposite the island of Sakhalin. Itwas heavily invaded by Russians in the 1930s,
when railroads, new towns and seaports werebuilt. In the new surroundings there was noplace for traditional culture and no reason foryoung people to acquire any language exceptRussian. As a result, by 1989 only 15 per cent ofthe Oroks people had any knowledge of theirethnic language at all.
On the other hand, the Nganasans, whowander with their reindeer on the Taymyr penin¬
sula, managed until recently to preserve many oftheir traditional habits and cultures. Their land is
characterized by an extremely severe Arctic cli¬
mate and has attracted hardly any immigrants.Even the system of boarding schools didn't affectthem until the 1960s. The 1989 survey foundthat 90 per cent of the population still had some
knowledge of their language.
In recent years, perestroika has prompted therenewal of ethnic nationalism among manygroups in the former U.S.S.R., but not amongSiberian minorities. In the last few decades, tal¬
ented Siberian youths have been drawn to Russian
culture and left their villages. Some of them have
good jobs in the cities while others have comeback to the Far North as teachers and physi¬cians. But they have lost their ethnic identity.
Efforts to revive local languages and cul¬
tures in Siberia are now doomed to failure.People are ashamed to speak their ethnic lan¬
guages or to distinguish themselves from Rus¬
sians. Many consider Russians the best mar¬riage partners. "Our children will be morebeautiful," they explain, "and more happy."
L..
THE CHICKEN AND THE BANANA
SOME ofthe world's most unusual languagesare spoken in the Santa Cruz Islands, a vol¬canic archipelago located between the
Solomon Islands and the islands of Vanuatu (for¬merly the New Hebrides) in the southwesternPacific. The languages, which belong to a small,interrelated group, are spoken by a populationnumbering about 5,000. They are remarkable forthe ways in which they subdivide and minutely cat¬
egorize the world into sets or classes some fortyof them in all, each indicated by a special prefix.
Some of these classes of words reflect complexways of thinking. In one of the languages, Ayiwo,for example, the basic meaning of the v/orApaais "sliver", but it never occurs without a classprefix. It may be combined with nyi-, the pointedobjects class prefix, to make nyi-paa, which means"a chip", or, literally, "a pointed sliver". Withthe prefix no-, which refers to indistinctly sepa¬rated parts of a whole, it becomes no-paa, whichmeans "pieces of bark peeling off a tree trunk", or,literally, "slivers indistinctly separated and stillattached to the thing to which they belong and ofwhich they form a part". When preceded bynyo-, the class prefix for moving away into thedistance, it makes nyo-paa, which means "type ofarrow" or, more exactly, "sliver-type object thatmoves away into the distance". With te-, theclass prefix for something foreign, particularly ofPolynesian provenance, it becomes te-paa,meaning "a nail", literally a "sliver of foreignmetal, probably of Polynesian origin".
Another such word is -modyi, which means"concept of the right hand and strength". It alsoonly occurs with prefixes of this kind, so thatwhen combined with lo-, the class prefix foracquisition through labour and effort, it makes lo-modyi, which means "small adze", literally"something used for acquiring something elsethrough labour and effort by one's strong righthand". Combined with mo-, the class prefix forextending far, it becomes mo-modyi, meaning a"small outrigger canoe", or, in the literal transla¬tion, "something that goes far when using one'sstrong right hand for paddling". And with oyä-,the mangrove class prefix, oyä-modyi means "atype of mangrove with very strong wood".
Another feature of this language is that manyof its nouns are descriptions based on verbs, witha class prefix added. The verb va, for instance,means "to be immature". When class prefixesare added to it, the following words emerge. Theaddition of the masculine human class prefix, gi-,produces gi-va meaning "male baby". The addi¬tion oí si-, the feminine human class prefix, pro¬duces si-va meaning "female baby". Me-va means"human babies" {me being the collective humanclass prefix). Pi-va means "adolescent" (pi beingthe prefix for the half-developed human class).
Va-, is the prefix for the chicken class so thatvä-va means "small chicken". And since h- isthe banana class prefix, u-va means "small, unde¬veloped banana".
While such multiple class systems, thoughwith fewer classes, occur in other parts of theworld, the Santa Cruz Island languages addanother highly complicated, quite different classsystem to indicate possession, with the objectpossessed determining which of the numerouspossessive classes should appear in any givencase. For instance, if someone wants to say thata chicken belongs to them, the word indicating"my" would be different depending on whetherthe chicken was thought of as food or as a pet.What's more, the chicken class prefix wouldalso have to be added to the "my" word chosen.
Verbs are also put into classes indicated byprefixes, according to whether the actionreferred to is carried out using one's hand, a
tool, or a knife. For example, vä-gäte means"to tear apart by hand", while tä-gäte means "totear apart with a tool" and lä-gäte means "to slitwith a knife". Other prefixes indicate otheractivities carried out by exerting energy, or con¬stituting a single violent action, etc.
There is also a system that uses verbs to pre¬cisely indicate the location of an action in rela¬tion to the speaker (i.e. near, at some distance,behind, near the person addressed, or not closeto either the speaker or the person addressed,etc.); the general direction of the speaker or theperson addressed (upwards or downwards); andthe direction ofthe action (towards the speaker,or the person addressed, or a third person).
Vä-va (a small chicken) and
u-va (small bananas).
Elgeklrt
This text was compiled by
Stephen Wurm frominformation supplied by
speakers of the languages ofthe Santa Cruz Islands,
especially Patrick Bwakolo,
John Mealue and Ini Lapli. 37
For Chinese immigrants in Australia, overcoming cultural differences
can be ¡ust as nerve-wracking as learning a new language
38
OF GIFTS AND GAFFEjbyjia Tian "
A Chinese woman who has lived in Aus¬tralia for more than twenty years recendytold me the following storj'. Shortly after
she arrived in the country, already speakingfluent English, she had a birthday and an Aus¬tralian friend invited her over for dinner to cel¬ebrate. When she turned up at the house, she waspresented with a gift wrapped in beautiful paper.She thanked her friend profusely and put theparcel away. Puzzled by her response, the Aus¬tralian asked, "Don't you want to open it?"The Chinese woman replied, "Oh, no, no! Idon't want to open it now! Certainly not!" Itwas not unül much later that she realized that shehad unwittingly made a "cultural mistake".While it is generally considered common cour¬tesy in Chinese culture not to open gifts imme¬diately in front of the giver, Anglo-Australianculture takes the opposite point of view.
It is often said that one of the biggest chal¬lenges for people who have emigrated to a newcountry is learning a new language, and it istrue that many Asian immigrants to Australiafind it difficult to learn English. However, evenwhen they speak the language excellently, theycan still find themselves making social blundersbecause of their lack of knowledge of differentcultural values and customs.
Language and ritualImmigrants may encounter a variety of diffi¬culties if they are not aware of these cultural dif¬ferences. When two people brought up in theChinese culture meet in the street, they often ask:"Where are you going?" {nishang narqua?") or"Have you had your meal?" {"ni chi fan lema?'). Greetings such as these may be regardedby people from English-speaking backgroundsas intrusive, irritating and rather odd, becauserespect for an individual's privacy is a widely-accepted cultural concept in most English-speaking countries.
Typical ways of greeting people in Australiainclude "How are you?" and "How are youdoing?". Although phrased as questionsshowing concern for the addressee's well-being,they are actually not meant to be taken literally.
Left, street scene in Broome,Western Australia.
Kight, welcome to Sydney's
Chinatown.
They are examples of the ritual phrases ofgreeting which are a salient feature of most lan¬guages. In general, speakers would expect a
ritual answer such as "Fine" or "Not bad", eventhough the addressee may not actually feel well.
Many Chinese immigrants find it hard tounderstand why their Anglo-Australian friendsand colleagues expect them to give a positivereply to such questions instead of a truthfulone. Some have asked me, "If they don't reallywant to know how I feel, then why ask me allthese questions? It's pure hypocrisy!" It maytake years before they realize that they aremaking assumptions based on Chinese culturalnorms and codes of behaviour.
Sometimes an Anglo-Australian might greetsomeone by saying: "Hello! You're lookingsmart today!" Here the speaker may not bereferring to the addressee's dress sense but beasking a tactful question such as: "Would youplease tell me whom you are going to see/whereyou are going?" To which the response might be:
"Oh, I have to see my boss today" or "We'rehaving a party tonight."
In many Asian cultures, when friends oracquaintances run into each other in the street,they stop and exchange greetings, which are
followed by short or lengthy conversations,depending on the closeness of their friendship.It is considered rude to simply say "Hello",and keep walking. Even if one of the partieshas urgent business, he or she is still expected tostop and answer questions politely.
In Australia, however, where people aremore casual, it is quite acceptable for someoneto say, "Sorr)', mate, I have to hurry" or simply"Hello!" and keep on walking. Chinese immi¬grants who do not understand Australian casu-alness and informality interpret such behaviouras abrupt and unfriendly.
Eat! Eatl EatlChinese immigrants often feel confused on socialoccasions. The following scenario is typical. AChinese immigrant couple invite their Aus¬tralian friends to dinner at their home. When theAustralian guests arrive, their host and hostesspoint to the sofa and say, "Please! Mn and Mrs.Smith. Sit! Sit! Sit!" Somewhat startled, theAustralian guests sit down without saying any¬thing. After a few drinks, the guests are asked totake their places at the dinner table. The hostessbrings food to the table and the host, pointing atthe food with his chopsticks, urges his guestswith great enthusiasm, "Please! Mr. and Mrs.Smith. Eat! Eat! Eat!"
The guests, knowing little about Chineseculture, appear ill at ease. The hosts, on theother hand, repeat, "Please! Don't just sit there!Eat! Eat! Eat!" Now the Australian guests lookeven more uneasy, thinking to themselves thattheir hosts' manners are rather odd. In the mean¬time, the hosts are increasingly bewildered bytheir guests' reticence. They do not realize thatthey have just made a "cultural mistake".
Whereas in Australia, hosts often show their
hospitality by using phrases such as "Would youlike to sit down?" or "Please make yourself athome", their Chinese equivalents say, "Zuo! Zuo!Zuo!" and " Chi! Chi! Chi!" which literally means,"Sit! Sit! Sit!" and "Eat! Eat! Eat!" The repetitionof the words "sit" and "eat" is an attempt to createan informal, hospitable atmosphere.
What the immigrant host and hostess failedto understand was that "Sit! Sit! Sit!" and "Eat!Eat! Eat!" are imperatives that in English areusually reserved for commands for young chil¬dren and pet dogs. Because they transplantedtheir original cultural scripts to the Australiansetting, they achieved the opposite of what theyhad hoped for: they made their guests nervousand uncomfortable.
N.lever say noIn many Asian cultures, gift-giving involvesreciprocity and mutual obligations. In the Chi¬nese culture, for example, when someone isgiven a gift, he or she is expected to give some¬thing back of equal value. To do otherwise is a
breach of etiquette.This give-and-take is an important aspect
of Chinese culture. It promotes friendship, cre¬ates harmony and strengthens bonds amongfamily members, relatives, friends and col¬leagues. Yet in the Anglo-Australian culture,gift-giving is seen merely as a way of sayingthank-you or showing appreciation. Often therecipient is under no obligation to give a presentin return. Instead, he or she might offer to dosomething useful for the giver such as helpingthem move house or looking after their petswhile they are on holiday. Because of these dif¬ferences, many Chinese immigrants feel hurtwhen their Anglo-Australian colleagues orfriends accept gifts with a mere thank-you .
'¡>< : . ':>!*:Above, students at theUniversity of Sydney.
Left, in Sydney,
Australians of Chinese and
non-Chinese originperform a Chinese dragondance during thecelebration of Chun ¡ie, the
Spring Festival.
Declining and accepting invitations alsocause problems. In the Chinese culture, peopleusually abide by the principle of reciprocitywhen they receive a dinner invitation. In otherwords, they are expected to return the hospi¬tality soon afterwards. Under normal circum¬stances, those invited try to attend the dinner, butif they have other commitments or do not likethe host, they decline the invitation with anexcuse. The excuses are often "white lies", butthe host accepts them because he or she under¬stands that they are a way of turning down aninvitation in a diplomatic, indirect and mostimportant of all, culturally acceptable way.
This is perhaps the area in which many Chi¬nese immigrants in Australia experience thegreatest "culture shock". An important con¬cept in the Chinese culture is "saving face" {geimian zi), which may be translated, depending onthe circumstances, as preserving someone's prideor ego, respecting the dignity of others, nothurting somebody's feelings or not puttinganother person in an embarrassing position.
When declining an invitation, people from theChinese culture try their best to "save face" forthe other party by not using the word "no",which is considered offensive.
Because of this, some Chinese immigrantsfeel deeply offended by Australians who declineinvitadons in a straightforward way: "Sorry mate,I can't come tonight. I have to fix my lawn-mower." Such a reply is often interpreted byChinese immigrants as unpleasant or downrightrude. The misunderstandings here are not reallycaused by the words but by the casual manner ofAnglo-Australians, which differs considerablyfrom the greater formality of the Chinese.
Language is a reflection of culture. It is justas important for migrants to learn to under¬stand a new culture as it is to master a new lan¬guage. At present, the resources of languageteaching for migrants tend to be too narrowlyfocused. Only when the dynamic relationshipbetween language and culture is fully under¬stood can a language be learned properly andused appropriately.
JIA TIANis an Australian journalist whohas published many essays,
reviews and features on thearts, theatre and films in
various Chinese- and English-language newspapers,magazines and journals. She Is
currently preparing a study onAsian immigrants in Australiaat the Australian NationalUniversity. 41
UNESCO IN ACTIONNEWSBRIEFS
pi III HI I lyMIMILilBMIMiafciM^átiJ
ENEMY ON DISKEUEThe 3rd edition ofthe Unesco
International Directory of New andRenewable Energy InformationSources and Research Centres has
just been published by James &James Science Publishers, London.The volume, which contains 3,864entries, is the printed version ofthe ENERGY database, alsoavailable on diskettes and CD-ROM, which provides informationon governmental organizations,research and information centres,professional and trade associations,networks, training and educationinstitutions, databanks, journalsand reference publications in 1 72countries. Further information onthe database may be obtainedfrom: the Engineering andTechnology Division, Unesco, I,rue Miollis, 7S732 Pans Cedex IS,France. Tel: (33-1) 45 68 39 41;fax: (33-1) 40 65 95 35.
EINSTEIN ON THE BEACH
The 1993 Unesco Einstein GoldMedal, struck in 1979 tocommemorate the 1 00thanniversary of the birth of thegreat scientist, has been presentedby the Director-General toAustralia's Great Barrier ReefMarine Park Authority. The awardrecognizes the Authority'soutstanding contribution to theconservation of World Heritageand the advancement ofenvironmental education.
AWARDS FOR SAVINC THE SEAS
March 1st 1994 is the deadline forthe receipt of applications for theInternational Marine EnvironmentAward established by the WorldUnderwater Federation (CMAS) tohonour a person, organization orcompany whose work has made a
major contribution to theprotection of the marineenvironment CMAS, which wasfounded in 1959 by the Frenchunderwater explorer Jacques-Yves
Cousteau, seeks to developunderwater activities in fieldsincluding sport, science, educationand archaeology. It currently has a
membership of several millionpeople from more than 80countries. The prize, together withthe Prince Tomohito MikasaInternational Marine Award, will bepresented at a ceremony to be
held at Unesco's ParisHeadquarters in September.Application forms are availablefrom Marine Awards, CMAS, VialeTiziano, 74-00 1 96 Rome, Italy.
OPEN DOORS AT UNESCO
Free guided tours of UnescoHeadquarters, including lecturesand filmshows, are available onrequest during weekdays. Bothindividual visitors and groups arewelcome. For further information,please contact Visitors' Service, 7place de Fontenoy, 75352 Paris 07SP (tel: 45 68 03 71). The nearestMetro stations are Segur orCambronne.
UNESCO ISSUES 1 NEW MEDALS
What do the following have incommon: the Old Town ofDubrovnik; the Jesuit Guaranírepublic; Pablo Picasso; JawaharlalNehru; and the UniversalDeclaration of Human Rights? Theanswer is that they have all
featured on Unescocommemorative medals. Since
1 974 Unesco has issued two medalseries, one illustrating threatenedmonuments and sites, the otherdevoted to anniversaries ofeminent people or historic events.The most recent additionscelebrated respectively the 1 00thanniversary of the birth of theCatalan painter Joan Miró and theinclusion of the city of Potosí(Bolivia) on the World HeritageList By purchasing the medals,which are struck at the Paris Mintin vermeil, silver and bronze,people can contribute to Unesco'sefforts to preserve the culturalheritage and to promoteunderstanding between peoples.The medals may be obtained fromUNESCO's Philatelic andNumismatic Service, 7, place deFontenoy, 75700 Paris.
CORRECTION
We apologise for an error in theshort article on the monuments ofPagan (Myanmar) that appeared onpage 72 of the July-August 1993issue of the Courier. In the secondparagraph, "the temple of Ananda"should have read "the temple ofNanpaya".
COHHENTABY
byFederico
Mayor
This article is one
of aseries in wliicli
the Director-General of
Unesco sets out his
thinking on nnatters of
current concern
THE SPIRIT PF GRANADA
UNESCO is proud to have organized last December in
Granada (Spain), an international symposium at which
Israeli, Arab and European intellectuals met to discuss
the intellectual aspects of the Israeli-Palestinian reconciliation
process.
Among all the geopolitical, ideological and strategic changes
that mark the tumultuous closing years of this century, it is
inspiring to see the desire for reconciliation expressed by two
parties who have long been embroiled in conflicts so absolute
and so deep-rooted that many had given up all hope. At the
beginning of the 1 980s, anyone who had predicted such devel¬
opments as the ending of the Cold War, the dismantling ofapartheid in South Africa, or Israeli-Palestinian dialogue would
have been greeted with derision.
The process that has brought Israelis and Palestinians to the
negotiating table is also of enormous, and universal, moral
significance.
TRAMSFORMIMC DESTINY
A tribute is due to the architects of this reconciliation, those
responsible for the historic gesture made in Washington in
September 1993. Transcending the tragic scenario of resentment
and mistrust, they demonstrated courage, reason and vision.
They preferred the sweet promise of future innocence, however
fragile, to the bitterness of experience. In so doing, and inaccepting the risks they were running, they reflected what is
most noble in human nature, for, as Aimé Césaire has observed,
"man is distinguished by a special propensity to defy destiny
and transform it into history."What they have done is truly a challenge to destiny. The idea
of peace, now miraculously illuminating the sky of the Middle
East, is very fragile. We must all join in the efforts of the peo¬
ples of that region to ensure that peace is strengthened. Polit¬
ical co-operation, economic development and the reduction ofmilitary spending are certainly necessary for that. However, Ibelieve that the essential task is to let the idea of peace take rootand to consolidate the moral and intellectual solidarity of indi¬
viduals and peoples.
The ethical, cultural and human aspects of peace are ofparamount importance. Without them, no political or eco¬
nomic agreement can be viable. With them, the culture of peace
can be firmly grounded in all areas of the life of society; national
capacities can be built up and strengthened; knowledge and skills
can be mobilized, and the potential of each individual can be
developed for the common good.
Almost fifty years ago, UNESCO defined as its most impor¬
tant goal the combat against racism, antisemitism, prejudice and
stereotypes, and the defence of human rights and peace, hoping
to prevent any return of the hideous ideology of which the
Jewish people had been the victim. Later, in accordance withthose same aims, UNESCO undertook various activities designed
to help the Palestinian people, deprived of sovereignty and
forced into exile, in several Middle Eastern countries. For years
the Israeli-Arab conflict, with its many reverberations withinthe international community, caused heart-rending divisions in
Unesco.These rifts now belong to UNESCO's past. But the values set
forth in its Constitution notably the need to construct the
defences of peace in the minds of men and to strengthen the
moral and intellectual solidarity to which I alluded above shine
out with undiminished radiance and are more relevant than ever.
A NEW CHAPTER IN HISTORY
The past cannot be changed. The future, unlike the past, is not
yet written; it can be changed. It is the only part of our common
heritage that is still intact. The key to the relaxation of tension,
understanding, good neighbourliness, solidarity, conciliation
and reconciliation is the "memory of the future" rather than
memory of the past. However long the conflict lasts, there
always comes a moment when the adversaries shake hands. We
must strive to ensure that this moment comes as soon as pos¬
sible, so as to avoid immense suffering, so that people do not die
for causes that deserve to be lived for.
Of course, the memory of those who have been wounded
in their person or their dignity during the long years of con¬
frontation must be respected. Morality no less than practical
reason demands it since a common future cannot be built on the
flouting of memory. Yet while forgetting is impossible, deter¬
mination to open a new chapter in history can ensure that the
memory of the future prevails over that of the past. It is nec¬
essary to look beyond present realities. "Only those who can
see the invisible can achieve the impossible". Shortsightedness
in politics has already caused too much harm. We must now dis¬
cover new ways of seeing. 43
THE SPIRIT PF GRANADA
UNESCO is proud to have organized last December in
Granada (Spain), an international symposium at which
Israeli, Arab and European intellectuals met to discuss
the intellectual aspects of the Israeli-Palestinian reconciliation
process.
Among all the geopolitical, ideological and strategic changes
that mark the tumultuous closing years of this century, it is
inspiring to see the desire for reconciliation expressed by two
parties who have long been embroiled in conflicts so absolute
and so deep-rooted that many had given up all hope. At the
beginning of the 1 980s, anyone who had predicted such devel¬
opments as the ending of the Cold War, the dismantling ofapartheid in South Africa, or Israeli-Palestinian dialogue would
have been greeted with derision.
The process that has brought Israelis and Palestinians to the
negotiating table is also of enormous, and universal, moral
significance.
TRAMSFORMIMC DESTINY
A tribute is due to the architects of this reconciliation, those
responsible for the historic gesture made in Washington in
September 1993. Transcending the tragic scenario of resentment
and mistrust, they demonstrated courage, reason and vision.
They preferred the sweet promise of future innocence, however
fragile, to the bitterness of experience. In so doing, and inaccepting the risks they were running, they reflected what is
most noble in human nature, for, as Aimé Césaire has observed,
"man is distinguished by a special propensity to defy destiny
and transform it into history."What they have done is truly a challenge to destiny. The idea
of peace, now miraculously illuminating the sky of the Middle
East, is very fragile. We must all join in the efforts of the peo¬
ples of that region to ensure that peace is strengthened. Polit¬
ical co-operation, economic development and the reduction ofmilitary spending are certainly necessary for that. However, Ibelieve that the essential task is to let the idea of peace take rootand to consolidate the moral and intellectual solidarity of indi¬
viduals and peoples.
The ethical, cultural and human aspects of peace are ofparamount importance. Without them, no political or eco¬
nomic agreement can be viable. With them, the culture of peace
can be firmly grounded in all areas of the life of society; national
capacities can be built up and strengthened; knowledge and skills
can be mobilized, and the potential of each individual can be
developed for the common good.
Almost fifty years ago, UNESCO defined as its most impor¬
tant goal the combat against racism, antisemitism, prejudice and
stereotypes, and the defence of human rights and peace, hoping
to prevent any return of the hideous ideology of which the
Jewish people had been the victim. Later, in accordance withthose same aims, UNESCO undertook various activities designed
to help the Palestinian people, deprived of sovereignty and
forced into exile, in several Middle Eastern countries. For years
the Israeli-Arab conflict, with its many reverberations withinthe international community, caused heart-rending divisions in
Unesco.These rifts now belong to UNESCO's past. But the values set
forth in its Constitution notably the need to construct the
defences of peace in the minds of men and to strengthen the
moral and intellectual solidarity to which I alluded above shine
out with undiminished radiance and are more relevant than ever.
A NEW CHAPTER IN HISTORY
The past cannot be changed. The future, unlike the past, is not
yet written; it can be changed. It is the only part of our common
heritage that is still intact. The key to the relaxation of tension,
understanding, good neighbourliness, solidarity, conciliation
and reconciliation is the "memory of the future" rather than
memory of the past. However long the conflict lasts, there
always comes a moment when the adversaries shake hands. We
must strive to ensure that this moment comes as soon as pos¬
sible, so as to avoid immense suffering, so that people do not die
for causes that deserve to be lived for.
Of course, the memory of those who have been wounded
in their person or their dignity during the long years of con¬
frontation must be respected. Morality no less than practical
reason demands it since a common future cannot be built on the
flouting of memory. Yet while forgetting is impossible, deter¬
mination to open a new chapter in history can ensure that the
memory of the future prevails over that of the past. It is nec¬
essary to look beyond present realities. "Only those who can
see the invisible can achieve the impossible". Shortsightedness
in politics has already caused too much harm. We must now dis¬
cover new ways of seeing. 43
R
Arnold Toynbee
The way to coexistence
In 1935, as the dictators were
tightening theirgrip on Europe, the
International Institute ofIntellectual Co-operation organized
a conference in London on the theme
ofcollective security. One oftheparticipants was the English
historianArnold Toynbee (1889-
1975), author ofthe vast and
controversialA Study of History(1934-1961), which seeks to elucidate
the laws governing the birth and
evolution ofcivilizations. Inface ofthe dangers presented by the rise ofauthoritarian nationalism, he
proposed as a route to peaceful
coexistence the creation ofa new
world order established by mutualconsent on supra-national
foundations.
44
Oim Rapporteur, Maurice Bourquin,has explained the fundamental dif¬
ference between the notion of indi¬
vidual securityand that ofcollective securityin the following words:
"Nations have always sought to obtainsecurity, that is, to protect themselvesagainst external aggression. How have theygone about it? In the first place, they have
tried to organize and to increase their ownforces; the natural, instinctive reaction,under the circumstances, is to rely upononeself.
"The principal form that this reactiontakes is clearly the policy ofnational arma¬
ments. Then, by a logical consequence,this policy of armaments gives rise to a
policy of alliances."There is already, in this policy of
alliances, a sort of collaboration; but thiscollaboration is scarcely different in spiritfrom the purely individualistic method.What is it that distinguishes the collectivesolution from this formula? The aim hereis not the special security of a few states,
Arnold Toynbee in 1975.
but the security ofall. A collective organi¬
zation of security is not directed againstone particular aggression, but against warconsidered as a common danger. Theorganization ofa system ofcollective secu¬
rity is a new experience which separates us
from tradition. Are there profound rea¬
sons for trying to induce the states to takethis path? Do this conception and thissystem lie within the domain of practicalpossibilities? Or have we here a Utopia,an idea which is perhaps seductive butwhich is unattainable?"
One very obvious difference betweenthe two notions lies in the fact that indi¬vidual security is a considerably oldernotion than collective security. As our Rap¬
porteur pointed out, collective security is
a very recent idea. Really it is only in ourown life-time that collective security has
begun to be seriously studied as a practicalpossibility.
The idea of individual security is older.I would like to say in passing that it is nota very old idea. It hardly goes back morethan four hundred years, and four hun¬
dred years is a short period even in thehistory of our Western World. The notionof individual security would have beenquite antipathetic and alien to ourmedieval forefathers, who would haveregarded it as a frankly immoral and anti-Christian idea, in which I believe theywould have been right. At the moment Iwill simply point out that this idea of indi¬vidual security has held the field for aboutfour centuries.
Then, rather abruptly, in our genera¬
tion we find ourselves being compelledto consider, and reconsider, and comeback to this new idea of collective security.
The question one asks oneself then is, why,
when individual security has apparentlymore or less worked for a period of fourhundred years, we should suddenly findthat it no longer suffices.
I think the answer is that, while absolute
local sovereignty has been the theory ofour international life for four centuries, ithas by no means been the practice tillquite recently. During the greater part ofthe modern age, the Western world has
been partíy insufficiently equipped, andpartly too wise and too much under theinfluence of an older and a better traditionto carry out the principle of local sover¬
eignty and the allied principle of indi¬vidual security to their extreme logicalconclusion. It is only in our generationthat we have seen the absolute totalitarianstate a local totalitarian state emerge
from the theoretical handbooks of thejurist or poliücal philosopher and becomea living reality in the actual world.
That is why the present situation is so
serious, because a development towardsabsolute local sovereignty, which has been
implicit in our history for four centuries,has in our generation suddenly become a
reality.I hold it is controversial, but I throw it
dovm for discussion that this principle is
essentially imworkable, and that as soon as
the principle is really put into effect as itis being put into effect in our generationwe are bound to seek a remedy for it. Ifabsolute local sovereignty and a completeapplication of the principle of individualsecurity had been in actual operationduring the whole of the modern age, dis¬
aster would have overtaken us long ago.
Then let me make a further point fromthat, that when once you have a worldconsisting of sixty or seventy local states,
which are putting into practice completelocal sovereignty, then such a conditionof internatíonal affairs is by its very naturetransitory. One can prophesy with assur¬
ance that, a hundred years from now, orfifty years from now, if states continue totry to be absolute in their local sovereignty,
there will not be sixty or seventy separatesovereign states in the world; there will be
far fewer of them perhaps only one!Often in life, I think, one finds oneself in
a situation something like this: that one
can see that there is a certain goal ahead ofone which is inevitable, which one isbound to travel to; and I think in our inter¬
national life the inevitable goal now ahead
ofus is the abolition ofabsolute local sov¬
ereignty but often in such a situationone still has a choice of the roads by whichone may approach the single inevitablegoal; and, of course, it makes the whole dif¬
ference, very often, which ofthe roads wechoose. The single goal maybe inevitable;the alternative roads offer us a choice; and
it is desperately important to make thebetter choice rather than the worse choicebetweeen the alternative ways of reaching
the single goal which we must ultimatelyarrive at.
If our goal is the disappearance of localsovereignty and I think that, in a woridarmed with the powers of technique andorganization which we possess, it is hardlya controversial thing to say that communi¬ties armed with those powers cannot exist
side by side in the same world, for long,without disaster overwhelming us all, ifthey claim absolute local sovereignty if,
then, absolute local sovereignty is doomedto disappear, is bound to disappear, whatare the two alternative roads by which wemay approach its disappearance?
I think that, as always, there are roughlytwo ways. One of them is evolutionary a
way by agreement and forethought andnon-violence. That is the road ofcollectivesecurity. If one wishes to solve this problemof reaching some kind ofworld order in a
peaceful way, then collective security is
the road. It is because we rightly feel theimmense importance of travelling by thatroad and not by the other that we arebrought back again and again to this insis¬
tent question of collective security now.
If we can achieve collective security, theabolition of sovereignty will be qualifiedand relative.
We must face the fact that collectivesecurity means a diminution of local sov¬
ereignty, but along this road the diminu¬tion will be gradual. The present localstates of the world will fit themselves byvoluntary agreement into a world orderin which they will each retain their localculture, their traditional life, their localadministrative autonomy. If local sover¬
eignty is got rid of in that way, the process
Text selected and presentedby Edgardo Canton
will hardly be felt as a loss or a sacrifice.So I would make an appeal to those pre¬
sent who stand for the view that nationalityand the local national life is the supremegood. I would say to them that the peoplewho hold that view a view from which I
personally dissent ought, more than anyof us, to be eager to achieve collectivesecurity, because collective security is theway in which the necessary sacrifice oflocal sovereignty will be exacted from us intlie least possible measure.
But if we fail to achieve collective secu¬
rity, there remains only the alternativeroad, which is a very ancient road and a
very familiar one, and that is the road ofviolence and conquest. These immenselyarrogant and highly armed totalitarianstates will in that case grind against each
other like icebergs in a stormy sea
clashing and grinding against each othertill they break each other to pieces andthe inevitable world order will come aboutin an ancient and a most destructive form,a form which will produce a totalitarianworld-state, the kind of super-state thatnone of us desires to see, a world-stateproduced by force and resulting in thecomplete destruction of local life and localautonomy.
If that does occur, perhaps there may be
one victorious survivor. I do not think thatthe fate of the victorious surviving state willbe appreciably happier or more pros¬perous than that ofthe other states whichit has destroyed. But if there is a survivor,I feel very certain it will not be my owncountry. I do not think it will be any Euro¬
pean country. It may not even be anycountry ofEuropean origin. We might have
great surprises, in a forcible unification ofthe world, in the matter ofthe actual state
or community which achieved the task inthe end. 45
The royalpakces ofAbomey
byjasmina Sopova
UNESCO IN ACTIONHERITAGE
46
A lion, emblem of KingGlèlè (1858-1889).
"The sliark who does notfear thecayman!
The king who saved Daiioitieyfromdishonour
Is theMasterofthe Universe who willfulfill the country's hopes!"
EAQi day at dawn Panlingan, crier ofthe court ofGezo, king ofDahomeyin the first half of the nineteenth
century; used to chant his sovereign's praisesin these words in the main courtj'ard oftheroyal palace ofAbomey. He would thenprostrate himself and throw dust over hishead. The custom had originated two cen¬turies earlier, when King Ouegbadja hadordered his court crier never to addressanyone without having first proclaimed hisglory. It passed down from king to king untilthe fall ofthe last ruler, Behanzin, a hundredyears ago.
Tlirough that same courtyard today, vis¬
itors enter one of Africa's largest ensem¬bles of historical monuments, the royalpalaces ofAbomey, a site which in 1985was placed on the List ofWorld Heritage inDanger.
The site, which extends over fortyhectares, includes not just tlie main palacecomplex, which now houses a museumand craft centre, but also an archaeolog¬ical zone containing the ruins ofother, ear¬lier palaces. Each ofthe two sections has a
tale to tell ofthe great kingdom's history Thearchaeological zone evokes its birth andgrowth as a small city-state, while the mainpalace complex recalls the golden age andthe decline of the kingdom, as well as itsenduring heritage.
A CENTRAUZED STATE
Located 1 60 kilometres north ofCotonou inwhat is now Benin, the town ofAbomeywas for three centuries the capital of theEon kingdom that was created around 1 620by Do Aklin, a prince of the royal Aliadafamily. His son Dako was to become thefirst king ofAbomey five years later, but itwas Dako's son Ouegbadja (1645-85) whomade the kingdom a powerful one.
Ouegbadja laid the foundations of asocial hierarchy whose pinnacle was thecourt; local chiefs were appointed by thecentral government Responsibility for ritualmatters was entrusted jointly to a priestand to a minister appointed by the sover¬eign. Having thereby distanced himselffrom religious affairs, the king was free toconcentrate on problems ofstate. The priv
ileges granted to the royal wives were sharedout equitably, thereby removing, in prin¬ciple at least, the risk ofjealousy or plots. Interms of political influence, none ofthewives could rival the queen mother,enthroned at the same time as her son andinvested with important administrativefunctions. An ingenious system ofsucces¬sion permitted the ruler to choose his ownheir, enabling him to distance his own sons,if necessarj', from the throne. Brothers ofthereigning sovereign were often killed as apreventive measure.
Thanks to its solid political, social andreligious organization, the tiny city-staterapidly became the principal power in theregion. Sadly, only one ruined entrywaysurvives ofthe palace of Ouegbadja, whowas considered the father of his country.
In 1685 Ouegbadja was succeeded byAkaba, vv+io continued the task ofenlargingand enriching the kingdom. He built adwelling for himself that had more thanone storey, a rarityat the time (though otherrulers were later to follow his example);one imposing wall still survives. Followingcustom, he built a new palace for himself
Above, thrones ofthe kings ofAbomey(Benin) are displayed in the ceremonial
throne-room.
Left, detail ofthe tapestry in the throne-
room.
near that of his predecessor, constructing anew precinct that was linked by passage¬ways to its neighbours.
The walls sim'oimding these inner enclo¬sures were dwarfed by the gigantic ram¬parts, from five to eight metres high, thatsurrounded the entire palace complex. Thefortress, which housed barracks for theroyal guard and was flanked by dwellings,was further protected by a ditch and a hugebarricade of thorns. At the height of thekingdom's prosperity, its outer walls
stretched for three kilometres. It is not hardto understand why the place becameknown as Abomey, which means "withinthe walls".
Sadly, the complex was twice ravagedby fire. In Akaba's reign, a conflagrationreduced much ofthe site to ashes. Two cen¬turies later, when the palace had been fur¬ther enriched with seven additional royalresidences, another fire this one starteddeliberately, as we shall see was to causefurther damage.
The remains of Akaba's palace and ofthe multi-storey cabin built by Agadja(1708-1740), his successor, provide valu¬able evidence of the time when thekingdom began to increase its links withthe coast so as to monopolize the provi¬sion ofslaves to European traders. The slave
trade had become the foundation of theeconomy ofDahomey, and it sparked fiercecompetition with the Yoruba of Oyo, whotook a share in the traffic and even man¬aged, between 1728 and 1818, to force foursuccessive kings ofAbomey Tegbesu, Ken-gala, Agongolo and Adandozan to paythem an annual tribute.
THE GOLDEN AGE
Adandozan was notorious for his incom¬petent handling of the economy, hisdespotic temper and his contempt for tra¬dition. He was deposed by Gezo (1818-1858), Abomey's best-known ruler who,according to an English commodore whohad dealings with him, bestrode the earthas though it should be honoured to bear 4J
48
Above, the palaces ofthe 19th-century
King Gezo and his son Glèlè are today a
history and art museum. Among the
exhibits is this carving of a hornbill, one of
Gezo's emblems.
Below, the courtyard of a royal palace ofAbomey. The walls are adorned with
coloured low-relief carvings.
such a burden. Besides Gezo's personal dig¬
nity, there was much to impress foreignvisitors in the splendours ofhis court, whichwas served by some 10,000 peopleincluding an army of about 4,000 femalewarriors.
Even today, despite the ravages of time,an aiua ofnobility surrounds Gezo's palace.Following the example set by his prede¬cessors, he organized the area within theramparts into three separate, walled-offcourtyards. His multi-storey cabin openedon one side onto the main square(singbodji) and on the other onto the outercourtyard (kpododji), which was used forreligious ceremonies and military parades.The "seat of power", the throne-room, thesanctuary and the royal residence were allsituated in the private courtyard.
To differentiate religious structures fromthose with other uses, the formerwere cir-ctdar while the latter were rectangular. Ineither case, the roofwas an important fea¬
ture. Gezo's residence, which had a hugeverandah and seven doors, was covered bya straw roof that in its original state wastwice the size of what could be seen ofthewalls. There were good practical reasonsfor the roof's imposing dimensions. It pro¬tected the building from the torrential rainsofthe wet season and provided insulation,while also lending an air of majesty to the
entire courtyard. Furthermore, it camedown so low that visitors were forced tostoop to enter the building, thereby showingtheir respect for the monarch, and alsogiving them an opportunity to admire themagnificent polychrome low-reliefs deco¬rating the foot ofthe walls. To enter sometombs in the complex, people almost had toget down on all fours.
The roofs, which were built on a frame ofbranches, have not stood the test of time.Now the straw is supported by corrugatediron, which has substantially reduced itsvolume. The famous low-reliefs, paintedwith natural pigment, have also suffereddamage, particularly from tornadoes in1975, 1977 and 1984.
Since the site has been included on the
list ofWorld Heritage in Danger, restorationofthe dwellings, the roofs, the bamboo ceil¬ings, the low-reliefs, the sculpted doors andwindows and what is left ofthe fortificationshas been taken in hand.
The royal residence and throne -roomwhere you can see Gezo's throne, amongothers, resting on the skulls of four enemychiefs now serve as galleries for theAbomey museum, as do the jewel roomand the armoury in the private courtyard ofGlèlè, Gezo's son.
DECLINE AND SURVIVAL
The courtyards ofthe palace ofGlèlè (1858-1889) were as rich and elaborate as those ofhis father. He established two dwellingsand two roofed shelters for weavers, cop-perworkers and sculptors, where present-day craftsmen still practice Abomey's tra¬ditional arts. The descendants ofthe royalfamilies continue to live within the wallsof the complex and are responsible formaintaining the tombs and sanctuaries.
In Glèlè's reign, Dahomey underwentradical political and economic change. Onthe one hand the slave trade was declaredillegal, and agriculture was developed, aswas palm-oil trading. On the other, Glèlè'sconservatism in foreign affairs produceda climate of tension in his relations withEurope that soon turned to open hostility.
By the time Behanzin came to power in1889, conflicts with France had escalated toa dangerous level. The French complainedof "the insolence of the king ofAbomey",who had once asked "Have I gone to Franceto make war on the French?" The people ofDahomey were not prepared to pay theprice demanded for peace: "flying theFrench flag in Abomey and handing overthe arms of all the warriors". Both sidestook to arms. A series ofengagements overa period of months ended with Behanzinbeing forced into exile.
Abomey was made a French protec¬torate, and in 1894 a brother of Behanzinnamed Agoli-Agbo replaced him on thethrone. His succession can be seen as an actof family treachery or as a colonial intrigue;whichever the case may be, Behanzin isregarded as the nation's last independentking. Before leaving the palace complex,he had just enough time to set it ablaze.
That desperate gesture, a final responseto the challenge issued by history to theancient kingdom, could stand as a symbolofthe decline ofa renowned civilization. Butvestiges still survive in spite of fire and theviolence of men. In preserving them fromdestruction, Unesco has put this major siteback into the history books.
JASMINA SOPOVAis a Macedonian essayist who has written manyarticles and studies on the art and literature ofblack Africa, the Indian Ocean region and theWest Indies.
RECENT REC0RDIN6Sby Isabelle Leymarie
TRADITIONALMUSIC
CHINAne Art of the PipaLin Shicheng (pipa)CD Ocora Radio France560046
The pipa a wonderfulantique lute, originally fromcentral Asia was the favouriteinstrument of Tang-dynastyChina and is still played by manyChinese today. Shanghai-bom LinShicheng is one of theinstrument's most accomplishedexponents, and is his generation'ssole representative ofthe PudongSchool, one of four historicschools of pipa technique. Mostof the pieces on this disc aretaken from the so-called "literaryrepertoire", one ofthe two maincategories into which pipa piecesare grouped, while thealternative, "martial" repertoire isrepresented by one track, "TheKing Takes Off His Armour". Themusic, which draws on veryancient poetic symbolism, can besedate or lively but is alwaysentrancing. The sublime art ofthepipa still works its magic today.
MADAGASCARPossession et poésieCD Ocora Radio France580046
Madagascan art is littleknown, yet it has treasures instore. This disc provides asampling of ritual musicrecorded during spirit possessionsessions among the Vezo, a sea¬faring people ofthe south-westcoast. There are cilso herdsmen'ssongs that recall the chantedpoems ofthe Peul, and a fine
piece of improvisation by malevoices. The instmments includebows, rattles, African zithers,dmms and diatonic accordéons.Although Madagascar lies at thecrossroads ofAfrica and Asia, it isthe African element thatpredominates here, in therhythmic conception and in thetimbre ofthe voices. The disc isexciting evidence ofthe island'smany delights.
GUADELOUPELe gwoka. Soíré léwoz à ¡abrun.CD Ocora Radio France560030
Gwoka, the traditional musicofthe Guadeloupe countryside,is currently experiencing acomeback both in the Caribbeanand in France, symbolizing thevitality ofthe island's blackculture. The name gwoka, whichis derived from a type of drum,the ka, that is played in variousparts ofthe Caribbean and inNew Orleans, covers a variety ofrhythms, including thetoumblack and the léwoz, a wordthat has become almostsynonymous with gwoka.Dancing is accompanied by twokinds of drum, the boula and themake, and by songs whose lyricsoften evoke local incidents.Recordings ofthe oldest forms ofblack music in the West Indiesare hard to come by in Europe,which makes this disc, recordedin the Baie Mahault district onone of Guadeloupe's lastsurviving plantations, all themore precious.
JAZZ
BRANFORD MARSALISTRIOBloomingtonBranford Marsalis (tenor andsoprano sax), Robert Hurt(bass), Jeff "Tain" Watts(drums)
Branford Marsalis is enjoying
a career just as successful as thatof his elder brother Wyntonwhose band he used to play in-even though their styles are verydifferent. Branford's lyricism,inventiveness and technical skillshave made him one of today'smost popular and admiredsaxophone players. On thisouting he opts for the austeresound of a pianoless trio, thustaking a difficult route on whichSonny Rollins was one of theleading pioneers in the 1960s. Inthese profoundly spiritualcompositions the musiciansjuxtapose different rhythms anddispense with the usualstructural guidelines withoutfalling into amorphous free jazz.Hurst and Watts are familiar withthe techniques and the pitfalls ofthe music, and they shareMarsalis's escapades on thisunfamiliar musical journey.
TRAVIS SHOOKTravis Shook (piano), BunkyGreen (alto sax), Ira Coleman(bass), Tony Williams (drums)CD Columbia 473770 2
This is the first recording byShook, a young pianist born inWashington state (U.SA) whoreached thefinalsoftheJacksonville jazz festival pianocontest. Backing him are MilesDavis's old dmmmer, TonyWilliams, and Ira Coleman, arising star among the bass-players of Shock's generation.Shook is a craftsman who worksin delicate shades, creating asubtle music that sometimesbrings Bill Evans to mind in thehandling of the chords whilerecalling Ahmad Jamal in itsswing and phrasing. Shookreworks standards like "Love forSale" and "My Foolish Heart"with intelligence and a fine senseof pitch, a quality often lacking inEuropean music that gives thenotes extra sonority.
CLASSICALMUSIC
SARAH CHANGTchaikovsky: Violin Concerto,Brahms: Hungarian DancesSarah Chang (violin), with theLondon Symphony Orchestraconducted by Sir Colin DavisCD EMI Classics 7 54753 2
Violinist Sarah Chang, barelytwelve years old, is the newprodigy everyone is talkingabout. On this disc she interpretsBrahms's Hungarian Dances and
Tchaikovsky's beautifulconcerto something of a
showpiece for young violinistswith passion and a keen andwholly individual sense ofrhythm, making light work of themost demanding technicalproblems. Her phrasing, agilityand sense of contrast areastonishing.
LOUIS SPOHROctet/Sextet/QuintetL'Archibudelli & SmithsonianChamber PlayersCD Sony Classical 53370
Louis ("Ludwig") Spohr, whowas born in Brunswick in 1784and lived at the court of the Dukeof Saxe-Gotha, in Vienna and inFrankfurt before moving toCassel where he died in 1 859,was a remarkable violinist,conductor and composer. Anadmirer of both Bach and theyoung Wagner, he is arepresentative figure oftheperiod of transition betweenclassicism and romandcism. Hisintensely lyrical Octet, Sextet andQuintet for string instmmentsare performed on this disc onviolins, violas and cellos from theSmithsonian Institution'sStradivarius collection.Describing the Sextet for TheMusical World, a reviewer in 1853called it "a work which, whileshowing all the experience ofage, displays in an astonishingdegree that freshness andspontaneity which are supposedto belong only to youth. One ofthe last chamber compositions ofDr. Spohr, this sestet is equallyone ofthe finest and mostcaptivating of them all."
49
LETTERS TO THE EDITOR TheljNNESCOOURIER
WHY I NO LONGER BELIEVEIN THE UNITED NATIONSA Unesco Coi/ríer subscriber for many years,I have long admired the magazine and haveintroduced others to it.
I am still interested in culture, scienceand education. For a long time I thoughtthey could help humanity to advance by fos¬tering greater understanding beUveen peo¬ples, improved living conditions, a morehighly developed spirit of civic responsibilityand personal morality, and so on.
At the age of fifty-eight I have reachedthe bitter conclusion that the noble edifice Idreamed of is at best a façade, of whichUnesco, admittedly, is the most beautifulpart. But that's no longer enough for me! Iprefer organizations that are smaller andcloser to the grassroots.
You are part of the United Nations, anorganization which is mandated by theworld's great nations. WTiat are these coun¬tries actually doing? While their diplomatswork to maintain or restore peace, theirarmaments industries are flourishing anddelivering weapons to those who will oneday ignite conflicts and massacre popula¬tions. The danger is now ubiquitous becauseinternational gangsters can get their handson highly sophisticated and destructiveweapons.
There are too many unscrupulous, cow¬ardly and greedy countries. To salve theirconscience they engage in activities withcultural and humanitarian goals or createorganizations to achieve these goals.
GuySchoenhauerRambouillet, France
A HUNAN CHAINIn response to my offer to exchange backissues ofthe Unesco Coi/ríerwhich appearedon the letters page of your June 1992 issue, Ihave received letters from people in manycountries.
The response from the NetherlandsUnesco Centre was particularly rapid andefficient. This dynamic, active centredeser\'es praise for helping to promote theideals promoted by the Unesco Courier,
ideals inspired by a humanitarian, philan¬thropic spirit, a thirst for knowledge and,above all, a desire for peace.
I should like to thank Unesco for makingthis human chain possible.
Harold M. LaBesse12 AVENUE BENOIST LÉVT,
94160 Saint-Mandé, FranceRS. If anyone has available copies ofthe July-August 1956 and January 1982 issues oftheFrench edition, I'll be happy to take them!
WILL ART LOSE ITS SOUL?For those who think about the future of art,Sonia Youman's remarkable article in yourJuly-August 1993 issue provided plenty offood for thought. Perhaps it would be usefulto redefine the word "image", which hasassumed a much broader meaning in theworld of contemporary art. It is undeniablethat art has developed to a prodigious degreeas a result of techniques for the transmis¬sion and mass production of images. Butthese techniques (photography, the cinema,information science) have gradually cometo replace the human touch in the creation ofimages as vehicles for an artisric message.This is an alarming development.
In view of the extraordinary potential oftechnology, is it not possible that "hand¬made" images, so rich in emotional content,will fade into insignificance and eventuallydisappear altogether? Will they gradually bereplaced by the soulless products of super-robots, as George Orwell grimly predicted?
Will the artists of the future have anydesire to learn the traditional gestures ofthepainter and the sculptor, or will they simplyhave to choose between the computer key¬board and kinds of formula art increasinglybereft of sensibility?
As we prepare to assess the achievementsand failures of this century, let us hope thatthe balance will be redressed and that artwill be rehumanized. If this hope turns out tobe vain, we must be prepared for the worst:infantile art without soul or structure, mind¬lessly flickering on and off our screens.
Henry ChristiaenGrenoble (France)
ACKNOWLEDGMENTSCover, page 3: © Ezéchiel Saad, Paris. Pages 5, 7, 8: Ulf AntJersen © Gamma, Paris. Page 1 0: Marco ©Ask Images, Paris. Pages II, 14, 20: © Charles Lénars. Paris. Page 1 2: © Muñoz de Pablos, Paris. Page 1 3:Bordes © Explorer, Paris. Page IS: © The Australian Academy of the Humanities. Page 16: © MissInternational, Galerie Beaubourg, Paris. Page 17: Sabine Weiss © Rapho, Paris. Pages 18, 19: © 1953 M. C.Escher/Cordon Art-Baarn-The Netherlands. Pages 21, 27, 28, 29: © Yves Gellie, Paris. Pages 22-23, 24,26: Bruno Barbey © Magnum, Paris. Page 25: James Morris © Panos Pictures. London. Page 30 (above):David Reed © Panos Pictures. London. Page 30 (middle): © CIRAD/GERDAT/ PRIFAS 93. Page 30(below): © Editions de l'Environnement. Paris. Page 3 1 (above): Mauri Rautkari © WWF, Gland. Page 3 1
(below/): Peter Tunley © WWF, Gland. Pages 32-33: Chistyakov © Novosti, Paris. Page 34: All RightsReserved. Page 3S: Matytsin © Novosti. Paris. Page 36 (left): Zagumeny © Novosti, Paris. Page 36(right): S. Gukski © Novosti, Paris. Page 37 (left): Jim Pickerell © Rapho, Paris. Page 37 (right): Jean
Hosking © Rapho, Paris. Pages 38-39: Stan Fautré © Ask Images, Paris. Page 39 (right): R Rivière © MissInternational, Paris. Page 40: ©Jia Tian. Pages 40-41: Michel Baret © Rapho, Paris. Page 42: Unesco-Michel Claude. Page 44: © Keystone. Pages 46, 47, 48: J.A. Fernandez © Incafo, Madrid.
47th VE&RPubEFsFied munthly In 3Í Itnguagtï and in Btallf« by Umeïco,TPi« United Nations EducitlonaF, Scientific und CultunlOr^ïiiFlAtion.3F.rvefrir*çoisBOfmnr7»F5 F*ans, Ff^nce.
Director: Bahgat EtnadiEditor-in-chief: Adel Rifaat
EDITORIAL STAFF (Paris)Managing Editor: Gillian WhitcombEnglish edition: Roy MalkinFrench edition; Alain Lèvéque. Neda El KhazenSpanish edition; F^igu^F Labarca, Araceli Ortii de UriiinaArt Unit^Producdon; Georges ServatIllustrations; Ariane Bail^ (Tel ii.6B46.%)Documentation:Liaison with non- Headquarters editions and press:Solange BelFn (TeF. 15.6«,«,8 7)
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LISEZ TOUS LES MOIS
ETVDESRevue d'information, de réflexion et de culture
Dans les prochains numéros :
L'Afrique du sud va voter Maggie Paterson
Palestine - Israël : les étapes ultérieures L.-J. Duclos
L'homme de mer Guy Labouérie
Pour une définition de l'art Jean-Claude Lemagny
Figures du « siècle des reformations » Th. Wanegffelen
Mallarmé et Saint-John Perse André David
Choix de films, Chroniques de théâtre,Revue des livres, Choix de disques
Le n° : (144 pages) 55 F, étr. 62 F
Abonnement : 11 nM / an : 450 F - étr. 550 F
Rédacteur en chefJean-Yves Calvez
Pour recevoir un numéro ou vous abonner, envoyez vos nom,adresse et règlement à l'ordre d'ETUDES à :
Assas Editions 14, rue d'Assas - 75006 PARIS - Tél. : (1 ) 44 39 48 48Ou, sur Minitel, tapez 36 15 SJ* ETUDES
EUROLANGUES
Les stages de langues...
Réputés depuis de nombreuses années pour :
L'excellence et la spécificité de ¡a pédagogie,
La parfaite adéquation avec les exigences
du système éducatiffrançais,
L'efficacité et lafiabilité de l'encadrement.
Collégiens Lycéens Prépas Etudiants
182, rue Lecourbe75015 Paris
tél. : (1)42 50 0817fax ': (1)45 33 70 74
Vivre et étudier dans unautre pays ... w^
... L'expérience de-^B^toute une vie ! F ~~
Contactez-nous au : (1) 48 00 06 00ou retournez le coupon ci-dessous pour recevoir nos brochures gratuites :
Cours de langues, 8 pay's 16anset +9 mois d'étude d'anglais, USA, GB 16-28 ansProgramme d'année scolaire, USA 15-2 1 ansEtudes en université, 6 pays 1 8 ans et +FoTnations professionnelles, Europe, USA 1 8 ans et +
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