“you’ve got to pump it up” - wur
TRANSCRIPT
“You’ve got to pump it up”
Analysis of the appropriation and utilization of petrol pumps
for small scale horticulture in West-Uyoma, Kenya.
MSc. Thesis by Luwieke Bosma
May 2015
Water Resources Management group
The cover photo is taken by Luwieke Bosma at Obenge beach adjacent to Lake Victoria, and near to Obenge
farming area. The picture shows a petrol pump which is placed at the lake side by a farmer for irrigation. At the
same time fishermen are seen in the background pulling in the nets. This is a typical image on the banks of Lake
Victoria in which two main economic activities are practiced beside each other; fishing and horticulture farming.
‘You’ve got to pump it up’
Analysis of the appropriation and utilization of petrol pumps for
small scale horticulture in West-Uyoma, Kenya.
Master thesis Water Resources Management submitted in partial fulfilment of the degree
of Master of Science in International Land and Water Management at Wageningen
University, the Netherlands
Luwieke Bosma
April 2015
Supervisors:
Dr. Ir. Gert Jan Veldwisch
Water Resources Management
Wageningen University
The Netherlands
www.wageningenur.nl/wrm
Dr. Paul Hebinck
Rural Development Sociology
Wageningen University
The Netherlands
www.wageningenur.nl/rds
“It is good to have the machine, it can make work easy. When I get the machine I will be happy, I can even
dance. I can work too much for it. I had a dream to get a machine and it knocked me down. If the tomato
could do well, it was my ambition to get a machine, it is a dream.” (Quote from farmer)
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ABSTRACT
In the past two decades petrol pumps have quickly emerged as an irrigation technology for smallholder
horticultural farmers along the shores of Lake Victoria, providing an alternative for diminishing fisheries. Petrol
pumps for irrigation have been integrated in different farming styles of horticulture production. Based on
interviewing- and observation methods, farmers in West-Uyoma, Kenya, have been questioned about their
organization of production in combination with their experience on petrol pumps.
In this research it is found that farmers take different strategies in horticulture farming which they base on
different underlying logics and notions. Petrol pumps are part of this heterogeneous farming practice and are
experienced and deployed in different manners. The quick spread of petrol pumps in the area has emerged in a
rather autonomous manner and is considered farmer-driven. Farmers are seen as strategic agents who have
integrated different modalities of petrol pumps in particular farming styles. A key aspect is that both the
configurations of farming styles, and modalities of petrol pumps are interconnected in a process of co-
construction. Besides this, the farmers have different forms of capacity in which they can negotiate over petrol
pumps and can make decisions concerning its appropriation and utilization.
This case-study research has recognized the drivers of farmers in appropriation and utilization of petrol pump
technology. Their experiences and perspectives on petrol pumps offer a better understanding of their needs and
desires in the development of irrigation technologies for smallholder farmers. This can contribute to future
development of farmer-led irrigation for small scale horticulture farming, and asks for a different approach in
irrigation development.
Keywords: heterogeneous agriculture, small scale horticulture, farming styles, farmer-led irrigation, petrol pump
technology.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
First I want to thank Gert Jan Veldwisch and Paul Hebinck for guiding and helping me in my research, they have
assisted me from the early phases of proposal writing onto the finalization of the report. In the process of writing
they have given me valuable insights, and encouraged me to critically reflect on my findings. This has contributed
in developing and improving this thesis report in a comprehensive manner.
I also want to thank mister Amos Otiende Kochiyo, ‘japuonj’, especially for assisting me the first week in Kagwa.
He was like my ‘local supervisor’ who introduced me to the chiefs and leaders in the area, and made me familiar
with the people and environment. This has been of great contribution to my research and opened many doors
for me, so I could go my own way during the fieldwork.
Furthermore I want to express my gratitude to Alec Dimba Kiaka for making it possible to stay in his house at the
dala with his wonderful family. Thank you for taking care of so many things that enabled my research in the area
of Kagwa. And above all I want to thank my dear family in Kagwa for giving me a home, and adopting me as their
lastborn. My mama, baba, brothers and sisters have given me a great time in Kagwa. I learned a lot and miss
making kuon with mama, learning Dholuo after dinner, going to the lake with my sisters for washing and buying
fish, playing with the children, and everything else that made life beautiful in Kagwa. Erokamano ahinya kuom
duto te, aheru maber, gi adwar duogo kende chieng’ moro!
Finally of course I want to thank all the interviewees, I greatly appreciate that you have taken time to share your
experiences and opinions with me. Especially I am thankful to the farmers that were willing to welcome me on
their fields and in their homes, and who took the time to answer the many questions I had. Often they welcomed
me with food and drinks, and we took the time to sit down and had very nice conversations. I have learned a lot
of your ways and opinions in life and farming, and I am very grateful for your help. Because of you I was able to
establish my findings and create this report.
And during the writing process the time spend in ‘The Office’ with my fellow students was very much appreciated.
In The Office we had our own peculiar way of life, with coffee, music breaks, yoga, communal breakfast, and of
course thesis writing. It was a pure delight (-;
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Table of contents
Chapter 1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................................ 1
Chapter 2 Research Background ............................................................................................................................. 3
2.1 Scientific background .................................................................................................................................... 4
2.2 Research context of Kenya ........................................................................................................................... 5
2.3 Case-study area ............................................................................................................................................ 6
Chapter 3 Research design & methodology .......................................................................................................... 11
3.1 Concepts and theories ................................................................................................................................ 12
3.2 Problem statement and research objectives .............................................................................................. 16
3.3 Research questions ..................................................................................................................................... 17
3.4 Research methodology ............................................................................................................................... 19
3.5 Conclusion................................................................................................................................................... 23
Chapter 4 Organization of production .................................................................................................................. 24
4.1 Land, cultivation and production ................................................................................................................ 25
4.2 Inputs and instruments ............................................................................................................................... 27
4.3 Labour organization and management....................................................................................................... 28
4.4 Markets ....................................................................................................................................................... 30
4.5 Conclusion................................................................................................................................................... 31
Chapter 5 Farming styles classification ................................................................................................................. 32
5.1 Established farmers .................................................................................................................................... 33
5.2 Innovators ................................................................................................................................................... 35
5.3 Diversifiers .................................................................................................................................................. 37
5.4 Starters ....................................................................................................................................................... 39
5.5 Conclusion................................................................................................................................................... 41
Chapter 6 Appropriation and utilization of petrol pumps .................................................................................... 43
6.1 Petrol pump characteristics ........................................................................................................................ 44
6.2 Application .................................................................................................................................................. 47
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6.3 Ownership and renting practices ................................................................................................................ 49
6.4 Farming styles compared ............................................................................................................................ 50
6.5 Conclusion .................................................................................................................................................. 55
Chapter 7 Conclusion ............................................................................................................................................ 57
Chapter 8 Discussion & recommendations ........................................................................................................... 60
8.1 Theories & concepts ................................................................................................................................... 61
8.2 Results ......................................................................................................................................................... 62
8.3 Recommendations ...................................................................................................................................... 63
Chapter 9 Bibliography .......................................................................................................................................... 65
Annexes ................................................................................................................................................................. 67
Annex 1: Farming areas .................................................................................................................................... 67
Annex 2: Interview guide .................................................................................................................................. 70
Annex 3: Interview transcription format .......................................................................................................... 76
Annex 4: Overview of interviews conducted and coding for farmer referencing ............................................ 77
Annex 5: Overview of key informants, including coding, and some characteristics......................................... 79
Annex 6: Local and urban markets ................................................................................................................... 80
Annex 7: Characteristics of petrol pumps and pipes in use by farmers in the case-study area ....................... 81
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LIST OF KEY TERMS AND ABBREVIATIONS
Acre 1 acre is 0.4 ha
Boda Boda the Boda Boda Company provides a public transport service, they drive on motorbikes and bring people to their destination.
Dala Homestead (Dholuo)
DEAP District Environmental Action Plan (Bondo)
Jembe Dholuo word for a type of English hoe, used on a farm for digging, ploughing and weeding.
FAO Food and Agricultural Organization
FS Farming Style
FSA Farming Styles Approach
FSC Farming Styles Classification
GDP Gross Domestic Product
GoK Government of Kenya
Ha Hectare, 1 hectare is 2,47 acres
Hp Horsepower
IFAD International Fund for Agricultural Development
KaCoHo Kagwa Cooperative Horticulture, a horticulture group both active in Kamariga and Obenge
Kes Kenyan Shilling, during the research period 1 euro was on average equal to 110 Kes.
NGO Non-Governmental Organization
PLAN PLAN international, NGO and donor organization to several projects in Uyoma. Supporting KaCoHo and other horticulture groups.
Sanduku Swahili word for a crate, mostly wooden, in which tomatoes are sold, most likely the weight of one sanduku is 64 kg.
SCOT Social Construction of Technology
SSA Sub-Saharan Africa
STA Socio-Technical Approach
Western Kenya Project of the Kenyan government in cooperation with the World Bank, 8 year program involving livelihood and horticulture projects.
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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1 Map of Kenya, and of West-Uyoma in more detail ................................................................................... 6
Figure 2 Map of Obenge beach where horticulture cultivation is practiced .......................................................... 7
Figure 3 Space in the interface of technology supply and market relations ......................................................... 14
Figure 4 Conceptual framework ............................................................................................................................ 18
Figure 5 Illustration of cultivation of kales ............................................................................................................ 26
Figure 6 Illustration of sticking of tomatoes ......................................................................................................... 26
Figure 7 Space of manoeuvre with the four farming styles .................................................................................. 41
Figure 8 Typical portable petrol pump .................................................................................................................. 44
Figure 9 Example of characteristics written on the petrol pump ......................................................................... 45
Figure 10 Debris in the centrifugal part of the drum ............................................................................................ 47
Figure 11 Example of furrow irrigation in practice ............................................................................................... 49
Figure 12 Example of a furrow system .................................................................................................................. 49
Figure 13 Farmer using a hose pipe on a self-manufactured double outlet pipe ................................................. 53
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1 Irrigation Potential by Basin in Kenya ......................................................................................................... 5
Table 2 Overview of the farming styles classification ........................................................................................... 33
LIST OF BOXES
Box 1 Group organization and dynamics .............................................................................................................. 29
Box 2 Case of an established farmer ..................................................................................................................... 33
Box 3 Case of an innovator ................................................................................................................................... 35
Box 4 Case of a diversifier ..................................................................................................................................... 37
Box 5 Case of a starter .......................................................................................................................................... 39
Chapter 1 Introduction
1
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION
The picture shows a typical image in West-Uyoma at the shores of Lake Victoria. A petrol pump is situated at
the waterfront from where the water is taken for irrigation to be applied on the field.
Kagwa, 9th of September 2014; on this day the research area on the Uyoma peninsula in Kenya, is visited for the
first time. During a walk around in the case-study area the first petrol pumps are heard near the Lake side. The
proximity to the lake shapes the context for diverse activities that the Luo inhabitants traditionally practice,
especially fishing is widely practiced. In addition to the lake being a major source of fish, it also provides abundant
fresh water, and therefore there is potential for irrigated farming in this area. This is where petrol pumps enter
the scene; on the banks of Lake Victoria these small, motorized pumps are used by smallholder farmers to irrigate
their horticulture crops.
Petrol pumps provide the farmers with a means to lift up the water from Lake Victoria and are currently widely
in use. A pump is placed near the lake and water is pumped from the lake, the water continues in the delivery
pipes to the field, and there the farmers apply it to the crops. Petrol pumps appear to fill a gap in irrigation
mechanisms, and have emerged in relation to the development of commercialized horticulture production in the
past two decades. Outside interventions have had a marginal contribution in this spread of petrol pumps, in
contrast this development took place in an organic and autonomous manner. Individual farmers and
businessmen in the area who saw the potential and interest for this irrigation technology, have introduced petrol
pumps. The purchase and use of petrol pumps can also be linked to its social meanings and relations which goes
beyond the mere practice of irrigated horticulture production. Therefore a wider context of irrigation dynamics
is considered which involves a co-construction of social and technical aspects.
Chapter 1 Introduction
2
The underlying problem that has urged the development of small scale irrigation technologies is that of poverty.
The West-Uyoma area, being a highly rural area, is part of the 2nd poorest region of Kenya in which approximately
47,2% of the population is poor. Unprofitable farming is one of the key factors for this poverty and related food-
insecurity, considering this is one of the major economic activities in rural areas (DEAP, 2007). In West-Uyoma a
combined development of diminishing fisheries and commercialized horticulture has triggered people to engage
in horticulture production. In relation to this a development of small private irrigation has taken place. It resulted
in increased need for small private irrigation means for farmers to get involved in horticulture farming and
increase their production standards. In the last two decades farmers have started to use petrol pumps mainly on
their own initiative. Therefore this research focuses on farmer-led irrigation development regarding the use of
petrol pumps in horticulture production. Farmer-led irrigation drives on strategic agency of farmers being the
initiators for using irrigation technologies. This focus on the farmers being the drivers for small private irrigation
development has potential to contribute in alleviation of poverty by improving food security (Giordano and de
Fraiture, 2014). Although its dynamics and development are not fully understood, therefore more research is
needed on the challenges and opportunities of farmer-led irrigation. This improved understanding can contribute
in recognizing supporting and constraining factors for future farmer-led irrigation development. In this research
this is done from a recognition of heterogeneity and multi-functionality in farming, involving irrigation
mechanisms. Central are farmers’ experiences on petrol pumps, and their farming strategies in order to gain
understanding in farmers as strategic agents and drivers of change. This analysis, therefore, can improve
understanding in the dynamics and value of petrol pump development, as individual small scale irrigation for
smallholder horticulture farmers.
In the remainder of this thesis at first the research background is provided in chapter two. This chapter provides
a scientific background, in which the current debate on farmer-led irrigation is discussed. Furthermore it explains
the horticulture and irrigation development in the case-study area from a historical perspective. Following on
this the research design and methodology are explained in chapter three. In this chapter the theoretical
framework is discussed, and moreover the problem statement and resulting research questions are provided
including their operationalization. In chapter four, five and six the results of the analysis are presented. In chapter
four the organization of production in horticulture cultivation in the case-study area is discussed in detail. Next,
in chapter five the farming styles classification is provided in which a configuration of different farming styles is
presented. Following on this, chapter six describes the process of appropriation and utilization of petrol pumps
based on farmers’ experiences. Chapter seven presents the conclusion of this research in answering in what ways
farmers appropriate and use petrol pumps. Finally in chapter eight the theories and concepts, and findings are
critically reflected upon, and its value is discussed in a wider context of farmer-led irrigation.
Chapter 2 Research background
3
CHAPTER 2 RESEARCH BACKGROUND
The picture shows a petrol pump on the beach in Obenge with Lake Victoria in the background. Walking around
the different beaches often a petrol pump was encountered, which a farmer had installed for irrigation. The
location of West-Uyoma, situated adjacent to the lake which serves as a fresh water resource, is of great
importance for the irrigated horticulture potential in the area.
The research background provides a theoretical and contextual background for the case-study research. At first
a scientific background places this case-study research in the context of a wider debate on farmer-led irrigation
development. The current state of knowledge on this topic is discussed and explained in which the relevance for
this research is grounded. In addition understanding is gained in the development of farmer-led irrigation.
Furthermore this chapter focusses on the research context in geographic and socio-economic aspect. The
background of Kenya is described, after which the case-study area is presented including an explanation of
horticulture and irrigation development in the area. This background chapter explains the setting in which this
analysis is embedded. In addition it shows its relevance considering the scientific debate and socio-economic
context of farmer-led irrigation.
Chapter 2 Research background
4
2.1 SCIENTIFIC BACKGROUND
The development of farmer-led irrigation and types of small private irrigation have recently emerged in South
Asia and sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). Molden et al. (2007) indicate that the Comprehensive Assessment of Water
Management in Agriculture has identified individual small scale irrigation development as a major trend in
agricultural water management (Molden et al., 2007). Recent studies have found that millions of smallholder
farmers in both South Asia and SSA benefit from readily available and affordable irrigation technologies. Where
in South Asia small private irrigation had a proven positive effect on poverty alleviation, in SSA a similar trend is
taking place. The smallholder irrigation sector is the fastest growing segment of irrigation, and in the past decades
the largest expansion in irrigated area in SSA has originated from farmer-led irrigation development. In addition
this spread of small scale irrigation technologies has taken place against a backdrop of poorly functioning large-
scale irrigation schemes with public investment (Giordano and de Fraiture, 2014) (Nkoka et al., 2014) (Beekman
et al., 2014) (Burney and Naylor, 2012) (Lankford, 2005). (Nkoka et al., 2014).
This type of small scale irrigation development is also referred to in literature as ‘small private irrigation’,
‘unplanned irrigation’ (Giordano and de Fraiture, 2014), and ‘spontaneous irrigation development’ (Veldwisch et
al., 2013). In this research the term ‘farmer-led irrigation’ is used in order to stress that farmers strategically
initiate this irrigation development. It furthermore entails that irrigation development is initiated, financed,
owned and managed by individual farmers or small informal groups and responds to a genuine demand of
smallholders (Giordano and de Fraiture, 2014).
The potential of farmer-led irrigation is to substantially boost smallholder incomes and food security. Recent
research has shown that small-scale irrigation technologies generate positive impacts on land- and labour
productivity and economy. Farmers can benefit through the cultivation of cash crops, in combination with
improved access to local and urban markets, and in this way improve their net income (Giordano and de Fraiture,
2014) (Nkoka et al., 2014). But there are also challenges due to this development which relate to equity,
efficiency and sustainability. Besides this, resource poor farmers can face difficulties concerning the use of
irrigation technologies because of limited financial capital, unstable markets and lack of knowledge. Furthermore
intervention frameworks can discourage poor smallholder farmers from using productivity-enhancing irrigation
technology (Giordano and de Fraiture, 2014).
Despite the potential of farmer-led irrigation, its development remained largely unnoticed by policy makers and
donors. Although supporting farmer-led irrigation makes economic sense according to Giordano and de Fraiture
(2014). Supportive structures can enhance farm-level initiatives and ensure positive returns for smallholder
farmers in order to realize poverty reduction, and minimize potential negative impacts (Giordano and de Fraiture,
2014). A number of case-studies in Burkina Faso, Ghana and Mozambique (de Fraiture et al., 2014) (Nkoka et al.,
2014) (Namara et al., 2014) (Beekman et al., 2014) have highlighted the potential of farmer-led irrigation and
have drawn attention on future development and support. So far research has mainly concentrated on this
potential of farmer-led irrigation, but its dynamics are still rather unclear. Former studies have urged for further
research in identification of smallholder irrigation and the way farmers are leading in developing this sector
(Lankford, 2005).
In addition to the development of farmer-led irrigation also the agricultural context has to be taken into account
in order to gain understanding in how farmers strategize farming in relation to the use of irrigation. Therefore
heterogeneity that exists within agricultural structures, related to processes of rural change in SSA are central
tenets that are considered. Especially with regard to the development of new technologies, which is often taking
place in a reality that deals with change, disorder and process (Woodhouse, 2012) (Mango, 2002). Heterogeneity
is interconnected with the use of irrigation technology, moreover Malik (2014) argues that technology
development is a dynamic process that changes over time. Development of irrigation technology does not
Chapter 2 Research background
5
necessarily follow a linear path from ‘simple’ manual methods to ‘advanced’ motorized technologies. The
interaction of farmers with labour, markets and technology, and also their social backgrounds are important
factors in the development of irrigation technology. In the past two decades mechanized, small, cheap and
lightweight petrol pumps became widely available in SSA (Malik et al., 2014). This process is interconnected with
agricultural development, market development and commoditization of labour. All these aspects lead to
particular types of farmer-led irrigation development, in which farmers as beneficiaries strategize their irrigated
farming practices.
This case-study research adds understanding to this current debate on farmer-led irrigation by analysing
irrigation development from the perspective of farmers as drivers of change. Farmers’ experiences and strategies
regarding petrol pumps in relation to their farming styles are object of study in order to gain understanding in
the dynamics of farmer-led irrigation development in its wider context. Farmers are the beneficiaries and
initiators of individual small scale irrigation, and analysing their experiences can give more in-depth
understanding on their drivers in this development. The related commercialized horticulture and farmer-led
irrigation, offers an interesting case to gain more insight in how farmers initiate and strategize appropriation and
utilization of petrol pumps.
2.2 RESEARCH CONTEXT OF KENYA
In this section the geographical and socio-economic context of Kenya, in which the case-study research is taking
place, are provided. Furthermore it concentrates on the horticultural development, and contributes in
understanding of the current conditions of agriculture and irrigation dynamics.
Kenya is situated in the East of Africa and has a tropical climate along the coast to arid in the interior. There are
44 million inhabitants in Kenya with an estimated area of 584.000km2, and one third of the total land area is
suitable for agriculture. Of the total number of inhabitants, 60% live in rural areas and are occupied with
subsistence farming, a majority of Kenyans depend on agriculture for their livelihoods. The contribution of
agriculture to the GDP is 30% and the 60% to foreign exchange. According to the International Fund for
Agricultural Development (IFAD, 2013) Kenya has a growing economy while it is challenging the existing poverty
in the country. The reduction of poverty is a profound challenge for the country with almost half of the 44 million
people in the Kenya living below the poverty line. Currently the Government of Kenya (GoK) recognizes that
agricultural-led growth can be effective in reducing poverty. In addition to this Kenya also has a large irrigation
potential and the opportunities for increased irrigated agriculture are immense (GoK, 2015). With agricultural
being of major economic importance for the country, irrigation development can contribute in meeting demands
for national food security as well as for export markets. The irrigation potential in Kenya has not been fully
developed as Table 1 indicates (GoK, 2015).
Table 1 Irrigation Potential by Basin in Kenya
Irrigation potential is lingering and in
recent policy the GoK invests in
development of irrigated agriculture. It is
recognized that much of the land is not
fully used to its potential, with surface
and underground water resources
available for irrigation practices. It is
acknowledged that the bulk of
horticultural produce in Kenya is
produced by smallholder and community
based irrigation practices (GoK, 2015). This smallholder horticulture in combination with irrigation potential, is
Water Basin Area developed (hectares)
Irrigation Potential (hectares)
Tana 67,427 546,875
Athi 45,710 278,526
Lake Victoria 19,206 292,858
Rift Valley 13,589 73,080
Ewaso Ng‟iro North 7,908 150,561
Total 161,840 1,341,900
Chapter 2 Research background
6
the setting in which the case-study research is taking place and makes this an area of interest to analyse a
development of petrol pumps.
The scope of research is narrowed down from a country-wide situation and development of Kenya, towards the
case-study area. In order to clarify the geographic location of the research area, Figure 1 zooms in on West-
Uyoma in which the research is conducted. The locations visited are located in proximity of the Kagwa village
which functioned as the home base during the fieldwork. Kagwa is a sub-location and is part of the location of
West-Uyoma, which is part of the Madiany division, this is again part of Rarieda district which belongs to Siaya
County in the province of Nyanza in Kenya. In contrast to other parts of the country, Siaya County has plenty of
water sources, especially with Lake Victoria on its side. Although the availability of water in the area is plenty,
the agricultural production is reasonably low and there is chronic and debilitating poverty. It can be said that the
agricultural sector is a top priority sector in the district contributing 79% of the total household incomes
according to the District Environment Action Plan (DEAP, 2007). This area is chosen because of smallholder
horticulture farmers using individual small scale irrigation techniques (Dimba, 2014).
2.3 CASE-STUDY AREA
In this paragraph the five areas, Kochilo, Kamariga, Obenge, Likunu and Osindo are shortly described with a focus
on agricultural development. Moreover the development of commercialized horticulture with a focus on small
scale individual irrigation is discussed.
2.3.1 THE FIVE FARMING AREAS
The research is conducted in five farming areas situated in West-Uyoma. These five areas are selected on the
basis of prior knowledge on horticulture farming and irrigation practice. Also their proximity to the homestead
from which the research is undertaken is taken into account. Both an overview of the five farming areas in West-
Uyoma as well as an image of each farming area can be found in annex 1.
Figure 1 Left: Kenya, Siaya County is shown in green. Right: Rarieda district showing West-Uyoma, in which the research area in
encircled.
Chapter 2 Research background
7
The farming areas share important characteristics in that they border Lake Victoria, have a similar bimodal
climate and soil conditions, and the majority of the population belongs to the Luo-tribe. The proximity to Lake
Victoria is an important feature for the irrigation practices of farmers in horticulture production. Lake Victoria is
a vast fresh water resource and is part of Kenya, Uganda and Tanzania. The overall shore length is 3440 km in
total. The five farming areas in this research are within a shore length of approximately 13 km. The shore length
of each of the five farming areas is on average 1-1,5 km. Cultivation is taking place on fields that are adjacent, or
close to Lake Victoria, functioning as the water source for irrigation. The fields are mostly in a range of 200 m,
and exceptionally to 300-500 m from the lake shore. The total size of each of the five farming areas in which
horticulture production is taking place, is approximately 10-25 ha, which is 25-60 acres. During times of manual
irrigation, production took place at a scale of 10x10m in these areas, which is a fraction of an acre (0,025 acre).
The scale has increased with a factor of 20-60, and is now on average ½ - 1½ acre, this factor indicates the increase
in scale of farming. Currently there are on average 15-40 farmers active in each area, the exact number of farmers
differs per area, and moreover depends on the specific surface area and scale of farming. The cash crops that are
cultivated mainly come down to tomato and kale varieties. In addition indigenous vegetables, fruits and recently
introduced crops, such as watermelon and capsicum are grown. In Figure 2 the farming area of Obenge is shown
as an example of how these farming areas look like.
2.3.2 HORTICULTURE DEVELOPMENT
In this section development of fishing and farming activities are discussed with a focus on the development of
commercialized horticulture. The importance of fishing as economic activity is discussed, and moreover the
recent decline of fisheries. Furthermore a change and development of agricultural practices is discussed, with a
focus on recent horticulture and irrigation development.
FISHING AND FARMING
The people living in West-Uyoma belong to the Luo ethnic group, they are Nilotic people who come from Sudan
and migrated through Uganda in the 1500s (Mango, 2002). Luos are from origin fishermen, travelling down along
the Nile they were migrating to places where they could continue their fishing practices, for instance in the
proximity of Lake Victoria. Fish is an important resource in Lake Victoria and for many men in the research area
Figure 2 Map of Obenge beach where horticulture cultivation is practiced
Chapter 2 Research background
8
fishing is their main economic activity. A few characteristics of fishing activities are that you get little daily cash,
you need to be strong, and furthermore collaboration is necessary.
Besides fishing also subsistence agriculture is a widespread activity in Luo-land. The people cannot live on fish
solely, therefore cereals, beans and other subsistence crops have been cultivated for a long time. In subsistence
farming farmers rely on the rainfall pattern. Furthermore animal keeping is a common practice, many people
have cattle and poultry. Luo people have a long tradition in subsistence agriculture, aspects of land and labour
are central aspects in this practice. At first it can be recognised that Luos are strongly attached to land, it is more
than just a resource for agricultural production. There is a whole organisation of social relationships built around
land which ties people together and defines their position with respect to each other. Sons can inherit the land
from their fathers and again pass it on to their sons. In addition to this the complex and multi-levelled meaning
of land for Luo people have often led to non-understanding and difficulties after intervention of agencies.
Organization of farm labour in Luo custom was mainly drawn from relatives and friends within a number of
homesteads. When labour was needed, friends and family could help in exchange for food. Due to the
commercialisation of the economy, labour has become a commodity and people were not willing to give it away
for free. Therefore, family labour has become more important on most smallholder farms. Well-off farmers can
hire additional labour, small farmers often join small labour groups based on women, church groups or youth
groups. The agricultural practices in general largely rely on family labour, but due to factors including ageing and
migration, hired labour is now becoming more important (Mango, 2002).
The long tradition of Luos being fishermen in combination with subsistence agriculture sets the socio-economic
context in this research. In this light fishing is the main economic activity aimed to raise income, and subsistence
rain-fed farming is done to provide food for own consumption.
COMMERCIALIZED HORTICULTURE
Coming from traditional activities of fishing and farming, horticulture development is discussed in this section.
Before moving on to the specific horticultural development in the case-study area, first a general account on
agricultural commercialization provides a first understanding of this development in smallholder agriculture. This
agricultural commercialization indicates a shift from subsistence agriculture to a system of production and
consumption that is increasingly based on the market. This shift includes decisions on marketing, outputs and
inputs based on principles of profit maximization (Olwande and Mathenge, 2012). This phenomenon of
agricultural commercialization is triggered by economic growth, and is currently also taking place in Kenya
(Pingali, 2001). The horticulture industry is stated as one of the most vibrant sub-sectors of agriculture in the
economy of Kenya (Sigei et al., 2014). Currently it contributes to 8% of the country’s GDP and 36% of the
agricultural GDP, and it has increased in the last decade with an annual rate of 15-20% (GoK, 2015) (Sigei et al.,
2014). Commercialized agriculture, in this research in the form of horticulture production, implies a different
farming strategy compared to subsistence farming.
There are a few reasons why this horticulture development has emerged in the last two decades. First the
decrease in fish population, and consequently less people being able to depend on fishing, is an important factor
which triggered many people to change their economic activity. Secondly, the money involved in horticulture is
a key driver, people have recognized the potential income they can get in horticulture. With farming a bigger
amount of money can be earned at once after a longer period of time, and it can happen on an individual basis,
both in contrast to fishing. More and more people see the benefits and potential of horticulture farming and
abandon fishing. Thirdly, due to conditions of high unemployment and access to land and water resources in the
area, people got involved in horticulture. Farmers see horticulture production as something they can do without
technical knowledge, and pioneers in farming have provided examples that are now followed by others. Currently
horticulture is taking place in the form where cash crops are produced and marketed. This development entails
Chapter 2 Research background
9
a shift from growing traditional vegetables, towards horticulture with increased land scale, higher input
investments and higher outputs.
Commercialized horticulture is different from subsistence farming in various aspects. The aim with horticulture
farming is to make profit and this implies a different logic and notion in agricultural production compared to
subsistence farming. The commercialization of horticulture strongly increased the commoditization of labour due
to its economic nature and potential. Labour therefore got a price, and changes in workload and the socio-
economic conditions, made that farmers could no longer rely solely on family labour. This resulted in an increased
demand for casual labour. To conclude the part on horticulture development two quotes of key informants
illustrate the extent this development has taken.
[K2] Competition has increased concerning farming around the lake, because you need a field close to the
lake to do horticulture. If your field is 500m away you cannot do it. Water is life.
[K17] There is now a pattern of land use along the shores. You used to find that the shores were not utilized
as such, only for grazing cattle. Now no land there is left for grazing, it is all occupied. The people try to utilize
all the land, there is a continuous outward from the shore, also due to competition. To me I think that this
reflects the extent it has taken.
2.3.3 IRRIGATION DEVELOPMENT
The climatic conditions in the area have characteristics of a bimodal rainfall pattern, there are long rains from
March to June and short rains from September to December (Mango, 2002). Farmers do horticulture cultivation
in two or three seasons, two if cereals are produced in the long rainy season, and three if only horticulture
production takes place. Irrigation is of pivotal importance for these farmers, due to erratic and insufficient rainfall
in a part of the cultivating seasons. At first a general account is made on the practice of irrigation for agricultural
production after which the case-study situation, and spread of petrol pumps, is discussed in more detail.
It is widely acknowledged that irrigation has a lot of potential to increase production in agriculture especially for
poverty alleviation and improving food security. Irrigation is defined as a process of supplying water to crops and
other plants in cultivation. A number of benefits can be contributed to irrigated agriculture. Firstly, higher yields
can be achieved per hectare in comparison with non-irrigated agriculture. Secondly, by means of irrigation
multiple cultivation seasons can take place, and year-round cultivation is enabled. Therefore the production
process can be more continuous with irrigated farming, which benefits the value chain of the product. And this
can improve regular household income and contribute to food security. Thirdly, not being dependent on rainfall
can increase the range of possible crops to cultivate, therefore diversification in production can be facilitated
(Ruthenberg, 1980). A disadvantage concerning irrigated farming are the costs, especially in poor rural livelihoods
this can be a hindering factor for farmers to get involved in irrigated agriculture.
From this basic understanding of irrigation, now the focus is on how irrigation practices have developed in the
case-study area in relation to horticulture development. Before the emergence of horticulture, irrigation was not
prevalent in the area. Although manual irrigation with buckets took place at a small scale, irrigated horticulture
was not a main economic activity, but moreover it was part of subsistence farming. Currently farmers practice
horticulture cultivation near the lake, and this happens in a commercialized way. Therefore also a transformation
in irrigation development has taken place and currently petrol pumps are used as irrigation means. A spread of
petrol pumps has happened in the last two decades, in the same time frame as the commercialized horticulture
Chapter 2 Research background
10
development. The first petrol pumps are said to have arrived in 1995 and their number has increased over time1.
In the spread of petrol pumps in West-Uyoma several aspects and drivers play a role. Initiative of farmers and
businessmen has resulted in a widespread use of petrol pumps. Farmers saw the potential of horticulture
production and needed irrigation technology to assist them in cultivation. Therefore they started to use petrol
pumps in order to increase production, and the economic potential of commercialized horticulture has triggered
this development. Organizations have also joined in the introduction of petrol pumps, by means of group
support. Although their influence is rather marginal, because they only support farmers through groups and do
not support farmers on an individual basis. Whereas most farmers work individualistic, and therefore cannot, or
do not want to make use of this type of support. The spread of petrol pumps, therefore, happened in an organic
and autonomous way, mainly initiated by farmers or business men with interest in this development.
Diminishing fisheries and commercialization of horticulture have triggered people to shift to horticulture
production as a main economic activity. This background has set the context of this research, involving
development of commercialized horticulture in combination with a spread of petrol pumps as individual small
scale irrigation technology. A type of farmer-led irrigation development is recognized, in which farmers mainly
autonomously started to use petrol pumps in order to increase their production standards. In what ways farmers
organize their horticulture production including the use of petrol pumps is the central issue in this research. In
the following chapter the research design and methodology are discussed in which the research focus,
conceptualization, and operationalization are elaborated upon.
1 The following quote gives an impression of the spread of petrol pumps in the last two decades. [K17] “Many
farmers use the water pump and the number of pumps is increasing compared to when I came in 1998. In 1998
there were only 2 or 3 water pumps in this area, right now I cannot even count the amount of water pumps that
are there, and they jump this place.”
Chapter 3 Research design & methodology
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CHAPTER 3 RESEARCH DESIGN & METHODOLOGY
The picture shows my local guide in the research area, pointing me in a direction. This picture serves as an
imagination for this chapter which points the direction, and serves as the basic guideline for this research.
In this chapter first the concepts and theories are explained, these offer a framework in which the analysis is
grounded and provide an approach to execute the research. This theoretical framework consists of a
conceptualization of irrigation dynamics, and furthermore the Socio-Technical Approach (STA), the Farming
Styles Approach (FSA) and Social Construction of Technology (SCOT) are discussed. The concepts and theories
provide the foundation on which the research is build, and the context in which it is embedded. Based on this
theoretical framework, the problem statement and research questions are provided, which form the basic
structure for further analysis. Finally the methodology is provided in which is explained how the research is
operationalized and by what methods.
Chapter 3 Research design & methodology
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3.1 CONCEPTS AND THEORIES
The purpose of this section is to create a theoretical framework in which this research can be manifested. At first
a conceptualization of irrigation dynamics presents the starting point of this research. Furthermore the concepts
are presented, starting with the socio-technical approach as umbrella concept. The interrelatedness of the social
and the technical serves as the theoretical foundation. Both the FSA and the SCOT are based on a co-construction
of social and technical aspects. The FSA describes this co-construction of social and technical concerning
heterogeneity in farming strategies. And the SCOT concentrates on the interrelated influence of both the social
and the technical regarding the process of technology construction. These concepts provide the means to analyse
how petrol pumps are used in a heterogeneous context of smallholder horticulture irrigation.
3.1.1 CONCEPTUALISATION OF IRRIGATION DYNAMICS
The definition of an irrigation system from Mollinga (1998:16) is: “a labour process with the objective to bring
water from A to B in order to grow agricultural crops.” He describes it as a labour process with a certain objective
to transport the water with the final purpose to cultivate crops. There are many factors that can change in this
irrigation process due to divergent objectives and interests of the actors involved. The resulting dynamics in
irrigation involve interaction with water, people and technology (Mollinga, 1998). In the interface of people and
technology social aspects of people and society, and technicalities together co-construct an irrigation practice.
Furthermore different backgrounds, logics, and strategies in farming can lead to a different perspective on
technology, and farmers can negotiate over its meaning and function.
Through the eyes of the farmers the multi-functionality of petrol pump technology is investigated. It is
acknowledged that the interviewees, the researcher and human beings in general, socially construct
understandings of the world. Standing in the critical realist tradition, it is believed that a world is existent out
there and people can have different understandings of this. Therefore flexibility and an open mind to multiple
constructed realities is important. Concepts and theories are used in order to value the collected data and
provide a means to strategically execute this analysis. Although flexibility in the concepts and theories are
necessary so to let the interviewees speak. At the same time the theoretical framework enables the researcher
to explain a phenomenon under analysis. The concepts and theories presented are considered as a means to
strategically analyse the research data and do not aim to be an end in itself.
3.1.2 SOCIO-TECHNICAL APPROACH
At first the ‘umbrella’ concept, the socio-technical approach is discussed. This approach acknowledges the
interrelatedness and interaction of social and technological aspects. In its core the approach has a holistic nature,
it emphasises that social and technical systems are different but internally related dimensions of a single object
or system as a network of heterogeneous elements (Sayer, 2014). They are directly interlinked and are not
separate parts following different laws, the joint structure is more than the sum of its parts. Therefore the
process of matching both social and technical systems can lead to a joint optimization. In other words they are
described as co-producers of a system as a whole (Trist, 1981). Technological innovation in irrigation is not an
isolated development, it is interconnected with social systems in the interface of people, water and technology.
Irrigation systems are therefore a co-construction of social and technical systems.
The process of construction of technical artefacts can be regarded as a symmetrical interaction wherein both
human ideas and technology together constitute the artefact. This conceptual approach is more widely adapted
lately within the water resources management field (Mollinga, 1998). The research culture of this research
derives from this conceptual approach and can be described as critical realist and socio-technical. From the point
of a critical realist a phenomenon can be explained by linking different mechanisms that are interrelated in its
development. Kloezen & Mollinga (1992) subdivide the socio-technical system into three dimensions in which
Chapter 3 Research design & methodology
13
technology can be considered socially relevant. These dimensions are (i) the social construction, (ii) the social
requirements for use and (iii) the social effects. (i) The social construction deals with the way in which different
interests and objectives can be translated into a design. Technical artefacts are analysed as social processes with
physical subject matter. Within the process of social construction negotiation takes place between different
actors which is informed by social and technical considerations. (ii) The social requirements for use are mainly
about the management demands of a particular technology. A technical artefact has to be used properly which
can only be done in limited ways by fulfilling conditions that are set through the design. (iii) Finally, once a
technical artefact is being used it has social implications that derive from the technology in use and therefore
produces social effects (Kloezen and Mollinga, 1992).
The socio-technical approach as described above serves as the underlying principle for this research, because it
enables the analysis of the irrigation technology as a socio-technical construction. Both the FSA and the SCOT
incorporate this socio-technical approach. The FSA emphasise on how social forces and technology development
are interwoven, and interact with each other in a heterogeneous farming organization. The SCOT focuses on how
technology development is shaped by social systems and vice versa. Both concepts emphasise the
interrelatedness of social and technical systems. The organization of production and irrigation technology
development are both socio-technical processes and can therefore be linked to each other, both are socially
constructed. The FSA and the SCOT function as the more practical concepts for analysis in this research. In the
coming paragraphs first the FSA, followed by the SCOT concept are discussed in detail.
3.1.3 FARMING STYLES APPROACH
Being acquainted with the umbrella concept of the research now the concepts that are deployed for the analysis
are discussed. Starting with the Farming Styles Approach (FSA), which is developed in order to analyse
heterogeneity of agriculture, and emphasize on the interwoven social and technical nature of agricultural
systems. The FSA is an example of an approach which takes into account broader expressions of differentiation
in farming, which goes beyond the economic and modernization aspects, in which the farmer is recognized as a
strategic agent. Three interconnected and relevant perspectives are introduced considering differentiation in
agriculture (Van der Ploeg et al., 2009a).
Firstly, a farming style is seen as a ‘coherent set of strategic notions about the way in which farming should be
practiced’ (van der Ploeg et al., 2009b:126). The farming style is a specific collection of strategic notions that
guides practical actions in agriculture and also informs farmers on their choices. In this respect it also provides a
model for decision-making in which these strategic notions can be shared by a group of farmers. Secondly, ‘a
farming style also appears as a particular practice: as an internally consistent mode of farming’ (van der Ploeg et
al., 2009b:126) This internal structure and coherence of the farming practice are grounded in the collection of
strategic notions, and these are in turn also influenced by specific practices. Furthermore a farming style
constitutes a specific organisation of production that is amongst others reflected in the characteristics of labour.
Veldwisch and Spoor (2008) explain the organisation of production as follows: “the internal logic of organisation,
i.e. the links between the organisation of inputs, land, management, labour and outputs” (Veldwisch and Spoor,
2008:432). ‘Thirdly, a farming style can be defined as a set of particular relations between markets and
technology supply on the one hand, and farming on the other’ (van der Ploeg et al., 2009b:126).
Chapter 3 Research design & methodology
14
The FSA recognizes the different social,
economic and productive logics in
agriculture and is not based on an a-priori
hierarchy, in contrast to existing
modernization policies. Within the
farming styles approach, farmers can be
seen to own a strategic agency, and from
their strategic notions the different
farming styles emerge. Differentiation in
agricultural development is an ongoing
process with unclear outcomes. The
difference with the FSA is its focus on
farmers agency and heterogeneity in
farming (van der Ploeg et al., 2009b).
Farming styles are constituted from
diverse aspects concerning agricultural
activities, its dynamic environment and the cultural repertoire. A farming style consists out of a particular
strategy taken in farming as an economic activity and includes the interconnection with markets and technology.
Figure 3 explains the space in which the farmers can take different positions regarding the relations with markets
and technology. In this sense it is important to consider that markets involve inputs, outputs and labour and the
extent of dependency on these markets. The supply of technology deals with the normativity of the design, or
whether a type of craftsmanship is taking place (Van der Ploeg, 2013).
The recognition of diversity and multi-functionality in agricultural practices can be linked to the concept of
multiple realities. Long and Van der Ploeg (1989) state that one must see an “intervention as a ‘multiple reality’
made up of differing cultural perceptions and social interests, and constituted by the ongoing social and political
struggles that take place between the social actors involved”. In the co-construction of irrigation technology it is
important to consider different viewpoints of the ‘multiple reality’, instead of looking at one ideal construction
developed by one actor (Long and van der Ploeg, 1989:226). Within the FSA it is possible to go deeper into
heterogeneity in horticulture production. This can be expressed in farming styles based on strategies regarding
the organization of labour, relations of market and technology and in objects and instruments that are used in
farming. In these strategies irrigation dynamics also play an important role, and furthermore the underlying logics
and notions of farmers are taken into account.
On the basis of the FSA, the organization of production is discussed in chapter four, and in chapter five the
farming styles classification (FSC) is presented. The FSA makes it possible to analyse and characterise the different
types of organisations within agricultural production. Moreover the heterogeneous nature of the organization
of production sets the context for the FSC. This classification scheme based on the farming styles, is a tool for
inquiry, in which each classification highlights a specific part of reality. They are not an objective representation
of reality, but multiple realities still exist and go beyond the boundaries of the classification scheme. The
classification scheme in this research is used to recognize heterogeneity and multi-functionality of farming
strategies, and to gain understanding in the different logics and notions underlying farming styles. The SCOT
approach is focussed on the technological aspect, by using the FSA the social construction of the petrol pumps
and its practices of use, can be embedded in the context of horticulture production. Because both farming styles
and petrol pumps are a socio-technical construct, both approaches are merged in this research. In different
farming styles petrol pumps are used in different ways, this is a process of co-construction in which both social
and technical aspects together shape irrigation development.
Figure 3 Space in the interface of technology supply and market relations
Chapter 3 Research design & methodology
15
3.1.4 SOCIAL CONSTRUCTION OF TECHNOLOGY
In addition to an explanation of FSA as a first step in the analysis, the SCOT concept is discussed. First a short
summary of key concepts from SCOT is presented. This concept deals with social structures that influence the
development of technology, in other words the social shaping of technology. It proposes an agency centred
approach in which is emphasised that social and technical borders are not a-priori given and static, but are
continuously shaped by actors in a dynamic interplay (Klein and Kleinman, 2002). The technology under study is
a petrol pump and its practices of use in the context of horticulture production. This irrigation technology is co-
constructed in the interface of social and technical systems. In this section the SCOT concept itself is discussed
and it is explained how this co-construction of irrigation technology is analysed. Originally the concept is
presented by Pinch and Bijker (1987) and it consists of four related components that each are discussed below
(Pinch and Bijker, 1987).
The first is interpretive flexibility which explains that the design of technology is a process that depends upon
social circumstances and can generate different outcomes. A technical artefact, in this case a petrol pump, is
interpreted by the social environment in different ways, and they in turn also construct an artefact. This co-
construction of a petrol pump and its practice of use depend on the social circumstances and can generate
different outcomes. It can both be seen as an output and input of social interrelations that exist between farmers
themselves, and between farmers and the irrigation environment (Klein and Kleinman, 2002). The second notion
is that of the relevant social group that represents a particular interpretation. Pinch and Bijker (1987) define a
relevant social group as follows: ‘all members of a certain social group that share the same set of meanings,
attached to a specific artefact’ (Pinch and Bijker, 1987). The relevant social group can be seen as the embodiment
of particular interpretations in the social-construction process of technology (Klein and Kleinman, 2002). A
technological design can work because relevant social groups can give meaning to it, there is no objective sense
of success of the artefact itself (Pinch and Bijker, 1987). In light of this research, sets of meanings of members of
different farming styles on the use of petrol pumps are analysed.
A third concept is that of closure and stabilization which addresses the process of closing down controversies and
conflicts by the social groups in the process of technology development. When no relevant social group has
problems with the design, an artefact can be stabilized in its shape (Pinch and Bijker, 1987, Klein and Kleinman,
2002). Core aspect of this third concept is the multi-group design process, different ideas can be controversial in
the co-constitution. Resulting in closure when an extent of agreement is reached, so the technology can be
stabilized in its form. In addition to this Russell (1986) emphasises that we must also recognize how different
actors can influence the outcome of technology development. In this sense the capacity of actors embodied in
resources of power and knowledge are important to consider, because these can influence the closure and
stabilization (Russell, 1986). And the fourth and last concept concerns the wider context, which involves the socio-
cultural and political milieu in which the development of the artefact takes place. The background conditions,
institutions, interrelations, differences in power and dependency relations are aspects of importance in this social
realm (Klein and Kleinman, 2002). In this research the wider context is discussed in order to understand the
dynamic mechanisms in which the co-construction of irrigation is embedded.
In sum the SCOT concept, mainly being developed by Bijker & Law (1992) emphasises that the physical object of
technology can not strictly be distinguished from the social aspects it holds (Bijker and Law, 1992). It therefore
applies the same principles as both the STA and the FSA, in recognizing the interrelatedness of the social and the
technical in irrigation development. In the SCOT concept the focus is on the co-construction of petrol pumps
from the perspective of farmers. It can provide an in-depth analysis of the use and construction of technology,
and does so within a context of a heterogeneous farming reality as discussed with the FSA. Based on the SCOT
concept it is analysed how petrol pumps are appropriated and utilized.
Chapter 3 Research design & methodology
16
3.2 PROBLEM STATEMENT AND RESEARCH OBJECTIVES
Based on the research context in which the concepts and theories have been discussed, in this section the
problem statement and objectives are provided. The problem statement deals with the central gap of knowledge
which is the focal point of this research.
3.2.1 PROBLEM STATEMENT
Petrol pumps are widespread in the West-Uyoma area in Kenya and are utilized by smallholder horticulture
farmers. This spread of petrol pumps has emerged in the last 20 years in relation to a broader development
involving commercialized horticulture. This widespread use of petrol pumps is considered an organic and
autonomous irrigation development mainly initiated by farmers, and is therefore a type of ‘farmer-led irrigation’.
It is unclear how farmers appropriate and utilize petrol pumps, and develop irrigation in the context of
smallholder horticulture in such a way to increase its socio-economic potential. There is a knowledge gap on the
understanding of farmer-led irrigation and how this development has taken place. From the perspective of
farmers acting as strategic agents, different ways of farming and uses of petrol pumps are identified. In this way
a co-construction of farming strategies and the use of petrol pumps can be analysed. This provides insight in how
farmers are drivers of small scale irrigation development. Moreover these findings contribute to an identification
of farmer-led irrigation and increase understanding in the ways how farmers initiate and strategize this irrigation
development.
3.2.2 RESEARCH OBJECTIVES
The objective of this research is to gain understanding in the dynamics of farmer-led irrigation. Through an
analysis of a heterogeneous organization of horticulture production and use of petrol pumps, insight is gained in
this co-construction of irrigation development. Irrigation dynamics are situated in an interface of social and
technical systems which are interrelated. This research is innovative because until now no research has been
done on irrigation dynamics in horticulture in Luo land. This combined research of irrigation technology in
relation to a heterogeneous practice of horticultural production can offer new insights regarding farmer-led
irrigation development. Petrol pumps and its practices of use are the focal point of research that is analysed in a
heterogeneous farming context, on the basis of farmers’ experiences.
This research contributes to an understanding in individual small scale irrigation as a means for poverty
alleviation. Increasing agricultural returns through irrigation measures has great potential to reduce rural poverty
and increase food security. Although the dynamics of farmer-led irrigation are often not fully understood and
therefore its potential and implications are unclear. This research aims to gain more insight in farmers’
experiences and strategies in the use of petrol pumps for smallholder irrigation in horticulture production. In this
way farmer-led irrigation can be better understood, in order to inform policy making on sustainable future
development.
Within this research personal objectives are to gain more insight in how farmer-led irrigation development, in
this case with petrol pumps, work in practice. And having little experience so far in doing field work, the aim is
to gain experience with case-study research and the different methods that are part of this study. In addition to
this also the agricultural practices in a very different context compared to what I am used to, are interesting to
compare. Moreover the experience of a different culture, expanding my horizon and taking part in a traditional
Luo way of living is very valuable to me.
Chapter 3 Research design & methodology
17
3.3 RESEARCH QUESTIONS
In this chapter the specific research questions that are addressed in this research are explained. First the main
research question is given and furthermore the sub-questions provide more detail, and take smaller steps in
order to answer the main research question. These sub-questions are each linked to a result chapter in the
remainder of this report.
3.3.1 MAIN RESEARCH QUESTION
Petrol pumps are spread in an organic and autonomous manner initiated by farmers and is characterized as
farmer-led irrigation. Farmers strategize their farming business including irrigation mechanisms in
heterogeneous ways. The focus in this research is on how farmers experience petrol pump technology
interconnected with multiple configurations of farming styles. Moreover this research aims to understand how
this co-construction of farming strategies and use of petrol pumps is taking place. Therefore the main research
question is as follows:
In what ways do farmers appropriate and use petrol pumps for irrigation in a horticulture production
process in West-Uyoma, Kenya?
3.3.2 SUB-QUESTIONS
The main research question which is stated above is subdivided into three sub-questions each addressing a part
of the main research question. Each of the three sub-questions is elaborated upon in a result chapter, to know
chapters four, five and six. The three questions are provided below and are briefly discussed in order to explain
the focus of each question.
Sub-question 1: How is production organized in horticulture farming in West-Uyoma?
This first sub-question aims to gain insight in the organization of production which can be characterized as
heterogeneous and is emerging from a wider socio-economic development in West-Uyoma. Production can be
organized in different ways, and consists of a set of elements including land, cultivation, labour, inputs, outputs
and markets. This offers a range of possibilities in which farmers strategize their farming business, and in which
they interact with the dynamic context of horticulture production. The organization of production is explained
as the basic context in which farmers make choices and decide on a certain strategy in farming.
Sub-question 2: What are configurations of different farming styles, and what are underlying logics and
notions in farmers’ strategies?
This second sub-question aims to provide understanding in how farmers act as strategic agents and how they
shape different configurations of farming styles. Based on the organization of production, in this section the
different underlying logics and notions of farming strategies are taken into account. The FSC is provided and
identifies the multi-functionality and heterogeneity in farming styles. A distinction in farming styles provides a
means to discuss heterogeneity in the appropriation and use of petrol pumps.
Sub-question 3: How do farmers appropriate and use petrol pumps, and how do they negotiate over the
meaning of petrol pumps?
The last sub-question specifically deals with how farmers experience the use of petrol pumps in smallholder
horticulture farming. The analysis of petrol pump technology is framed by the FSC, in order to gain insight in how
petrol pumps are appropriated and utilized in different farming styles. In this section different experiences and
sets of meanings adhered to petrol pumps are discussed. This includes the capacity of the farmers in the process
Chapter 3 Research design & methodology
18
of negotiation over a petrol pump. A key issue is to gain understanding in the co-construction of irrigation
development and heterogeneity in farming.
3.3.3 CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
This conceptual framework as shown in Figure 4, brings the research- conceptualization and questions together.
It provides a quick overview of the structure of the result chapters based on the theoretical framework as
described above. The socio-technical approach is regarded as the umbrella concept under which the FSA and the
SCOT provide the more practical means and structure for analysis. The research questions have been established
based on these concepts, and the sub-questions can each be linked to a separate chapter. The first two sub-
questions are analysed based on the FSA and are discussed in chapters four and five. The third research question
is analysed based on the SCOT concept and is discussed in chapter six. The central line in this conceptual
framework is the interrelatedness of the social and the technical regarding the organization of production and
irrigation development.
Figure 4 Conceptual framework
Chapter 3 Research design & methodology
19
3.4 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Having set the central line of this research and having discussed the research questions on which the analysis is
set, now the shift is made towards the operationalization of the research. Within the research methodology at
first the design of the qualitative research is discussed, focussed on case-study research. Following from this
different methods that are utilized in the research are explained and linked to objectives that are set in the
research design. In this section interviewing and observation methods are discussed in detail.
3.4.1 QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
The characteristic qualitative research is that it aims to gain understanding in meanings that people have
constructed. The purpose of this research is to understand the unique situation of horticulture famers using
petrol pumps and the meaning they adhere to their experiences. This happens in a context in which especially
the interconnectedness of the social and the technical are central. In this case the use of petrol pumps
interconnected with heterogeneity in farming is the phenomenon under study in which understanding is
obtained. In this type of research the researcher is the primary instrument for data collection and analysis in
order to expand his or her understanding on the phenomenon under study (Merriam, 2009). In order to analyse
this development of petrol pumps, qualitative research is necessary to gain insight in the experiences of farmers,
and their underlying logics and notions that influence this process.
CASE-STUDY RESEARCH
First the literature review conducted serves as a fundament for the case-study research. This review is not
initiated to determine the answers about what is known about the topic, but is provided in order to contribute
to a better insight in the topic and through this it can be regarded as a means to develop sharper and more
insightful questions about the topic. In sum the literature review itself does not provide the answers to the
research questions, but as a matter of fact it aims to develop a conceptual and methodological framework in
order to structure and operationalize the research in an appropriate manner (Yin, 2009).
A case-study research is executed in order to improve understanding in the unique situation of smallholder
horticulture farmers using petrol pumps. A case-study research is relevant when the research on the
phenomenon is context specific and in-depth. In order to understand a real life phenomenon in-depth, the
specific contextual conditions that are encompassed fulfil a key role, because these conditions are highly
pertinent to the phenomenon of study. The case-study inquiry copes with the technically distinctive situation in
which there are many more variables of interest than data points. And as one result relies on multiple sources of
evidence, the data is needed to converge in a triangulating fashion. And as another result, it benefits from the
prior development of theoretical propositions to guide data collection and analysis (Yin, 2009). A case-study
research is suitable, because through this form of empirical inquiry the phenomenon of petrol pumps can be
analysed in-depth with regard to its specific context. In order to get a clearer view on what is involved in case
study research, Yin (2009) shortly describes the basic characteristics of such an inquiry. “The essence of a case
study, the central tendency among all types of case study, is that it tries to illuminate a decision or set of
decisions: why they were taken, how they were implemented, and with what result.” (Schramm, 1971, emphasis
added, in (Yin, 2009). Case studies have the availability to focus on a large number of variables and can analyse
how these interrelate. Therefore it can be said that case studies have a high internal validity based on the more
profound understanding of the behaviour of different actors. The theoretical underpinning in case study research
is of great importance in order to attain value for wider generalization outside its specific case context. By taking
the theory as a fundamental starting point and reference in the case study research, external validity in the form
of logical replication can be attempted (De Vaus, 2001). The case-study design therefore strongly relates to the
aim of qualitative research to gain understanding in the meaning of farmers’ experiences on the use of petrol
pumps.
Chapter 3 Research design & methodology
20
The selection of the case is made from a strategic point of view concerning the characteristics of the particular
case based on theory derived from literature review. (De Vaus, 2001). Besides this the area of study is also chosen
due to the recommendation of a local inhabitant and former student. He has indicated the suitability of the West-
Uyoma area for this particular research and provided housing facilities and other practicalities. The case in this
research consists of the smallholder horticulture farmers using petrol pumps in the area of West-Uyoma in the
vicinity of Lake Victoria. Gaining understanding in farmers experiences in heterogeneous farming practices
interconnected with the use of petrol pumps are central tenets in this research. This case-study design has
explained the choice for this method and its importance to suit the objectives of this research. In the following
section the specific methods for data collection, based on the qualitative case-study research are explained.
3.4.2 RESEARCH METHODS
In this section the operationalization of the research methods are described. In order to execute a case-study
research multiple methods are deployed. At first methods for data collection, consisting of interviews and
observations are described in detail. The researcher is the primary instrument for data collection and aims to
increase in-depth understanding on the research object through interviews and observations. Secondly the
operationalization of the data analysis is explained.
INTERVIEWS
The interviewing method was used as the main data collection method in this research, mainly semi-structured
interviews were used. Interviews are especially useful in order to gain insight in the experiences and opinions of
the relevant stakeholders. An interview can be regarded as a particular kind of conversation with a specific aim,
and with a role differentiation between the interviewer and the interviewee (Crouch and McKenzie, 2006). The
concept of triangulation was used to verify data from different sources to make the data more valid. Concerning
the interviewing technique at first the sampling methods are discussed, followed with an explanation on the
practicalities of the interviews especially concerning the two interview rounds. Interviews are conducted with
farmers and other key informants. In total 67 interviews have been carried out during 13 weeks of fieldwork.
Purposeful and strategic sampling were used to determine the interviewees in the West-Uyoma area. The
farmers interviewed are mainly from the farming areas of Kochilo, Kamariga, Obenge, Likungu and Osindo, a few
farmers outside these regions were also interviewed. The interviewees were approached through connections
with the contact person, through university connections and moreover by approaching local farmers and
communities. Purposeful sampling also took place with so-called ‘mentor farmers’ as indicated by key
informants. Snowball sampling was also used, because farmers often told me to approach their colleagues. Also
for the key informants’ interviews this happened in a similar way, often the interviewee would provide the
connection to other key informants. The selection of interviewees mainly depended on the farmers’ presence at
the field, available time, and them being pointed out by others to connect with.
In the early stages of fieldwork more informal interviews were held, this happened in order to become familiar
with the people in the field, and to build up a relationship with the interviewees. Following on the first
acquaintance, more in-depth interviews were held through semi-structured interviews. As a preparation an
interview guide was developed which contains a structuration of main and follow-up questions. Although the
interviewees have the opportunity to address topics on their own initiative, an open and flexible attitude is
necessary to give interviewees the freedom to share what they find important (Hart et al., 2005). The interview
guide that was prepared for the interviews with farmers can be found in annex 2.
The interviews were mainly held in the morning as most farmers start working on their fields early in the morning.
The farmer was approached in the field and an introduction took place in which was explained why this research
is conducted. Farmers approached were willing to cooperate in an interview depending on the time they had
Chapter 3 Research design & methodology
21
available. When doing interviews I would also walk through the farming area and could observe other farmers
on their fields. Often I stopped by to have a short conversation, this improved the relationship with the farmers,
and it also provided valuable information which they did not share in the interviews. Each day a report was
written on the interviews, short informal conversations and observations. These reports enabled the researcher
to process the information, from both interviews and observation. For the transcription of the interview a format
was made including a table to note some basic information. This short overview was utilized in the remaining
analysis of the data to get a quick idea of some basic characteristics of the farmer and his farming business. An
example of the interview format which was used for transcription is enclosed in annex 3. After finalizing the
transcription, arrangements for interviews for the next day were made and prepared.
Of a total of 67 interviews in 13 weeks, 50 interviews were executed with farmers in two interviewing rounds,
both lasting six weeks. In between there was an intermezzo-week in which acquired data was analysed in order
to prepare for the next round of interviews. The first round of interviews was held in order to gain insight in
farmers’ strategies in farming based on their organization of production. The second round of interviews
consisted of follow-up interviews and was focussed on farmers experiences on the use of petrol pumps based on
information from the first interviews. In annex 4 a table with the overview of the farmers that are interviewed is
provided, including the coding of the farmers in order to secure them anonymity. This coding was made on the
basis of the FSC which is discussed in chapter five. This is done in order to enable the reader to quickly identify
which farmer from what farming style is quoted in the remainder of this report.
In the first round of interviews 34 different farmers were interviewed of which 30 have their fields in one of the
five farming areas. The other four farmers from different areas are left outside this research for the following
reasons. These farmers and their area are only visited once, so no relationship is build up and no observation
could take place over time. And besides this their fields were at a longer distance from the homestead, and
therefore more difficult to reach with transport available. Due to a sufficient amount of farmers available in the
nearby areas, it is chosen not to include these four interviews in the analysis. Furthermore three more farmers
are not taken into account in the specific analysis on the farming styles and the irrigation technology. These
interviews have taken place to gain insight in the group dynamics and did not provide sufficient information on
the farmer as a strategic agent in his/her own farming business. Sideways these interviews are taken into account
for general analysis and to provide more insight in the context of horticulture farming and collective irrigation
systems.
The second round of interviews consists of 19 interviews in total, of which 16 follow-ups, conducted with 18
different farmers. The second round of interviews is focussed on the irrigation technology and application
methods, and provided a means to recuperate missing information from former interviews and to go in-depth
on irrigation technology. Farmers for the second round of interviews were selected based on information from
first interviews, and by taking the preliminary farming styles classification into account. The selection criteria
were to find farmers from different farming styles and areas, specifically at least two follow-ups are done per
farming style and per farming area.
In addition to the interviews with farmers, also 17 interviews with key informants were conducted. The key
informants have different fields of expertise considering horticultural production and irrigation technology. The
analysis of these interviews is mainly used as background knowledge, and to improve understanding on the
research context. In addition it can add a reflection on farmers’ experiences, and on the different sets of
meanings towards petrol pumps. Although it is important to consider that these key informants also have their
experiences and perspectives in relation to the matter, as well as the farmers. Their different viewpoint can offer
different perspectives, which is critically discussed by the researcher. In annex 5 a table with key informants
interviewed, and a number of characteristics is provided, including the coding system.
Chapter 3 Research design & methodology
22
(PARTICIPATIVE) OBSERVATION
Participative observations are mainly executed with the aim to construct a full picture of what is going on in the
field. Considering that within the interviews not all data is covered, there is an uncertain factor incorporated in
interviewing people, because one cannot be sure that someone speaks the truth or might not remember
everything in detail (Atkinson and Hammersley, 1994). Participation in the daily routines and practices of actors
that take part in the social construction process has contributed to a better understanding of their experiences,
opinions and interests. Field observations have given the possibility to improve the validation of the data and
gave new and fresh insights.
Observation took place with all farmers’ visits, the farmers were nearly always approached at the field or in the
proximity of the field. Observation took place throughout the full period of fieldwork, which gave insight in the
different stages of cultivation, and in the farmers’ presence and labour at the field. Also the scale of farming
could be observed in a very direct manner and possible discrepancies in dimensions could be resolved. Also in
other interviews observations have proven very valuable and have provided the researcher with an increased
understanding of the matter. E.g. during an interview with a local engineer, two petrol pumps were brought in
by farmers with common problems, the engineer repaired both pumps in his workshop. Additionally also a field
day was attended under the header of the world food day. Here also lessons in agricultural production were
given, and test fields provided information on a number of crops and their cultivation. The participative
observation was executed in collaboration with the farmers, mostly this happened while an interview was
arranged with the particular farmer. This for instance implies that when an interview was taking place at the time
of harvest, a helping hand was offered while in the meanwhile questions were asked in an informal manner. This
participative observation mainly contributed in building a relation with the farmers.
DATA ANALYSIS
In this section it is shortly described how the processing and analysis of the collected data has taken place. After
conducting the interviews the transcription was executed preferably the same day in which the interview was
held, or as quickly as possible. The processing of interview data happened through analysis based on the concepts
used. Beforehand a systematic set-up for the interview transcription was made in which the same themes are
discussed for each interview. The interview guide highly contributed in ordering the data and enabled a quick
and systematic analysis of the data. In this analysis choices are made on which information was supportive for
the arguments that came to the fore in this research. Also coding of the interviewees has taken place in order to
secure their anonymity as is explained before.
3.4.3 DISCUSSION OF METHODOLOGY
This section provides a short reflection on the research design and the methods used. At first the case-study
research proved valuable in gaining understanding in the experiences of farmers on the use of petrol pumps. The
position of the researcher as primary instrument for data collection is needed to gain insight in different
interpretations, but is also subject to interpretation by the researcher. Therefore it proved important to structure
the conduct of interviews themselves and their analysis. Semi-structured interviews functioned as the main data
collection method, beforehand an interview guide was prepared before going into the field. This interview guide
proved helpful to structure the interview and to be consistent throughout all interviews undertaken. However it
was also experienced important to remain flexible and open to the farmers to express what is on their mind.
Especially this information gave a valuable impression of the underlying logics and notions of farmers. Many
factors that were not considered beforehand, were highlighted by farmers and improved understanding of their
experiences and strategies.
Chapter 3 Research design & methodology
23
Moreover it has to be considered that interviews deal with the personal account of people that does not
necessarily corresponds to their actions or perspective. Also other factors can play a role in the strategies and
decision-making. In the interviews the focus was on the experiences of farmers, to understand why they do what
they do. In this way it is not about right or wrong, but the principles of use can be illuminated based on their
experiences. In fieldwork interviews are combined with observations, which often proved helpful to verify
information given by farmers, for example on field dimensions and crops in cultivation. Within a time frame of
3,5 months the farming areas were regularly visited, this also contributed in gaining insight in the stages of
cultivation and the presence of farmers on their field. In-site interviewing is recommended because it enables
the researcher to directly verify information, and ask questions based on what is seen in the field.
In the field I had a rather ‘free’ position as a student doing a research from personal interest, and not being part
of an organization. This in combination with the fact that I was part of the community living with a local family
at the dala proved helpful in approaching the farmers. The farmers mostly knew the family and me, which quickly
created a relationship of trust and willingness to cooperate.
A number of limitations can also be discussed regarding the fieldwork. At first the language barrier resulted in
limitations in data collection. The interviews were done in English, and therefore I could only communicate
directly with the farmers with a sufficient level of English. For a small number of farmers their proficiency was
limited. In one case a local translator was used, but otherwise only farmers speaking sufficient English were
interviewed. Therefore the language barrier has influenced the interview outputs. Also a lack of information on
dimensions and other statistical data proved difficult. This sometimes left the researcher uncertain about the
correctness of quantities, because this could not be verified.
3.5 CONCLUSION
This chapter on research design and methodology has provided a theoretical framework for analysis and has
operationalized this analysis. First of all the socio-technical concept is the umbrella concept in which both the
FSA and SCOT are linked in. This interrelatedness of the social and the technical is interwoven throughout this
research and the FSA and SCOT offer ways to analyse this co-construction. Horticulture production and
development of technology are both a co-construction of social and technical systems. The FSA offers an
approach to analyse heterogeneity in horticulture production. And furthermore the FSC is established in which
different farming styles provide a frame for analysis, and relate to irrigation development. The operationalization
of the SCOT concept entails an in-depth analysis of the co-construction of petrol pumps and its practices of use
in the context of heterogeneous horticulture production. Based on these concepts the analysis is operationalized
in a case-study design using interviews and observation methods for data collection. Furthermore the
information is structured and brought in line with the main arguments in a uniform and qualitative manner.
This has resulted in an in-depth analysis of petrol pumps used in heterogeneous smallholder horticulture.
Furthermore understanding is gained in the use of petrol pumps concerning its appropriation and utilization,
interconnected with different farming styles. In the following chapters four, five and six the results of this analysis
are discussed, starting with the organization of production.
Chapter 4 Organization of production
24
CHAPTER 4 ORGANIZATION OF PRODUCTION
The picture illustrates a type of labour organization during transplanting. A farmer is practicing irrigation on his
field, while two people help him with transplanting the vegetables.
Sub-question 1: How is production organized in horticulture farming in West-Uyoma?
Coming from a wider context of diminishing fisheries and the development of commercialized horticulture, this
first result chapter focusses on the characteristics and heterogeneity of smallholder irrigated horticulture
farming. The different features that are part of how farmers organize their system of production include land
and cultivation, inputs and instruments, labour organization and management, and market characteristics. This
chapter provides a basic understanding of the logics and notions that underlie farming strategies in
commercialized horticulture production. This chapter forms the basis for the following FSC in the next chapter
and describes the range of possibilities in which farmers can decide on a farming strategy.
Chapter 4 Organization of production
25
4.1 LAND, CULTIVATION AND PRODUCTION
In this section features concerning land, cultivation and production are discussed. Aspects on land management
are discussed in relation to different cultivation practices. In addition to this estimations are given on the
production characteristics of different farmers considering yield and income.
4.1.1 LAND
Most farmers in the area hire land from the owner, in rare cases the farmers own land by themselves. In those
cases farmers have inherited the land from their father, which is a common practice in Luo tradition. Farmers
who own large pieces of land can partly rent out these lands to get an extra source of income. Most farmers
however hire land and they often do this per season of three to four months. The prices of land vary, depending
on the region, location, proximity to the lake, and competition of land. The prices range from 3000 - 6000 Kes for
½ acre, and some hire for 3 seasons, and some only hire two seasons because the owner wants to use his land
for cereal production during the rainy season. Farmers indicate that the land price is good when you can get
something good out of it. Although hiring land is considered a risk, because the investment is done beforehand
you can run at a loss when you fail in production. Farmers have different reasons why they choose to hire more
pieces of land and expand their business, two farmers indicate why they took this strategy.
[LB] You have recently leased a new field, why?
[F21] Because farming land can become exhausted, for diversity and for expansion. In order to expand
the income, because when the demand is there, one piece of land to harvest is not enough. When the
demand is high, you should harvest every day and sell your products.
[F10] I hire three fields of ¾ acre. We hire more fields, so we keep on moving. When one field is finished
we move to another field to prepare, meanwhile you can start with the nursery.
Land for hire is in demand in the research areas, the horticulture farmers aim to expand their farming activities
first of all by expanding their scale of farming. Farmers who own land have advantage over the farmers who have
to hire in terms of costs and security. Furthermore competition over land is increasing and prices are raising,
which makes it difficult for farmers to find affordable land close to the lake. Owners of land adjacent to the lake
demand higher prices because now they see the good earnings that farmers get from horticulture production.
4.1.2 CULTIVATION
Mainly tomato and kale varieties are cultivated in the case-study area, and to a lesser extent different types of
indigenous vegetables, watermelon, capsicum, butternut, fruits and others. Countrywide the tomato is one of
the vegetables that is produced most, it is the second leading vegetable in Kenya when looked at production and
value, after the potato. The tomato is known for its wide adaptability and versatility and therefore can often be
grown in open field, this accounts for 95% of total tomato production in Kenya. Incidence of pests and diseases
are agronomic challenges in tomato cultivation, and also poorly organized rural and urban market infrastructures
which permit unpredictable price fluctuation challenges farmers. These constraints can have a negative impact
on the production and marketing of quality tomatoes (Sigei et al., 2014).
The soil characteristics are an important aspect concerning the horticulture cultivation and irrigation potential.
The five farming areas share the same soil types, which is primarily clay and loam 2 . The most important
2 Black Cotton soil is the name given to the fertile and black clay soil prevalent in Uyoma, the soil has a high clay
content and a good water holding capacity. The name stems from its suitability for cotton production.
Chapter 4 Organization of production
26
characteristic is the water holding capacity, this is indicated as a benefit especially for horticulture in the dry
season. This research took place during the dry season from September-December. Farmers prefer to grow
tomatoes in a dry season due to the soil conditions and irrigation benefits. In rainy seasons waterlogging, and
vulnerability to pests and diseases are caused by excess of rainwater. Despite this a few farmers mentioned they
cultivate tomatoes in the rainy season because of market timing. Below two farmers give their reasoning in why
they cultivate tomatoes, their choices focus on the output of tomatoes and their experience with the cultivation
practice. Figure 5 and Figure 6 provide an image of how kales and tomatoes are cultivated in the case-study area.
[F25] Tomatoes and kales are cultivated now, we are only interested in tomatoes.
[F20] Now I cultivate only tomatoes, after this season I will plant maize and beans, and after that
tomatoes again. I like tomatoes, I know how to treat them, and I have experience with it.
New and upcoming crops in this area are watermelon and capsicum, only a small number of farmer has recently
started to produce these crops. Their motivation to grow watermelons is that it can be sold at a good price and
can render a good profit. The cultivation they say is not all that difficult and one watermelon plant can produce
multiple balls, which can be sold for 200-300 Kes at the market. There is little supply of these new crops, and
therefore some farmers try to fill this ‘gap’ in the market. In short the main cash crop in the research area of
Uyoma during the research is the tomato. In addition new crops, like watermelon and capsicum, are recently
cultivated. Whereas tomatoes are often flooding the market resulting in low prices, these new crops can be sold
at a higher price.
4.1.3 PRODUCTION
The production characteristics give an idea of the quantity of production and profit of horticulture farmers in the
research area. Although they can all be considered as smallholder farmers, there is substantial range in
production and profit as indicated by the farmers. The range in production can be ascribed to different ways of
cultivation and use of inputs. And the range in profit also depends on market demand and price fluctuations. An
estimation is given on the average production of tomatoes by a few farmers.
Figure 6 Illustration of sticking of tomatoes Figure 5 Illustration of cultivation of kales
Chapter 4 Organization of production
27
[F3] From tomatoes grown on 1 acre, you can get a production of 40-50 sanduku3, this is a good
production.
[F27] The average production for ¼ acre is about 10 sanduku.
[F12] Tomatoes on ¾ acre = 20 sanduku
The range of tomato production is on average between 25-50 sanduku on 1 acre. Considering that a sanduku is
64 kg, the average production ranges between 1600-3200 kg of fresh weight produce per acre. This comes down
to an average production of 4000-8000 kg/ha. In addition to this farmers also indicate their net income returns
from farm production. This seems to be much influenced by the market, especially by demand and price. The
wide range in profit from farm produce is indicated by farmers below.
[F23] The first year was very difficult, only for 8000Kes was sold and I had loss, the market was bad. In
the second season I got benefit, I sold for 20.000 and the profit was 5000Kes of tomatoes on ¼ acre.
[F2] The profit from tomatoes on ½ acre is within a range of 30-100.000 Kes. With 30.000 you get a loss.
[F5] At a field of tomatoes of ¾ acre the production can be 45.000 Kes for one season, the profit of it
can be half and half of the money is spent on inputs.
[F25] On a farm like this of ½ acre, you can make 70.000 Kes with hybrid, when you have local you can
make 30.000-40.000 Kes.
Considering the outputs and production characteristics and levels, there is a wide range in quantity among the
farmers. The level of inputs is a determinant factor in the income that can be generated on the farm. But mainly
it is expressed that with a larger farming scale and high production levels it is not necessarily the case that you
also get a high profit. The market is a determining factor in this respect, this is discussed later in this chapter.
4.2 INPUTS AND INSTRUMENTS
When explaining what inputs and instruments are in use in the case-study area, it is important to notice that the
high investments of inputs can be a restriction for many farmers. Especially for farmers who have limited financial
capital, this can be of profound importance in their farming strategies. How they organize their production is
dependent on their financial situation, and has implications for the use of inputs and instruments. The inputs and
instruments that are discussed below involve seeds and ploughing instruments, because this can provide insight
in distinctive opportunities of farmers. Fertilizers and pesticides are also in use by farmers, but are often used in
a similar manner.
Hybrid seeds are commonly used by farmers in the research area. Despite the fact that hybrid seeds are very
expensive, they also say that hybrid varieties are better compared to local varieties. Because hybrids are often
disease resistant, and moreover because they render higher production and profit. The farmers explain that the
money they can make from a higher production outweighs the fact that the seeds are expensive to buy. Hybrid
seeds are available since the last decade, but the actual use of hybrid seeds differs for each farmer. In general
hybrids are in use since five years in the research area. Below a farmer explains why he started using hybrids.
[F1] The tomato seeds are hybrids, Dani F1 and Fortune maker. They last longer, the harvesting time for
these types of tomatoes is longer, and it is good for the market. Three years ago I started to use the
hybrids, before I used local varieties. The hybrids give more production and they have a good quality.
3 ‘Sanduku’ is a Swahili word for a wooden crate in which tomatoes are sold, the weight of one sanduku with
tomatoes is most likely 64 kg, although the farmers were often not aware of its weight.
Chapter 4 Organization of production
28
Besides the type of seeds farmers can also invest in instruments and farming equipment. The ploughing
instruments are highlighted here in order to illustrate the type and level of instruments used. Most farmers use
an oxen-drawn plough, some can also use a tractor, but this is more expensive to hire. Although farmers indicate
that using a tractor gives a better ploughing result for the soil compared to ploughing with oxen. In addition a
combination of both methods can also be done, in that case the first ploughing is done by a tractor, and the oxen
are used to do harrowing. Concerning the use of ploughing instruments farmers make different choices based
on expenses, quality of tilt, size of the land, and on weather conditions. Farmers who have ownership of an oxen-
drawn-plough are in the position to rent it out to others as an extra source of income, others depend on hiring.
In general the investment capital is a decisive factor in deploying inputs and instrument for farming activities, in
order to render higher outputs.
4.3 LABOUR ORGANIZATION AND MANAGEMENT
In this paragraph different types of labour in the cultivation practices of farmers in the research area are
discussed. A distinction is made in labour done by family and friends, and labour that is hired. Following on this
also the availability of casual labour in the area is touched upon. Lastly farm management is discussed in relation
to labour, which provides insight into farmers preferred ways of working.
4.3.1 LABOUR ORGANIZATION
Many farmers indicate that it is common that friends and family help at the farm, especially in busy times,
irrespective the scale of farming. Some farmers indicate that work done by family members, often done by wife(s)
and children, is sufficient to complete the workload. This depends on the household situation and also the scale
of farming. Also in groups they can help each other, in those cases colleague-farmers are often seen as ‘friends’.
Another possibility to organize labour is to hire workers. Farmers can hire labour, for instance in times of land
preparation and clearing, ploughing, preparing the seedbed, and transplanting. There are different reasons
mentioned to hire labour, the main reason is that the workload is too much for one person. Due to seasonality
of farm-labour, casual labour is hired and no permanent labour exists in this research area. The farmers all work
on the farms themselves, and only hire labour in times of need. Hiring labour obviously comes with a price in
contrast to labour from family and friends. This commoditization of labour is an important development; due to
the price of labour farmers have to take different strategies in farming taking the costs of labour into account.
Prices of labour are negotiable and can either be determined on a time- or scale dimension. Often casual labour
can be hired for a day, this mostly implies an average of 5-7 hrs. Another possibility is to pay the worker for a
certain area that has to be finished, with weeding for instance. In these cases a certain area is dimensioned and
the worker receives a fixed amount for the weeding of that specific area. Below a number of farmers give an
indication of the variation of labour costs.
[F18] To hire one person for one day of work you pay 500 Kes, for 6 hours.
[F21] The costs are roughly 200 Kes for one day, from 8am to 1pm, 5 hours. That is average.
[F4] The price is negotiated, we can pay per day or per size, we call this ‘keo’. You measure a distance
by foot of 5 by 25 m, this is 100Kes, if you are strong you can do this in one hour, it is like a paddock.
[F9] Per paddock you pay 400 Kes, this will be about 6/7 hours of work.
Hiring labour is a common practice among the farmers. Mainly due to the scale of farming and the often high
workload in limited time, hired labour is necessary. Besides the price, farmers also take the well-being of the
crops into account. Farmers look for skilled labour, and do not want careless labourers to harm their crops.
Because skilled labour is hard to find, farmers specifically do the tasks that require experience and skills by
themselves. Farmers also indicate that in general it is difficult to find reliable labour on the farm. One reason
Chapter 4 Organization of production
29
mentioned is that fishermen who earned fishing money in the morning, do not want to work on a farm that day.
Below a farmer explains this situation, and the difficulties he faces with finding reliable labourers.
[F21] There are enough people who can work, but they are not so reliable. Men tell you that they will
come, but they do not come, if they have money from fishing they will not come to work. That is the
reason why women work on the field, because they cannot go fishing. Fishing is ready cash for the men.
The organization of labour is an important aspect in the agrarian structure in the research area. A parallel in the
strategies is the prevalence of labour from family and friends. Due to the commoditization of labour in
horticulture production the organization of labour has changed, and this has led to different strategies in farming.
The necessity and price of labour is balanced, and also the skills of hired labour are taken into account.
4.3.2 MANAGEMENT
The management of farming deals with the rate of collaboration of farm labour. A distinction can be made
between individual farmers and farmers who collaborate either in a partnership or in a group. In a partnership
two people can work together on one field, they can both either purchase or hire some instruments and share
costs and profit. Also groups are formed in which farmers can share labour and input costs, although farmers
who operate in a group also have their individual farms. Within groups the labour can partly be done in a
collective manner, a farmer explains how group work and individual work go hand in hand. And below Box 1
provides a more thorough discussion on group organization and dynamics in the research area.
[F8] We work together, we do group work, and we also have an individual farm. If you have a big farm
and you want to do transplanting, then you need help, so you can call others to assist. They can just help
on that one day, from the next watering you start to work by yourself.
Box 1 Group organization and dynamics
In the farming areas there are a number of groups operating in different ways. Also organizations are often
involved in the constitution and the workings of these groups. When farmers want support from e.g. donor
organizations, a group has to be formed because support only takes place throughout a group organization.
[K9] We work through groups, not through individuals. This is the mandate we have, the aim is to
reach as many people as possible, it is mandatory at Plan to work through groups. And these groups
must be formally registered.
Plan International and Western Kenya are organizations with livelihood programs in which they support
horticulture groups. Western Kenya is a collaboration between the World Bank and the government and they
run an 8 year program from 2008-2015. Western Kenya builds a structure through groups in order to achieve
wealth creation. This happens through grants, inputs, materials and trainings. And the groups in turn have to
write a proposal and procurement plan, set up a board, and set objectives that are monitored. There are a
number of groups active in the case-study area, KaCoHo (Kagwa Cooperative Horticulture) sponsored by Plan
International, is active in Kamariga and Obenge. The farmers involved in groups express their troubles and
discomfort with group collaboration. They indicate that individual farming has their preference, because then
you can dictate your own planning and the profit is for yourself. But the farmers organize in groups because
they seek support, as the chair of the KaCoHo group in Obenge explains.
[F2] Individual work is better than group work. In the group it is bothersome, there are a lot of errors.
NGOs can only help groups, they cannot help individuals. So we are forced to come in groups for their
help. I don’t know why, but they refuse to help individuals.
Chapter 4 Organization of production
30
There are a number of problems that occur in groups, these include small politics because of clan/kin issues.
Moreover group work is considered problematic, because not everybody in the group works as required, and
this causes friction and conflict over sharing of proceeds. And often only a small part of official members are
actively involved in group work. In the KaCoHo group only 5 out of 17 members actually contribute in work
and finance.
In Kochilo a group of 14 members has recently started, it has registered and is hoping for a donor to connect
with. The group is now only sharing ideas and wants to do bulk purchase of inputs, the farmers involved have
their individual farms. The group secretary indicates that he likes the group organization, but getting together
is difficult. Because some farmers also do fishing, some have a small farm, some large, the farmers do not
work in the same way which causes friction he argues. There is also a group active in Likungu that is organized
by farmers themselves and does not receive external support. This group consists of 10 members and they
provide loans for each other and help each other with work. They are content with this way of working and
do not want involvement from organizations.
In addition to farmers’ perspectives on group work, the project manager of Western Kenya acknowledges that
farmers are not used to work in groups. Therefore he argues however, that an attitude transformation is
needed. In his opinion group work can enable farmers to achieve something which is not possible individually.
It was indicated that farmers working in groups are not successful, but for the future this would be better. He
argues that in groups farmers can be better trained, and also marketing strategies can be better organized.
Farmers often do not recognize this potential, but experience discomfort in a group organization. Due to
support mechanisms they do cooperate, but if farmers are able they rather focus on their individual farm.
Many farmers prefer an individualistic way of working, because then you know what you will get from your land,
and it is your own responsibility. Group farming is mainly initiated in order to get support when investment
capital is problematic. Farmers with financial limitations can seize this as an opportunity to expand farming and
increase capital. Besides this, groups can also be initiated by farmers in order to share labour, provide loans for
and share ideas. In general farmers are foremost individual farmers on their own field, and the level of
individuality goes up in proportion with the scale and intensity of farming.
4.4 MARKETS
In this paragraph market characteristics are briefly discussed in relation to horticulture production. With the
emergence and expansion of commercialized horticulture, also more products were sold at the market. Sell of
horticultural products takes place at the farm gate, local markets and urban markets. This short description
explains different markets and their features.
There are four local markets distinguished that are relevant in this research, these are Kamariga, Manyuanda,
Amoyo and Aram. These markets are all located in small village centres and mainly tomatoes, kales, other
vegetables, and cereal products are sold. In Kamariga there is a daily market which is indicated as a famous
market in the wider area. People from ‘far’ can also come to sell their produce in Kamariga. Both Amoyo and
Manyuanda are also daily markets, and are smaller in size than Kamariga. And there is also the Aram market
which has two market days, the size of the Aram market is comparable to Kamariga. The urban markets are
Bondo, Siaya, Mbita, and Kisumu. The urban markets are bigger in size compared to local markets. There are
more sellers and more customers, moreover there is more diversity in products, and quantities are higher. In
annex 2 two figures show the geographical location of respectively local and urban markets.
The marketing of tomatoes involves getting the tomato produce from the point of production to that of
consumption. Inaccessibility of the market has been a major constraint in the agribusiness sector of tomatoes.
Aspects that impede market penetration include poor road infrastructures, costs of transport, high price
fluctuations and poor storage facilities (Sigei et al., 2014). The marketing strategies of farmers are discussed
Chapter 4 Organization of production
31
starting at the farm gate where marketing activities of horticulture produce starts. Middlemen4 can come to the
farm to buy when demand is high, and they again sell the produce to sellers at the market. When the demand is
low farmers indicate they go to the markets by themselves. Farmers express their concern about the local
markets and its price volatility. When supply is high it becomes more difficult to sell at these small markets and
prices go down. Although prices are better at urban markets, many farmers go to local markets because they do
not have access to urban markets. The price difference can be substantial comparing local and urban markets,
and the price goes down closer to the farm gate. The next farmers gives an indication of the differences in prices
at different markets.
[F25] Prices for 1 sanduku of tomatoes in: Kisumu 5000Kes, Bondo 4500Kes, and Kamariga and
Manyuanda 3500 Kes.
The variations in supply and demand and resulting price volatility influences the price farmers can get from the
produce. Availability and security of markets is very important to farmers and is highly determinant for their
income generation. A good production itself is not the end of the story, the farmers are dependent on sales in
order to render income. Specific strategies that farmers take in marketing are discussed in chapter five.
4.5 CONCLUSION
The organization of production shows that horticulture is taking place in different ways. This chapter has
identified heterogeneity in the organization of production in horticulture farming practice in West-Uyoma.
Multiple ways of farming is practiced in the same time and place in the same context, although there is a wide
variety of possibilities which are interconnected. In particular a development of commercialized horticulture and
related commoditization of labour, are recognized as key processes in the process of agricultural production. It
is recognized in this chapter that the context of farming involves a range of social and technical systems that
together construct this production process. The basic resources of land and water are regarded similar for all
farmers, although variation in farming scale exists. Furthermore a lot of different choices can be made on the
use of inputs and instruments, labour organization and marketing strategies. This chapter has set the context
and provides a range of possibilities on which the FSC is based. In the following chapter different farming styles
are explained based on the discussion of the production organization. In this chapter insight is gained in particular
strategies taken in farming based, on underlying logics and notions of farmers, irrigation dynamics are an
inclusive part in these strategies. Although a thorough discussion on the use of irrigation takes place in chapter
six. Here the appropriation and use of petrol pumps is analysed which identifies the strong ties, and
interconnectedness between horticulture and irrigation dynamics.
4 In addition this quote indicates marketing difficulties for farmers with regard to middlemen. [K8] The problem
with farming is marketing of produce. Many farmers produce, but there is no group marketing, but only individual
marketing. Now middlemen take a lot of money, and the farmer has no transport means. If they would organize
marketing in groups, this would be better.
Chapter 5 Farming styles classification
32
CHAPTER 5 FARMING STYLES CLASSIFICATION
In the picture a farmer is shown harvesting kales which he sells to a school, the kales are weighed and sold per
kg. His son is helping him during holidays.
Sub-question 2: What are configurations of different farming styles and what are the underlying logics
and notions in farmers’ strategies?
In this chapter the farming styles classification (FSC) is presented and explained. This classification is based on
the FSA and emphasises heterogeneity in agricultural production. Heterogeneity entails that different farming
strategies take place simultaneously in the same area. In this light the farmer is seen as a strategic agent who
developed his own farming style. The FSC is regarded as a tool to show this heterogeneity in farming strategies
and illuminate what underlying logics and notions are the foundation for specific strategies. A relevant distinction
for the farming styles is proposed in this classification and it is explained how and why farmers take on a particular
strategy.
At first the FSC is presented as a tool to recognize heterogeneity in agriculture, and to distinguish relevant farming
styles. At first an overview is provided of the FSC with the differing features of each farming style. Furthermore
each farming style is discussed in detail with a focus on their distinctive characteristics. Finally a short conclusion
is provided with a brief discussion on the space of manoeuvre of the farming styles involving farmers’ relations
to markets and technology.
Chapter 5 Farming styles classification
33
In this research area four different farming styles are distinguished which is shown in Table 2. To know the
established farmers, the innovators, the diversifiers, and the starters. The different farming styles are based on
characteristics in the organization of production that distinguishes them. The experiences of farmers is taken
into account to describe how and why they strategize their farming business in a particular way. In this chapter
it is sought to find the differing logic behind strategies, in order to fathom the strategic agency of the farmer.
This analysis provides insight in the farmers’ experiences, opinions, and ideas regarding their farming practice.
At the same time understanding is gained in how farmers cope with challenges and how they create
opportunities to develop a farming business with the resources available. In the discussion of each farming style
the focus is on what distinguishes them from other farming styles instead of a comprehensive description of each
farming style. At first the established farmers are discussed, followed by the innovators, diversifiers and starters.
In addition also boxes are provided for each farming styles with a case of one particular farmer. These boxes aim
to highlight key aspects that are typical for a farming style, and provides a deeper layer of understanding in
providing an individual context.
Table 2 Overview of the farming styles classification
Group Key words Crop diversity
Market Other income sources
Petrol pump Labour organization
Established farmers
Experience, stable position, safe market, financially capable, instruments owned, large scale
Cash crops, mainly tomato, depends on market
Urban markets, timing, year round
Livestock Individual ownership
Access and means to hired labour
Innovators New market opportunities, trying new crops, high input level, risk taking
New crops besides cash crops
Urban mainly, find gap in the market
Livestock Individual or shared ownership
Means to hired labour, access is difficult
Diversifiers Combine farming with other income source, economic focus
Cash crops, make most profit
Urban and local
Livestock, business
Individual or shared ownership or hire
Means to hired labour, access is difficult
Starters Financially limited, small market, fishing money, vulnerable, small scale
Cash crops, risk averse
Farm gate and local
Mainly fishing
Shared ownership or hire
Means and access to hired labour limited
5.1 ESTABLISHED FARMERS
Box 2 Case of an established farmer
Martin - classified as ‘established farmer’
Martin is a 42 year old farmer in Osindo and has started farming 16 years ago, in 1998. He is cultivating horticulture on 2½ acres of land which he inherited from his father. He can grow various crops, like tomatoes, onion, kales, coriander, watermelon and butternut. He has also tried spinach and carrots before, but there was a lack of market for these products. Currently he is growing watermelon on 1½ acre, only few farmers do this, so it has a good market he explains.
Chapter 5 Farming styles classification
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Martin is mentioned by the Agrovet owner in Manyuanda as a ‘mentor farmer’ in the area. The mentor farmers are known for their experience and expertise in farming and can be asked for advice by other farmers. For labour on the farm he hires people. A certain piece of land, called a ‘keo’ is dimensioned and the workers get paid per keo. Martin together with his workers is doing the weeding during a field visit.
The markets are mostly looked for in the urban centres, he can go by himself on the motorbike, or he can hire a pick-up truck. He is doing this often, it costs 2000 Kes, and then he can go to Bondo, Siaya or Kisumu to sell the produce. In addition Martin also does timing in order to get a better price for his tomatoes.
Martin owns his own petrol pump, this is a Briggs & Stratton of 6,5 hp. He argues that the price of this Briggs & Stratton was fair and it is a famous brand. The Briggs & Stratton was the best petrol pump originally, but now piracy makes that he does not know which pump is good no more. This pump was bought three years ago for 40.000 Kes, before he used to own a Honda 5,5 hp from 1998. Martin also owns sufficient pipes, 30 in total and oxen which he also rents out to other farmers. He rents a tractor during the dry spell, a tractor gives a better tilt and in the dry season the cows are too weak to plough.
Martin is happy with the pump, because it gives him the means to move from one class to another. But he also argues that their method of application with the pump is not all that good. From experience he can say that with a petrol pump crops get a lot of ‘food’ in once and then they are ‘starving’. Water is given in excess with this system, therefore drip irrigation would be a better option. Martin also has ideas about future farming, he mainly indicates that a bigger pump is needed. He thinks of shifting to a diesel pump, this is expensive, about 200.000 Kes, but it could help to serve many people.
The established farmers are the ones who have developed their farming business over the years and have
stabilized through a process of expansion and innovation. In the research four farmers are classified as
‘established farmers’, they are the highest age-group being 42, 42, 50, and 52. They have all been farming for
long, to know 10, 16, 20, and 30 years, and have gained experience throughout. The characteristics of ownership
of land and instruments, labour and marketing strategies are discussed in particular.
All these farmers have in common that they have a piece of land in ownership, often through inheritance. Often
their land size is larger than other horticulture farmers who have to hire land for cultivation. The established
farmers own 8, 3, 2 ½, and 1 acre. Two of the farmers have full ownership of land, the other two partially hire.
The farmer owning 8 acres of family land indicates that not all land is used in horticulture cultivation by himself,
he rents out 6 acres and uses 2 acres himself.
The use of instruments is a differentiator for the established farmers, through time they have acquired oxen and
ploughing materials and irrigation material. All farmers in this category own oxen themselves, often they have
more livestock at home also. The oxen can be used to plough the field, but some farmers also choose to hire a
tractor because they think it gives a better tilt. This indicates that they have the opportunity to use high level
instruments to improve production standards. A supplementary advantage of owning and using high level
instruments is that these can be rented out to other farmers and can give you an extra source of income. This
practice of renting out also accounts for petrol pumps, the established farmers are in a good position regarding
equipment and do not depend on other farmers. Also regarding labour these farmers are in a position where
they have access to sufficient labour. Because of their socio-economic position they have improved access to
labour, this includes their financial means, social background and position and the high provision of farm labour.
For two farmers labour is hired on a constant basis, although not permanent. The other two farmers have
children and other family members able to work on the farm, and therefore only rarely hire labour.
A combination of experience, investment capacity and scale of production enables these farmers to search for
good market opportunities. They aim to find urban markets and other stable markets to get a good price for their
produce. And besides this they have the possibility to time cultivation in order to supply tomatoes at a time of
high demand and price. Both marketing strategies result in selling the products for a high price. Two farmers tell
Chapter 5 Farming styles classification
35
that they can hire a pick-up truck when they want to go to the urban market centre, they are the only two using
this method of transport to the market. The advantage of this pick-up truck for them is that they can bring a large
amount of products to the market in one go. In this way the take-off can take place less frequent and it gives
them the opportunity to sell their products in large quantities for a good price at the urban markets.
Transportation charges are involved, but due to the high quantity of produce and the relative higher prices
compared to local markets, the profit is higher. Below is an example of the strategy of one farmer in hiring a pick-
up for the market.
[F4] I can go to the market by myself on the motorbike, or I can hire a pick-up truck, you can hire a pick-
up including a driver, I do this often. It costs 2000 Kes, you pay for the delivery transport. I can go to
Bondo, Siaya and Kisumu, other farmers can also use this. With the motorbike you can transport only
little amount, and with a pick-up truck you can take 10-12 sanduku. I do not go to markets like Kamariga
and Manyuanda, these are very small, and maybe you only get a few customers.
Timing in cultivation is also of importance as two farmers mention. They take the opportunity to cultivate
tomatoes in the months from January to May, this is at the end of the dry season and the start of the following
rainy season. During the rainy season farmers generally say that cultivation of tomatoes is difficult, tomatoes are
then vulnerable to diseases due to an excessive amount of rainwater. Despite this, these farmers indicate they
can cultivate tomatoes in the rainy season and sell the products for a good price.
[F3] The market for tomatoes is best from March-April-May, these are the best marketing days to get a
high price for your product. You can get about 5500 Kes for one sanduku of tomatoes. In the rainy season
I grow a small part with tomatoes close to the lake, the slope is good, so the water is drained very well.
I can sell these tomatoes for a good price.
Another example of a marketing strategy is a farmer is selling the production of his kales to two schools in close
proximity. These secondary boarding schools have a stable and year round demand for kales, and therefore offer
a secure and year round sales market for the farmer.
In general the established farmers have gone through a process of innovation, finding new market solutions,
expanding their land and acquiring and utilizing improved instruments. But also their socio-economic position
and their place in community makes that they are termed established farmers. Currently they are in a stage of
farming where they can use the things they have and there is no such need any more for innovation. The land is
available to them and production standards have increased, now the farmers can continue the chosen path and
prepare for the future.
5.2 INNOVATORS
Box 3 Case of an innovator
Steven – classified as ‘innovator’
Steven is a young farmer of the age of 27 who is farming since this year, 2014. This season is the first time that he is cultivating watermelon on a field of two acres in Kamariga. The land is from an uncle of him, he can use it for free. He has gone to college in water technology and resources management, after his diploma he decided to do farming first.
A friend of Steven is helping him with weeding on the field Steven is encountered for the first time. He always works himself, he can get help from friends, and normally family does not help on the farm. He is committed to his production and spends a lot of time on his field to scare the animals away.
Steven has his own pump and grows watermelon on a relative large scale in the area, his field is two acres. The pump he owns is a Huawei of 7,0 hp. Because the land is a bit further away this type of pump is needed,
Chapter 5 Farming styles classification
36
and the delivery pipes are constructed underground. Because of the high discharge of this pump he can go further uphill and do irrigation in a relative short time; time is the critical factor for him. He argues that a 5,5 hp petrol pump can also bring the water to the same point, but those pumps will give the water at a lower discharge. In buying the pump Steven has considered many aspects that determine the quality of the pump, the discharge, fuel consumption, suction height, distance ratio and inlet- and outlet sizes.
Steven indicates that a good quality product is obtained by maintaining the crops well, he uses fertilizers, pesticides and other high-level inputs. You have to control the diseases and spray the crops in order to keep them healthy. He bought seeds in Kisumu, because the capacity he wanted was only available in Kisumu, the one of 250 grams. Steven is also focused on the market and on new products with high demand, he argues that the market is ready for new products and the profit margin will be higher compared to tomatoes and kales. Watermelon, and especially strawberry are unique products, only a few or no other people cultivate them, this is a gap in the market. In addition to this he also wants to look for a supermarket to sell the watermelons to, this will give him a good price and a stable market. In two years’ time he wants to grow strawberries on a large scale. He wants to move to larger fields further away, on which he can cultivate for a longer time to expand his farm.
The eight farmers that are labelled as innovators share that they are looking for new strategies in farming. Their
age varies from 27 to 45, and they have either recently started farming for a few years, or have been farming up
to 10 years. They show a ferocious attitude in farming and in expanding their business and looking for profit
maximization. This group of farmers has a divergent amount of land and instruments, but they are all looking for
new opportunities and aim to develop better farming strategies and are therefore termed innovators.
These farmers all have in common that they have the objective to find new and improved crops and varieties for
their horticulture production. Either they diversify and introduce new crops such as capsicum and watermelon,
or they try to find a better variety of crops that they already cultivate. In trying different crops the farmers
indicate that they are looking for a crop which has market potential, and look for a gap in the market. Capsicum
and watermelon are mentioned as such newly introduced cash crops. One farmer below explains why he
switched to watermelon.
[F6] At the start of farming I did tomatoes, but too many people have started doing this. So there is too
much supply, which is why I shifted to watermelon. Now more people are joining with me, so next
season I again want to switch to capsicum. I do not want the other farmers to join me in what I am
growing. Then I will start a next crop again, I will create my own market.
They base their choice of growing watermelon on the unicity of the crop, with only limited production the
demand and price will be high they reason. They indicate the importance of the market, and are pro-active in
looking for market potential to sell new crops at a good price. Marketing can sometimes be a problem, at local
markets it is often hard to sell the products due to the high supply resulting in low demand and high price
fluctuations. Therefore they are also looking for urban markets and other customers to sell their products to. In
addition to trying different types of crops, farmers can also improve their production of existing cash crops in the
area. As tomatoes being the most rewarding cash crop in the area, the farmers try to find better varieties of
hybrid tomatoes. Through trial and error and experimenting with new varieties they can find a variety they think
is best in its quality, production and suitability to sell at the market.
[F12] Normally I use hybrids, I use Dani F1, because it has an early maturity, a high yield and you can
store it longer, up to 2 weeks. I have tried many varieties, but have come to choose this one based on
the reasons mentioned.
The price of hybrid seeds is much higher compared to local seeds, e.g. the price of 50 gram of Rambo F1 is 12.500
Kes and 50 gram of local seeds is 850 Kes. The costs of hybrids is a challenge to farmers, but they indicate that
the outputs are also much higher for hybrids compared to local varieties. Besides the use of high inputs like
Chapter 5 Farming styles classification
37
hybrids, fertilizers and pesticides, they also try to upgrade on instruments like ploughing- and irrigation means.
According to the farmers this is needed in order to improve their farming business. Among the innovators, 7 out
of 8 farmers own their own petrol pump, and one uses a group pump to which he has direct access. Most of
them have chosen to buy a petrol pump in order to expand their farming and enlarge their production. Due to
the workload that comes with a larger farm the pump is needed to reduce time and energy for the operation of
irrigation. They indicate they want a pump for themselves to dictate their own working time and individually plan
their farming strategy. But they are also critical on this type of irrigation with regard to its effect on the crops,
and the costs of operation. They express the will to change to other ‘modern’ types of irrigation in the future.
Another effect of farm expansion and increased workload is the increased labour demand. The farmers do most
work themselves, but in busy times casual labour is often hired. Preferably skilled labour is hired, but this is
difficult to find, therefore farmers prioritise and choose to outsource specific tasks. Furthermore the financial
aspect is also of great importance in hiring labour as the following farmer explains.
[F5] You have to value everything, estimate how much it costs when you let someone else work. You
must know if it brings you profit or that you might loose from it. Sometimes you will have to hire
someone to work, you cannot cultivate the whole land by yourself.
In short these farmers can be seen as the ones who are investing in farming and are taking a pro-active strategy
in experimenting with different crops and seeds in order to achieve profit maximization. They are willing to take
risks which can be recognized in cultivating new crops for which the market demand was not secure. They are
aimed at improving their farming business, although they also invest in jobs outside farming like business and
keeping cattle and poultry. These other jobs are mainly considered as a preparation for the future when they
become ‘too old’ for farming. First of all farming is their economic activity and they are eager to improve their
business strategy and try to increase their levels of production and profit.
5.3 DIVERSIFIERS
Box 4 Case of a diversifier
Martin – classified as ‘diversifier’
Martin is a 40 year old farmer and he has a farming field in Kochilo, where he has been farming for 12 years. Together with his wife and 6 school-going children he lives in Kagwa near the Makasembo school, less than 3 kilometres from his field in Kochilo.
Before going into farming he was employed, but this was not ‘comfortable’ to him he says. With the little he had he decided to start farming. Growing up in a farming family cultivating rice and sugarcane he already has farming experience. He had some relatives in Kochilo, and saw that this area was good for agriculture, because of the type of soil. Furthermore it was easier for him to find land in Kochilo compared to his home area. The locals around are fishermen and Martin says that these people do not like farming, and do not know how to use the land. He indicates that with farming you have to wait, it is not like fishing. When the locals see his harvest they want to copy form him he says. Martin is selling his tomatoes at the local markets, the people here are ready to buy because of the fishing money.
Together with his wife, Martin also owns a shop in Kamariga centre, they sell a wide range of products in a little store. Martin combines his farming activities with the work in the shop, his wife also works in the shop, but many activities are done by himself.
Martin has bought his own pump, a Tiger, not the best brand he acknowledges. However, this type was cheap, and he just wanted something to help him, even if it would not last. Martin is leasing the land and does not want to invest in expensive material, because he does not know when the owner wants his land back. The money made from the field produce now can also be invested in the shop and animals at home. He also owns a motorbike, with this he can go to Kisumu to make purchases for the shop.
Chapter 5 Farming styles classification
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The main issue of concern for Martin is time, due to his activities both on the field and in the shop, his time is squeezed. Currently he is the only one using his petrol pump, he has no time to rent it to other people, and besides this he does not want others to spoil his machine. During the time of research Martin was often occupied in the shop due to sickness of his wife and he had some difficulties with the land owner on top of this. His latest harvest failed due to these problems and for the next season he will cultivate tomatoes on a different field.
Five farmers are typified as diversifiers and they are characterized by their focus on other types of income
sources. They alternate their farming activities with other jobs such as business and animal keeping. The principle
is that farming money is used to invest in the other job, and investment capacity can be gained. The farmers are
within an age range of 26 to 40 and cultivate a land size of 1 acre or less. The farmers who are classified as
diversifiers can also introduce new crops for cultivation, but their logic often differs from that of the innovators,
as the reasoning of the farmer below shows.
[LB] Why do you cultivate watermelon?
[F16] Kales and tomatoes need much commitment, it is labour intensive. Watermelon is not as labour
intensive, and watermelons do not require much water.
It can be said that the diversifiers have a broader focus than only farming. Besides farming they also focus on
different types of income sources such as fishing, riding for the Boda Boda5 Company, business, poultry and cattle
keeping. Nicholas explains how the farming money has helped him in the purchase of poultry and cattle.
[F14] When I am not at the farm I am looking after cattle. I have sheep, cows and hens at home. That is
also income for me, I like them both. I got money from the farm to buy sheep and hens, it is a
combination.
The profit these farmers make from their farm produce is not only used as investment capacity on the farm.
Investment is spread to different jobs which can enlarge their income. The farmers do indicate they like to work
on the farm and try to enlarge their farming business. While they are aiming to increase their financial capacity
there are some challenges in farming that they have to cope. One is the uncertainty that comes with the hiring
of land, this puts them in a delicate position. Not knowing when the owner wants his land back results in a
strategy which is risk averse in investing in farming material. This can also be seen as a reason for farmers to
decide to invest in other jobs besides farming. In farming it is uncertain for them if their investment will be worth
it on the long term due to insecurity regarding land in this case. Another challenge is market volatility which
results in market insecurity and vulnerability. The diversifiers mainly go to the local markets or they sell at the
farm gate, they indicate that it is difficult for them to sell their produce. Especially the variation in price due to
high supply at the local markets challenges them. Despite a recognition of this problem urban markets are not
accessed.
Petrol pump access is obtained by these farmers, four out of five farmers own a petrol pump, and one farmer is
the caretaker of a petrol pump. For ploughing mainly oxen are rented, although also a tractor can be hired when
a good tilt is needed and money is available. Choices are made between on-farm and off-farm investments by
these farmers. Often petrol pumps are obtained because it can help them to reduce workload and safe time,
which is an important issue when multiple jobs are combined. In other cases investment is done in another job,
and the benefits and drawbacks are outweighed in perspective of income generation.
5 The Boda Boda Company is a means for public transportation. It is mostly done by young people who
transport people on motorbikes.
Chapter 5 Farming styles classification
39
Diversifiers strategize their farming business with the objective of profit maximization in combination with
investing in different sources of income. Reasons to diversify in jobs are insecurity around land and markets.
Therefore, they set different priorities and do not merely focus on farming. For them it is key to increase their
farming income in order to invest in another economic activity. Time and work efficiency therefore are two key
aspects, in this way they can reduce the farm workload, and increase production and income. Through this more
time and money is available for another job and they can develop this economic activity. Decisions are therefore
based on what can render most profit in a short time.
5.4 STARTERS
Box 5 Case of a starter
Willis – Classified as ‘starter’
Willis is 49 years old and is doing horticulture since 3 years, from 2011 onwards, before he was doing peasant farming for a long time. The reason why he started farming was his difficult financial situation, the payment of school fees and other livelihood investments became problematic. The land in Obenge is inherited from his father, on ¼ acre he produces tomatoes and kales. And on the ¾ acre uphill he grows maize, beans and millet in the rainy season. He acknowledges that he has a small farm, it is only ¼ acre, so the profit for him is not enough, but it can help. His first year was very difficult and he made a loss, in the second season he got a profit of 5000 Kes. Currently he is in his third season and he is having problems with a small caterpillar that has decreased his production. This has resulted in not being able to pay the school fees for his daughter.
Willis is using local varieties, he knows that the hybrids are better, but this is too expensive. He mainly sells at the farm gate, people can come to the field at harvest time to buy when there is demand. Otherwise he brings it to local markets around. Labour is an important issue for Willis, the price of labour is limiting him in hiring labour. Willis indicates that most of the labour is done by himself, only for the transplanting he needs assistance of one man to do the irrigation with a petrol pump. When you hire workers they need money, if you don’t have the money you have to do it yourself he explains. Willis does not mention that family helps him with the labour on the field. He also did the ploughing himself, he has been digging with a jembe for one week. Willis himself explains what this was like.
[Willis] It was a marathon job, but I did it all myself. I carry the food and drink with me to the field early in the morning, and then stay at the field the whole day and dig. Everything I do it myself. Next time I think I will use the oxen and plough, it really was a marathon job and I think it made me sick. It will be better to not do this by myself no more the next time.
Another thing that comes at a cost is the petrol pump which Willis wants to obtain for himself as he explains below. But his finance restricts him from buying.
[Willis] It is good to have the machine, it can make work easy. When I get the machine I will be happy, I can even dance. I can work too much for it. I had a dream to get a machine and it knocked me down.
Finance is a limiting factor for Willis, he mentions however that you need to buy the right inputs in order to do well in farming. Besides applying irrigation, you can automatically do well if you spray with pesticides, use fertilizers and chemicals. But these inputs come at a price, this is what makes it difficult to him. His ambition for the future is to expand in farming, to do horticulture on the land more uphill. He needs to expand to get more money, so his children can go to school. Therefore he needs a machine to bring the water to his field further uphill. He wants a Honda, a Koshin or Dashin, of 55.000 Kes. These are good machines according to Willis, but the money is the problem for him.
Finally the group of starters is discussed, this farming style consists of 10 farmers. In comparison to other farming
styles they are relatively young, half of them being under 25, and others varying in age the oldest being 49. The
challenges shared by the starters are their financial limitations, land competition and marketing. The starters are
risk-averse and strategize their business in order to cope with their challenges and limitations. They have a
relatively small business with land sizes mostly being ¼ - ½ acre, and their farm production is not enough to
Chapter 5 Farming styles classification
40
sustain. These farmers therefore have other sources of income in addition to farming, mainly fishing is done in
order to supplement their income. In contrast to the diversifiers, the other income source, the money from
fishing, is used to invest in farming as the farmer below explains.
[F21] I also do fishing as substitute sometimes when I need money. The problem is to get enough capital
for farming, you need inputs for farming and then you can sustain. If you do not have enough capital,
you cannot pay for the water, the fertilizers, spraying, seeds etc. Then your plants will not do well.
Besides additional income sources, also working in partnerships and groups are strategies to provide solutions
for limited means. In partnerships the investment costs of farming can be shared, especially regarding land,
instruments and labour. Partnerships are not reserved for this group of farmers, although in this group it appears
a purposeful approach to overcome restrictions and challenges in farming. In this farming styles there are also
two farmers in their early 20’s who work on their fathers’ farm. For the labour demand on the farm a partnership
is a direct solution to handle the workload and less labour has to be hired. Also friends- and family labour is of
importance in their labour organization. In addition to this sometimes hired labour is still necessary. The
individual farmers have to prioritise the work on the field and are often more dependent on family- and friends
labour. Money is a key driver to these farmers in the decision-making on hiring labour, below a farmer explains
his reasoning.
[F22] Sometimes a worker is needed, but we lack money, it is expensive to hire labour. When planting is
done people are hired, this is a lot of work, and it has to be done in one day.
The purchase of instruments and inputs is also challenging for these farmers which impacts their strategies.
Instruments like the oxen-drawn-plough and petrol pumps can often be hired or borrowed. This places them in
a dependent position and farmers experience that this limits them in their activities. Farmers working in
partnerships can share the costs and together buy a pump. A collaborative purchase of a pump also gives them
the possibility to rent it out to other farmers as an additional source of income. Despite the overall good access
to use petrol pumps, they all rather want to have their own pump.
For inputs some can use hybrids and some use local varieties or a combination of both. The farmers try to invest
in higher inputs in order to gain higher output from their land. Some diversify their inputs and choose for local
varieties when the capital is insufficient to buy hybrids. These farmers want to work with high level inputs in
order to render higher outputs. But the problem is that lack of capital limits them in obtaining high level inputs.
This directly impacts production and profit, although he knows what can be done to improve production.
[F21] I still use local varieties, because hybrids are too expensive. Sometimes you need more cash for
your inputs, you are failing with your production and you know why. But seeds cannot be shared in the
group, you have to buy and use them individually.
Finally these farmers do not have the means to transport their produce to urban markets and are therefore
depend on local markets. These local markets are not stable, there is much variation in demand and there are
high price fluctuations over time. Most of the farmers sell at the farm gate or at local markets, which puts them
in a vulnerable position when demand is high and prices are low.
In general individuality and being able to independently practice farming is seen as a great good by these farmers.
But often their limited means forces them to hire e.g. petrol pumps, which makes them dependent on others,
and limited market access also puts them in a vulnerable position. Therefore some farmers choose to work in a
partnership from a pragmatic reasoning. In this way they need less capital investment and can slowly expand
their business. Other farmers need to do other jobs to supplement their income and invest in their farming
business. The experienced limitations are the driving force in their strategies.
Chapter 5 Farming styles classification
41
5.5 CONCLUSION
As a conclusion on this chapter the
farming styles are placed in the space of
manoeuvre involving technology supply
and market relations. Figure 7 shows the
place of the four farming styles in this
space. The supply of technology involves
the amount of technology and whether
this is leading in farmers’ choices in use,
and also the ability to craft this. The
relations with markets indicate whether
there is low interconnection with the
market or high. Markets include input,
output and labour and deals with the
dependency of farmers on these markets.
In the figure it can be seen that the starters have weak ties both with technology supply and market relations.
This is because of their limited means and capacity, therefore they cannot acquire high level technology, and
high level of inputs, outputs and labour. Due to a lack of ownership they need to find other ways to access
technology, and therefore apply craft due to those limitations. Especially through hiring they can gain access to
petrol pumps and they incorporate this in their strategies. The diversifiers are in the middle of the figure, they
are interconnected both with technology and markets but are not dependent on them due to their diversification
in occupation. The other sources of income makes that neither new technology or craftsmanship is needed, they
moreover look for a quick and easy way to make money. In the same light also the markets are less important to
them, because they do not fully depend on their sales of farm produce. The innovators are situated on the right
side in the middle of the vertical axis. They actively search for suitable petrol pumps for their strategies and
strongly focus on improvement of production through a high level of instruments. Also market relations are very
important because for profit maximization they focus on a high level of inputs to render high outputs and
maximize profit. They trust new technologies to bring them forward in farming, but they also apply craftsmanship
to fine-tune petrol pump technology for their farm. The established farmers also highly depend on markets,
because their marketing strategies determines their farming profitability. Besides this, they do not experience
the technology as normative, but they rather have the freedom to choose the type of technology they like best
and do not merely follow what is supplied. They can craft petrol pumps to their wish and are not primarily led by
technology.
Different farming styles interact with each other and it suggests a possible transformation from starting farmers
to established farmers. Many farmers indicate that they are, or have been in a transition from small scale and
low input farming, to large scale farming with high inputs, upgrade on instruments, and higher outputs. The
starters are looking for ways to upgrade their farming and therefore need to increase their investment capital.
From necessity they partner up or find other sources of income in order to invest in farming. The diversifiers also
wish to upgrade on farming; this is not their central focus, but rather a combined effort with other jobs. They see
farming as a temporal activity, and therefore do not want to transform to higher levels of farming but rather
switch to a different economic activity. The innovators use their capital to improve their farming business, this is
their main focus. They are pro-actively looking for opportunities to increase production, and in their strategies
technology supply and market relations are leading. The established farmers have a position in which they have
the liberty to do it their way. Their secure position is based on land inheritance, socio-economic position and
long experience. It is questionable whether the innovators can transform to the established farmers, because of
their cultural and socio-economic backlog. Moreover it can be said that upgrade in farming is desired mainly by
Figure 7 Space of manoeuvre with the four farming styles
Chapter 5 Farming styles classification
42
the starters and the innovators, but this does not necessarily lead to a transformation to a different farming style.
In addition to this the farming styles that are identified entail more than their characteristics of horticulture
production, also the socio-economic position within a community are part of a farming style.
The different farming styles show a wide variety of strategies taken by farmers, the practice of horticultural
production is very diverse and heterogeneous. The internal logics and notions form the foundation of these
strategies and are derived from a wide socio-economic, cultural and personal background. Also capacity and
challenges of farmers, their experience and financial means, are determinant factors in farming strategies.
Farmers distinguish themselves through their level of inputs and instruments, the organization of labour,
marketing strategies and their degree of dependency. Both dependency on technology supply and market
relations, as well as dependency on other farmers in case of hiring and borrowing instruments and land. In
general farmers adhere a strong value to individuality and independency. This means they like to own their land
and resources, and their own instruments, because individual ownership enables them to dictate their own
planning, budget, timing and work. Petrol pumps offer farmers a possibility to expand their farming and at the
same time do this individually with limited time and effort. This is the point of departure for the next chapter.
Having illuminated a heterogeneity in farming styles, now the FSC will function as a frame to analyse
heterogeneity in the appropriation and utilization of petrol pumps.
Chapter 6 Appropriation and utilization of petrol pumps
43
CHAPTER 6 APPROPRIATION AND UTILIZATION OF PETROL PUMPS
The picture shows a farmer who is doing priming in preparation for field application with his petrol pump.
Sub-question 3: How do farmers use petrol pumps, and how do they negotiate over the meaning of
petrol pumps?
In this chapter the objective is to provide understanding in how farmers experience petrol pumps. In former
chapters the spread of petrol pumps has been highlighted in the context of commercialized horticulture. In
addition the FSC has provided insight in the diverse farming strategies of production organization. This chapter
makes the link to the use of irrigation technology interconnected with heterogeneity in farming. Multi-
functionality of petrol pumps are explained in relation to different farming styles. And furthermore sets of
meanings adhered to petrol pumps and farmers negotiating capacity are discussed.
Irrigation technology concerns petrol pumps themselves, and also pipes, petrol and means of application are
taken into account. It is seen as a composition, a set of elements combining social and technical aspects of petrol
pump irrigation. It is about the material of petrol pumps, and also about the practices of use, therefore this is
termed ‘petrol pump use practices’. For not only a petrol pump is part of the co-construction, but also other
irrigation equipment and the application methods construct and pose meaning on a petrol pump. Whereas a
petrol pump can be seen as a ‘black box’ on which farmers have little negotiating capacity, they do differently
use petrol pumps and seek a different balance. The FSC is used to frame the diversity in the appropriation and
utilization of petrol pumps.
First characteristics of petrol pumps and related equipment are explained. Following on this multi-functionality
in on-field application is discussed. Furthermore ownership and renting practices are discussed, which shed light
on the wider farming practice in which petrol pumps play a role. Moreover this chapter works towards a
discussion of how petrol pumps are experienced by farmers from different farming styles. The different sets of
meanings of farmers lead to a multi-functionality in appropriation, utilization and negotiation over petrol pumps.
Chapter 6 Appropriation and utilization of petrol pumps
44
6.1 PETROL PUMP CHARACTE RISTICS
In this section the characteristics of petrol pumps are discussed in order to gain insight in their design and
functioning. These aspects are both pump specific features, and also relate to the use of pipes and petrol. These
aspects include the (1) make and country of origin, (2) capacity, (3) durability, (4) discharge, efficiency and fuel
consumption, and (5) maintenance. In annex 7 a brief overview is provided in which characteristics of petrol
pump use practices are shown. The figure below shows a typical portable petrol pump used in the case-study
area.
Figure 8 Typical portable petrol pump
6.1.1 MAKE AND COUNTRY OF ORIGIN
First the make of a petrol pump is of great importance for farmers in the area, with an overwhelming preference
for products from Japan or Western countries. Negative connotations were prevalent regarding petrol pumps
manufactured in China, and this negativity actually dealt with all products made in China. The farmers expressed
their view that in Japan good products are made. In contrast Chinese companies imitate these famous brands,
or makes products of low quality in their opinion. There seems to be resistance to buy cheaper Chinese products
and Honda is hailed as the best petrol pump, as the following farmers express.
[F11] Everything from China I do not want.
[F21] People believe that the things from Japan are the best, they are reliable and work well. There are
no things from the EU available here in Kenya, so they only know Honda is good so far.
[F8] It is said to be the best quality. I have not used other types so I cannot say. But I have been told,
and I believe that Honda is the best.
The Honda pumps are said to be the best petrol pumps around, they are in the market for a long time, durable
and spare parts are available in the market. Moreover the name and image of Honda is a very important aspect,
this name is well-known and has proved to be reliable for a long time. In the shops where petrol pumps are sold
the salesmen also recognize this preference for Honda. On average the Honda petrol pumps are double in price
compared to the cheaper Chinese makes. The original Honda of 5,5 hp was sold around 40-50.000 Kes, while a
Chinese model would cost around 25.000 Kes. Although Honda petrol pumps are high in price, they are preferred
over other (cheaper) makes.
Besides the Honda, there are many different types of pumps in use. The makes from China are the Tiger, Fujimax,
Shano and Huawei, the Briggs & Stratton is from the USA and the Robin is also from Japan. Within the Honda the
Dashin and Koshin types are distinguished and mentioned as the best types of petrol pumps. Also fake pumps
Chapter 6 Appropriation and utilization of petrol pumps
45
are produced in China, these have a Honda sticker, but do not have the same features as the original Honda.
Farmers indicate that it is difficult to find out whether a pump is original or not.
6.1.2 CAPACITY
Secondly the capacity is an important characteristic of petrol pumps. The pumps used by farmers in the area are
in general centrifugal pumps. The engine of a petrol pump delivers the power to convert kinetic energy, the
impeller pushes out the water by means of centrifugal force. Head can be increased by speeding up of the
impeller and through this the water is being pumped outwards. The capacity of the petrol pumps is measured in
cubic meters per hour (m3/hr.). The pumps with a high capacity need a wide impeller, because the amount of
discharge that is pumped is mainly determined by the impeller width and the shaft speed (McNally, 2015).
Figure 9 shows the characteristics written
on a 5,5 hp Honda petrol pump. A 5,5 hp
Honda is the most prevalent petrol pump in
the case-study area. As explained before
the Honda is a popular pump for several
reasons, and the 5,5 hp is the one which is
widely available in the market and used
most by farmers. Farmers consider the
capacity of 5,5 hp adequate for their field
application and they have seen this pump
functioning well at other farms around.
Other characteristics written on the pump
are discussed in the remainder of this
section.
The capacity of petrol pumps can also be linked to the make of a pump. The effective capacity of petrol pumps
are said to differ per make. With a high capacity pump the discharge will also be higher, this provides an
advantage for the farmer for farming expansion and time management. More farmers are looking for fields that
are further away from the lake shore due to land competition. Besides the need for a higher capacity pump, also
more pipes are needed to reach that far. Farmers indicate that Chinese makes with a 5,5 hp engine, do not have
the same power as the original Honda, this is also expressed by the farmer below.
[F4] They say that a 3,7Hp from Japan is almost equal to a 5,5Hp from China. The seller was saying that
the efficiency is almost the same. If you take the 3,7Hp from japan and the 5,5Hp from India, the rate,
the output, and the discharge are the same. But the ones from Japan are more durable than from China
and India.
6.1.3 DURABILITY
A third aspect of petrol pumps deals with durability, this concerns how long the petrol pump endures, and can
remain its capacity. It is often indicated as the time that a pump can ‘last’, how it can function in the same way
over a long period of time. Durability has a close relation with reliability, when a pump can endure over time it
is often experienced as a reliable pump. Again there is the issue of Japan vs. China, whereas the Honda is
considered a durable product, the China types are considered to break easily and not lasting. The lifespan of the
Honda is longer and this would also explain why its price is higher. A durable pump can maintain its power and
does not easily break down. Below it is expressed why the Honda is considered durable.
Figure 9 Example of characteristics written on the petrol pump
Chapter 6 Appropriation and utilization of petrol pumps
46
[F17]] It is durable, it is made with hard gears. It is durable in power, it maintains the Hp.
[F12] The Honda was good, it lasts up to 12 years, and it is still good. We only changed the pistol rings
and the valves, inside the machine we did not tamper anything. The Honda therefore we say is good,
you only replace those things and it lasts well, it is old, but still very powerful.
[K17] For the Honda, if you maintain it well, it can last for 15-20 years, without special repair, only the
ordinary services. The China types are not durable, they can maybe last up to 10 years if you maintain
them well, but some get problems very quickly.
6.1.4 DISCHARGE, EFFICIENCY AND FUEL CONSUMPTION
The farmers have also indicated that there are differences in drum sizes and the sizes of the inlet and outlet.
Differences in drum size relate to the capacity and discharge of a pump, the bigger the drum, the more water
can flow through and be delivered at the field. The sizes of the drum and those of the inlet and outlet correspond
with each other. And over time the inlet and outlet sizes have changed from 1,5”6 to 3”. Bigger inlet and outlet
sizes make it easier for the machine to push the water, because the water can flow more smoothly. In addition
to this pumps can have a different balance in head and discharge. In case of a flat land a type with high discharge
and low head is more suitable, and otherwise a pump with low discharge and high head can be more appropriate.
Another characteristic is efficiency, this is explained as to what extent the power going into the pump is equal to
the out coming power. Also the smoothness of the pump in the sense of vibration of the pump shaft can define
the efficiency, small vibration7 signifies high efficiency (Petrowiki, 2015). The farmer below explains how he sees
efficiency and how this is of importance for him in irrigation practice.
[F7] Efficiency that is the ability to run smoothly, without any interference, how efficient it is. If the
pump is not efficient, you will not reach your target, then I will get less quantity of water.
When it comes to efficiency farmers often also refer to fuel consumption. They indicate that good makes of
petrol pumps also have lower fuel consumption. Key informants state that the differences in fuel consumption
between petrol pumps is marginal. It can matter about 1-1 ½ L of fuel difference on 4-5 hours of irrigation.
Moreover farmers and key informants indicate that fuel consumption is related to proper pump maintenance
and speed of operation.
6.1.5 MAINTENANCE
Maintenance involves the general maintenance that can be done by farmers themselves, and service done by
mechanics. Normal maintenance consists of changing oil, changing the plugs, cleaning the carburettor and outer
parts of the machine. Maintenance is considered a key aspect in the functioning of petrol pumps. Easy pump
maintenance is experienced as beneficial, and indicates the quality of a pump. In case of service work or a
breakdown the petrol pump can be taken to a mechanic. Problems with the pump are mainly said to arise due
to bad management, sometimes maintenance can be neglected and this can impact the pump in a negative
manner.
6 The designation for the measuring unit of inch is “, which is 2,54 centimetre.
7 A local engineer adds that you can tell if a machine is good by the sound. An original Honda is silent and doesn’t
vibrate much, in contrast to China types. This indicates a good dynamic balance, and smoothness of a machine.
Chapter 6 Appropriation and utilization of petrol pumps
47
Some common problems indicated by a local engineer
are problems with the carburettor settings, the plug
and suction mechanisms. Debris in the water can get
stuck inside the pump which can cause problems,
Figure 10 shows how debris can interfere with the
drum. In general he considers fuel consumption as a
first indicator for petrol pump deficiencies. Farmers
have experience with the use of petrol pumps and
normally know when something is wrong, they hear it
from the sound or notice the increase in fuel
consumption. Mechanics are currently available
around and also spare parts can be obtained in nearby
places. A local engineer emphasises the importance of
maintenance and availability of spare parts for petrol
pumps.
[K7] The spare parts are ready available in store, for machinery the spare is very critical. When things
are settled in the market for some time, the people have confidence in them. The critical thing is
reliability, it is important that something is known in the market, that farmers have used it before and
for the servicing. Because in terms of technology, most mechanics around can do it, they have
experience now with the motorbikes.
Also the portable nature of the pump is an important aspect to take into account. This portability results in two
benefits, the first is that it can improve the security. Because the pump is portable farmers can easily store the
pump in a safe place when it is not in use. Secondly the petrol pump is easy to carry to different fields, it is not
fixed and therefore multiple farmers can share one pump, and one farmer can move the pump to different fields.
This explanation and discussion of petrol pump characteristics shows that there are many features in the design
of the petrol pump that play a role in its functioning as irrigation technology. Mainly durability and reliability are
considered pivotal aspects that determine the quality of a petrol pump. When farmers are familiar, and have
positive experience with a type of pump they have more trust in it functioning. In general farmers give meaning
to petrol pumps based on image, characteristics and maintenance aspects. Whereas a petrol pump itself can be
considered a black box, there is room for adjustment when it comes to the operation of the pump. Therefore in
the next sections methods of application, and renting practices are discussed to gain insight in the use practices
of petrol pumps.
6.2 APPLICATION
This section focusses on a shift from manual to mechanic means of irrigation. The way how water application is
taking place is discussed, based on the knowledge of petrol pump characteristics. First the consequences of the
transformation to mechanized irrigation are discussed in relation to manual methods of irrigation. And
furthermore furrow and overhead application are highlighted being the main application methods in use.
6.2.1 FROM MANUAL TO MECHANIZED IRRIGATION
The farmers who are nowadays involved in horticulture indicate that they started small and used manual bucket
irrigation in their early days of farming. Utilization of bucket irrigation mostly lasted for one to two years, and
only a few farmers have used a treadle pump as an in-between step before moving to the petrol pump. A number
of farmers who have started less than two years ago often started with using petrol pumps. The upgrade in
machinery is seen as a logical consequence to the upgrade in farming. Manual irrigation is often referred to by
Figure 10 Debris in the centrifugal part of the drum
Chapter 6 Appropriation and utilization of petrol pumps
48
farmers as heavy, tiresome and difficult. In contrast mechanized irrigation gives them ‘easy work’. The farmers
needed something to help them with the increased workload on the farm due to expansion. With manual types
of irrigation only a small portion of crops can be sufficiently irrigated, therefore a shift was needed to enable
irrigation on an increased area of cultivation as indicated below.
[F10] At the time of bucket irrigation you could only have a very small portion of land close to the lake.
Maybe you could do 200 plants, not more than 100m from the water source. And you had to water
every day, now you can even have 3 portions of land and be able to cultivate with irrigation.
For the farmers the biggest change in methods of application is the dimension of time and scale. With a petrol
pump they can irrigate a bigger area in less time, and moreover the crops can get sufficient water. The operation
of the pump is also considered to be easy and they learn from experience. A petrol pump is put down at the
waterside, they connect the suction head and the pipes and then the engine can be started. The water is
delivered on the field and the farmer can hold a pipe or a hose and water the crops. Mechanized irrigation saves
farmers time and energy, but it also imposes a change on how water is applied to the crops. With the buckets a
small amount of water is applied frequently, and this is applied directly to the stem of the plant. With a petrol
pump a large amount of water is applied in once and less frequently, and this is applied in furrows or with
overhead. The water is retained in the soil for a longer time, and the crop roots extract the water from the soil.
Many farmers react that the plants do well with the furrows, but some farmers also acknowledge that this change
from manual to mechanized irrigation is not always better for the crops as the following farmer explains.
[F18] With the pump, on the first day you pour water to let it stay for more days, it will now develop
stress with the plant for a few hours, because there is too much water. The stress will last for about 4
hours, during the time of watering. If you use the buckets, than the plant can take up the water easily,
with buckets you balance.
The advantage of petrol pumps in bringing a large amount of water to the plants in a short time, can also result
in negative consequences for the plant. It can cause water stress for the time in which the plant experiences an
excess of water. Besides this, water wastage and leaching of nutrients are seen as challenges. But more
importantly the advantage is that now the crops can get enough water. Water deficiency due to manual irrigation
is reversed with the use of petrol pumps. The plant now can get water in plenty, but less frequent.
The irrigation interval has increased and the frequency and time of irrigation have decreased due to a shift to
petrol pump irrigation. In general irrigation with a petrol pump is done once a week, and with a dry spell once in
every 3-4 days. The weather conditions make it difficult for the farmers, not knowing when the rains to come.
Because water damage could occur when irrigation is taking place just before a rainfall event. The irrigation time
primarily depends on the area of cultivation, the distance to the water source, the size of the crops and on the
evapotranspiration. Furthermore farmers can adjust the speed of the pump. In this case they can ‘slow down’
the discharge of water to make sure that the water is applied in a smaller amount. In general the farmers do not
know the amount of water they apply on the field and are not familiar with the crop water requirements. Water
application therefore is sometimes seen as a challenge, because farmers do not have the necessary information
on parameters like the field capacity and the wilting point. Farmers have gained experience by doing, and adjust
irrigation- frequency and amount for different stages in production. And due to the small portable pumps they
are using, they are flexible in their application methods. Whereas merits can be recognized of increased irrigation
interval, petrol pumps are mainly beneficial to farmers in terms of time management and sufficient water
application for a larger area of cultivation.
Chapter 6 Appropriation and utilization of petrol pumps
49
6.2.2 FURROW & OVERHEAD IRRIGATION
The methods of application with the use of petrol pumps have also changed, currently furrow and overhead
irrigation is used. The farmers indicate that overhead irrigation can cause bacterial effects due to water standing
on tomato leafs. Another reason why farmers think that overhead is not a suitable way of irrigation is because
then the top soil will flow away with the water, this can result in a loss of soil fertility and the soil can become
bare. Some farmers use the method of overhead application for crops other than tomatoes, and for tomatoes it
can be used before the crops reach knee-height.
Furrow irrigation is preferably used by farmers, especially in tomato production. Figure 11 and Figure 12 give an
impression of how furrow irrigation takes place. Farmers dig furrows before, and during irrigation they fill them
with water. The crop roots on the ridges can absorb the water slowly, because the moisture can be retained in
the soil for a longer time. A furrow can be adjusted in depth to account for the different stages of growth and
the crop water requirements. The furrows are also beneficial in a practical point of view, because they provide
pathways, for spraying and applying fertilizer.
The farmers have adjusted their ways of application and experience furrow irrigation as a suitable method,
although they also see the limitations. Especially with regard to time management they prefer fixed systems on
the field. A number of key informants is more critical on furrow application, they moreover indicate that farmers
lack necessary knowledge on crop water requirements. They say that currently the application amounts and
frequency are not optimal, which impacts production due to diseases and water stress8. In their perspective more
knowledge on soil and crop characteristics can improve the methods of application, and also improve production.
Both farmers and key informants recognize the benefits and merits of furrow application. In general furrows are
considered a relatively efficient water application method, because of the water retention capacity of the soil
and type of crops. Besides this, there is a lack of financial capital and knowledge to move to different application
technologies in irrigation. Therefore furrow application is currently regarded as the best method for farmers.
6.3 OWNERSHIP AND RENTING PRACTICES
As is discussed before petrol pumps are currently a widespread irrigation technology. In this section the dynamic
mechanisms around ownership regarding how farmers appropriate and access petrol pumps is discussed.
8 [K3] By the method of flooding most water is retained at the soil surface. With this too large amount of moisture
it can cause several diseases, like blight and yellowing of the lower leafs.
Figure 12 Example of a furrow system Figure 11 Example of furrow irrigation in practice
Chapter 6 Appropriation and utilization of petrol pumps
50
Ownership of a pump is the case for a majority of farmers, 14 out of 27 farmers individually own a petrol pump.
The others either share a pump with a partner, or they hire or borrow from other farmers or from a group. The
small petrol pumps are portable, and therefore more farmers can use the same pump on their own field.
Farmers normally start from a position in which they either hire of borrow a pump before they can obtain full
ownership. Individual ownership is preferred by all members, although there can be financial limitations for a
number of farmers. Borrowing of a petrol pump occurs in rare cases, in which farmers often refer to each other
as ‘friends’, they help each other and the ‘juniors’ can borrow a pump from them. A more common practice is
that of hiring a petrol pump from other farmers. In this case the owner of a pump demands a contribution for
service and maintenance of a petrol pump, fuel is always at the cost of the operator. Hiring is expensive in the
long-term, and farmers want their own pump and not depend on a pump owner. Farmers who are renting out a
pump all indicate that they have the first right of use, when they need it, the renter has to wait for his turn. In
times of drought this can give difficulties to the renters who want to use a petrol pump at the same time. A petrol
pump is mostly rented out to 3-5 farmers, each day somebody else can use it.
The practice of renting out also gives farmers the possibility to gain an extra source of income. A different case
of renting of the petrol pump is that of farmer F16, he is the caretaker of a pump from someone else who is not
a farmer himself. The owner saw the need for a petrol pump, so he purchased one, now he rents out the pump
through him. Farmers can hire this petrol pump and pay him, he pays it back to the owner and also earns a little
himself. Despite that this is an exceptional case in this area, it shows the interest related to the use of petrol
pumps in commercialized horticulture.
With pipes farmers can either own the full amount of pipes that is needed, they can share pipes with another
farmer, or they can hire or borrow pipes. In the latter event farmers can hire or borrow an additional amount of
pipes to what they own, or they hire or borrow the full amount of pipes needed. The petrol that is needed to
operate the machine has to be paid by users themselves, the expenses for this cannot be shared. The litre price
for locally purchased petrol is 130 Kes. The amount of fuel needed for one irrigation turn differs depending on
the land size and the crops, but mostly the range is between 2-4 L with an area of ¼ - ½ acre. The costs for fuel
in this situation ranges between 260-520 Kes, when the average price of hiring of 200 Kes is added, it results that
one irrigation turn can cost 460 – 720 Kes.
Considering ownership of petrol pumps farmers generally move up from borrowing, hiring or sharing a pump at
the first stages of their farming business. And they shift to individual ownership of a petrol pump when
investment capital is sufficient. Furthermore farmers who are in a position of ownership can benefit from renting
out pumps and they can strategize this in their farming business. Moreover this section has shown that farmers
obtain access to water pumps in different ways, and they prefer to use petrol pumps in an individualistic manner.
6.4 FARMING STYLES COMPARED
Former sections have provided insight in possibilities regarding the use of petrol pumps. Based on the FSC as a
frame, now the practices of use for petrol pumps are discussed interrelated with the farming styles. Farmers
express different experiences, preferences and priorities concerning the use of petrol pumps. The different
reasoning of farmers for the utilization of a particular petrol pump, and the set of meanings adhered to it are
highlighted for the different farming styles. The paragraph starts with the established farmers, then continue
with the innovators, diversifiers and starters.
6.4.1 ESTABLISHED FARMERS
The four farmers categorized as established farmers are the ones having most experience with petrol pumps.
They have owned and used a petrol pump for a longer time and sometimes their fathers have also used a petrol
Chapter 6 Appropriation and utilization of petrol pumps
51
pump. Their financial capital is an advantage over other farmers and offers them the possibility to obtain and
utilize petrol pumps to their needs. They own both a pump and sufficient pipes, and petrol can be purchased.
Their long experience with petrol pumps is what distinguishes the established farmers from other farming styles.
They know what pump they want and do not make concessions, and have more freedom in their choice.
Therefore they can strategize their irrigation practices based on their internal logics without severe financial
restrictions. Based on prior knowledge and experience they can determine a petrol pump with the right
characteristics for their type of farm and utilization. These farmers are familiar with a certain type of machine
and are not looking for new types of pumps, but go for reliability. The four farmers in this category either own a
Honda or a Briggs & Stratton of respectively 5,5 and 6,5 hp. The costs of the pump vary from 32.000 Kes for a
Honda bought in 1995, and the others are 40.000 or 45.000 Kes. They also have the possibility to look for a pump
with a bigger drum and make sure that the capacity of the pump is sufficient for their farm. The farmers consider
a petrol pump as affordable and are not dependent on others when it comes to using pump and pipes. Although
the farmer below does indicate that price plays a role, the name of the brand is also key to him in the decision
on what pump to buy.
[F4] The price of the Briggs & Stratton was fair and it is a famous brand. I bought it in Kisumu at Car and
General, it cost 40.000 Kes and I bought this one 3 years ago. I used to own one from 1998 that was a
Honda 5,5Hp. Honda was good, but the price is high, in 1998 it was 30.000Kes, a Honda 6,5Hp now
would cost 60.000. The Briggs & Stratton used to be the best originally, but now the piracy makes that
we don’t know which one is the best.
A side effect and benefit of this ownership and independent position of the established farmers is that they are
in a position in which they can rent out a pump to other farmers. Especially one farmer acknowledges this extra
source of income as a benefit for the owner of a petrol pump. The other three farmers actually did not practice
this renting out of a pump, they were too busy with their own business or did not want others to tamper with
their material. This can be explained from their socio-economic position, which makes that they don’t have an
incentive to rent out the pump to other farmers. Renting out can give them trouble, and they do not need it to
sustain. They are rather individualistic regarding the use of a petrol pump and do not want others to interfere.
Application on the field happens with furrow irrigation which is exemplary in the case-study area. Although
criticism on this way of application is expressed by the farmers. A farmer explains that with mechanized furrow
irrigation, water will always be provided in excess. And also with overhead negative consequences are
recognized, and therefore they state that you have to be careful with irrigation. Irrigation needs to happen slowly
in order to let it infiltrate into the soil properly. Although they are critical on furrow and overhead irrigation, they
do apply these methods as best as possible based on their experience. At this moment they realise that petrol
pumps are the best alternative for them. In some aspects a petrol pump is better than a fixed sprinkler system
due to its mobility, a petrol pump can be stored safely and taken anywhere needed.
The future perspective of the established farmers is shared by many farmers, and aims for modern farming.
Despite the recognition that drip irrigation would be better for the crops, the urge to change to a different system
of irrigation appears not to be on the fore. Being settled in their farming business, they express that moving on
to drip or sprinkler irrigation is not always desirable. The future perspective is aimed to reduce the workload and
therefore they rather switch to other types of farming which takes less physical energy. They don’t necessarily
want to change the irrigation system, but rather prepare to phase out of farming depending on their age. They
have the capacity to decide what type of irrigation technology they want to use, and have selected it to their
preference. Furrow of application is not seen as the best option, but they have learned how to use it in the best
way based on experience and see it as the best alternative available for them.
Chapter 6 Appropriation and utilization of petrol pumps
52
6.4.2 INNOVATORS
The farmers who are described as innovators are searching for ways to expand and improve their farming
business. This can be done in multiple ways, e.g. through finding better seeds, high level inputs, and also by
developing methods of irrigation. These farmers almost all have ownership of a petrol pump, only one farmer
uses the group pump which he keeps in his store and so has direct access to it. In the purchase of a petrol pump
these farmers actively search for a petrol pump that can help them in their strategy to increase the area of
cultivation, and in most cases they are aiming for a high quality pump. The price-quality ratio is also for these
farmers a central aspect in the decision-making on irrigation technology, but they deliberately choose a pump of
their preference also despite the costs.
In the process of buying a petrol pump these farmers do a thorough preparation and do not merely copy the
system from other farmers. They actively seek advice from engineers, mechanics and other farmers and choose
a machine to their standards which they find suitable for the farm. In the steps towards buying a petrol pump
farmers can undertake different sets of actions in order to decide on which pump to buy. Below two farmers
explain what they did in this process.
[LB] What things did you do before buying the pump?
[F5] First you have to inquire, you ask the technicians that know about the use of a pump. They can
advise you, they are in Bondo and in Kisumu.
[F9] Before I bought the pump I did research. My colleague had experience and he advised me. My
colleague has started 3 years earlier than I did, so he could teach me.
Furthermore farmers indicate that there is a wide range of factors that you have to take into account before
buying a pump. They consider the location of their field in terms of distance, surface area and slope. This is
important in order to determine the necessary pump capacity. The make of a pump is also important, but the
farmers can also choose for a new type of pump which applies to their farming targets. Also the weight and
portability of the machine is considered, and the inlet and outlet sizes for the pipes. In decision-making on a
petrol pump farmers outweigh desirable pump characteristics and price. The most important advantage of using
a petrol pump lies in the farm expansion that can be achieved with the help of the petrol pump. Besides this the
individuality of the pump is of importance, farmers find it important that a pump is available to them at any time.
[F6] It is better to have your own thing, better than being in a position of hire. Sometimes when you hire
and want to do irrigation, someone else is using it, now I can dictate my own time of working.
The most common petrol pump is the Honda 5,5 hp, in this group a few farmers have chosen for a petrol pump
with more than 5,5 hp. One farmer owns a Huawei petrol pump with 7,0 hp, because his field is further away
from the field. He explains that he looked for a bigger farm and could not find this close to the lake, therefore he
had to move away from the lake shore. With this pump of 7,0 hp he is able to go up to 1km. But the key factor
to buy this petrol pump is time, as he explains below.
[LB] Why did you buy a 7,0 hp petrol pump?
[F7] The thing in farming is time, with this pump I can finish in short time. A 3,0 Hp pump can also pump
that water to the field, but it takes more time. So I use the 7,0 and adjust the speed to get good pressure.
Chapter 6 Appropriation and utilization of petrol pumps
53
In this FS it is recognized that farmers adjust
petrol pumps to their needs, this is mainly
done to make it function better for application
at the field without high expenses. For instance
a pipe can be made themselves with a double
outlet to enable irrigation with two people at
the same time as can be seen in Figure 13. With
transplanting only little water should be
applied to the newly planted crops. So the
division of one pipe into two pipes has two
advantages, the first is that two people can
apply irrigation at the same time and therefore
time is saved. The second is that in this case the
discharge can be divided over two hose pipes
and therefore the amount of application for
the crops is more suitable.
Besides petrol pump ownership the pipes are often partially owned, or shared. Another example of a type of
craftsmanship among farmers is reducing the pipes. Farmers in general reduce the size of pipes over distance in
order to make sure that enough pressure is left at the end of the field. By reducing the sizes of the pipes the
water has limited space, so the water can be pushed further. There are two possible ways in which this transition
of pipes can be arranged, the first is to buy reducers. These are little connecting-parts that have a 2” and a 1,5”
inch end, in this way the reduced pipe size can be connected. Another way is to slightly burn the end of a 2” pipe
and make it fit into a 1,5” pipe. One farmer expressed he practiced this for the sake of saving money.
[F6] We use two different pipes, the PVC pipes and the rubber in the form of a roll. To reduce the inches
from 2,5 to 1,5” you can just burn it a bit and then squeeze it in to reduce the size, it’s only small, just
1” that you need to decrease. The reducers are there, but they are expensive, in this way you can save
costs.
The innovators see the pump as a good alternative to them, although they also see its merits and hail ‘modern’
methods of drip and sprinkler irrigation. But they see these modern techniques as a bridge too far without
external support, and they have little trust in a collective system. Therefore also the innovators see a petrol pump
as a good alternative to them. Their objective is to change the way of irrigation in the future, but succession of
this is rather insecure. The farmers therefore try to utilize and fine-tune petrol pumps and its practices of use to
their capacity. They have a more pro-active farming strategy, and are more ferocious in expanding their farming
business. As a result they view petrol pump technology as a means for expansion of cultivation, in combination
with high level inputs and marketing strategies. The farmers in this sense negotiate on the use of petrol pump
technology, and try to influence and create new opportunities to support their farming activities.
6.4.3 DIVERSIFIERS
The diversifiers either own a petrol pump, or they have found a niche in which they have direct access to a pump.
Besides their priorities outside farming, also financial limitations play a role in the appropriation and utilization
of petrol pumps. Their other source of income can get priority above farming, and this can be a reason not to
purchase irrigation material at a high cost. Although they do express the will to have ownership of a petrol pump
as something to assist them in farming. In contrast to the established farmers and the innovators, they do not
always choose a pump of the best quality. The advantages of a pump in saving time and energy on the farm
seems more important than the quality and durability of a pump as the following farmer explains.
Figure 13 Innovator using a hose pipe on a self-manufactured double outlet
pipe
Chapter 6 Appropriation and utilization of petrol pumps
54
[LB] Why did you buy this pump, the Tiger 6,5?
[F13] It was cheap, the Honda from Japan at that time was around 20.000 Kes that is double price. I just
wanted something to help me, even if it would not last. I only want it for myself, when others use it they
will spoil the machine. When the machine was still new, I was helping others. I noticed now that the
machine became weaker, so I decided not to rent it out anymore.
He also expresses that he does not want to rent out the pump for two reasons, he has limited time available and
he does not want others to spoil the machine. This farmer also owns a shop in Kamariga and everyday he
combined both jobs, his wife also assisted in the shop. This shop has priority and the added income from renting
out a pump did not outweigh the negative consequences of renting out the pump to others. The financial position
of the diversifiers is regarded less determinant on farming only. Therefore other logics concerning individualistic
use and time management are considered more important. Other farmers in this typology do practice the activity
of renting out a pump and consider this as a means for them to gain some extra money out of pump ownership.
In addition to this the diversified farmers also consider a number of characteristics before they proceed to buying
a petrol pump. They take their farming land into account and what pump would function best according to their
priorities and money available. Adequate capacity and discharge are important and they also prepare for the
future, specifically regarding land uncertainty.
[F13] If you have a pump with a 3” outlet, the volume of water flowing through the pipe is higher, this
one can move to a very long distance, further than the smaller ones. Because I do not own land myself,
I choose for a pump with a 3” outlet. Because I don’t know if later I have to go far to find land. So I need
a machine that can do fine everywhere, near and far from the water source.
In this farming style there is a wide variety in how irrigation technology is experienced and utilized. For some it
is ‘just’ to help them and save time, regardless of the quality of the pump. But when it is possible they choose a
reliable make. Individuality is highly valued among these farmers and they follow their own style of working,
combined with other activities besides farming. The diversifiers set different priorities in their farming strategies,
which is also reflected in their choices on irrigation technology. In general a petrol pump is obtained to assist
them in farming and to save time for other activities, and not directly to expand in farming. The resulting increase
in production and income helps them to invest and diversify in other sources of income. For the future they also
refer to modern farming which can ease the work on the farm and can increase production, also greenhouses
are mentioned as a technology that can assist the farmers.
These farmers value different assets of technology than other farming styles. It is in their capacity to use a petrol
pump in a more efficient manner in order to cultivate a larger area in less time. In this manner their production
can be increased and the profit can also be invested in other income sources. The priority often is not primarily
on improving horticultural activities, but technology is rather used to increase production and decrease time and
effort needed. In this way they create a possibility to diversify and invest in jobs besides farming.
6.4.4 STARTERS
The starters have in common that their financial capital often limits them to gain individual ownership of a petrol
pump and a sufficient amount of pipes. In the group of starters two farmers have ownership of a petrol pump,
which is little compared to the other farming categories. In one case a second-hand pump is bought in
partnership, and in the other case the father who also has a different job is the owner of a petrol pump. In the
situation of farmers who do not own a petrol pump, mostly hiring is practiced in order to gain access to a petrol
pump. The expenses for hiring, including the costs for petrol can sometimes be difficult for them to bring as the
following farmer indicates.
Chapter 6 Appropriation and utilization of petrol pumps
55
[F23] The badness with it is that if you do not have money to buy fuel, it cannot help you. It needs money
when you are using it.
The difficulties in finance are the core issue of starters in farming and in particular regarding irrigation technology.
They are restricted to hiring or borrowing petrol pumps from other farmers. In this situation the owner will use
the pump when he needs it, hence the renter cannot always practice irrigation when he wants to. Especially in
times of drought it can be difficult to access a petrol pump in time. Starters express the will to individually own
a petrol pump, in this way they can dictate their own time and not depend on others. In case of buying they
choose to buy a petrol pump with lower quality and price, due to financial limitations. Knowingly that the quality
is not the best, they seem to agree on the price-quality ratio and do buy a pump on a short-term. The actual need
for a petrol pump that can help them more important, than buying a high quality pump that can last for a long
time. The following farmer explains his reasoning to buy a relatively cheap pump together with his friend and his
preferences regarding the type of ownership.
[F20] I use the water pump, I have one which I share with a friend. We bought the pump together, 2
years ago, it is good. The pump is a Shano, it is China made, of 6,5 Hp, for 16.500Kes, bought in Kisumu,
Indian shops. Honda is good, but expensive, a Honda pump with same Hp will be 85.000Kes. The Shano
pump can help me, because I can use it up here. But I want to have my own pump, we are planning to
buy another one.
[LB] Why?
[F20] I have my own field, and my friend also has his own field. Sometimes we want to use the pump at
the same time. It will give us good time, when I use mine and he can use his own.
This indicates that the starters have the wish to upgrade on their technology and try different ways to do so.
Shared ownership is one possibility besides hiring, but most of all they express the wish to own a petrol pump in
order to dictate their own work and planning. Pipes can often be borrowed from each other, and this seems to
be less of a problem. Although it is indicated that this can also be difficult when borrowed pipes are in use by
someone else. The most important disadvantage of a petrol pump for these farmers is the price, they consider it
as expensive and indicate that they are not able to buy. Despite the advantages of a petrol pump, they cannot
fully deploy it in their farming strategy due to uncertainty in accessing a pump. Besides this, they can do under-
irrigation knowing the negative consequences, solely because of limited financial means.
The starters appear to be the group which is most dependent on the irrigation technology, but have the least
capacity to gain access to a petrol pump. Their space for negotiation is rather limited, mainly due to their limited
financial capacity. They appropriate the technology through different types of temporary hiring and shared
ownership. The modality of a petrol pump is mainly that of a helping hand in the workload, and it gives them the
opportunity to expand in farming. Cultivation is now taking place at a small scale, and increase of production is
needed in order to gain enough investment. In this way they can upgrade on inputs and instruments and buy
their own petrol pump. Individual ownership is wanted, but the livelihood conditions do not allow this for most
of the starting farmers. They can access a petrol pump through hiring, and their position in using petrol pumps
appears restricted and dependent on pump-owners.
6.5 CONCLUSION
In this section a short summary is provided on the main advantages and disadvantages of petrol pumps. And
moreover a brief conclusion is provided on the different ways of appropriation and utilization of petrol pumps
interconnected with different FS.
The shift from manual to mechanized irrigation is experienced as a positive development. The main benefits
include an expansion of the farming area, increase of production, decrease in time and labour, easy operation,
Chapter 6 Appropriation and utilization of petrol pumps
56
pump affordability and portability. Farmers all agree on the beneficial increase of production as a consequence
of using petrol pumps. A bigger amount of water can be applied in a smaller amount of time, this makes that the
area of farming can be increased and crops can get sufficient water. Therefore production increases and this can
also result in a higher income for the farmer, although this depends on more factors. Also a reduction in irrigation
time in combination with the reduced labour demand are important benefits. Especially when a pump is owned
farmers now have ‘easy time’ and can dictate their own planning. These two advantages of increasing the scale
of farming in combination with easy work and short irrigation time, are regarded as key benefits.
In general the disadvantages listed are few compared to the advantages. Disadvantages mentioned mainly
concern the costs of operation, this involves costs of petrol, maintenance and service. Besides this, capital
investment is needed for the purchase of a petrol pump and pipes. Farmers who have limited financial capacity
experience the merits of the investment and on-going costs of petrol pumps. Another disadvantage focuses on
the method of application and how this affects the crops. Farmers recognize problems with application, but
based on experience they adjust their application method as good as possible. Farmers in general see the furrow
method as the best alternative and use petrol pumps in different modalities. In addition the farmers express
their wish for modern farming. While improved irrigation means are available, they are not capable to implement
modern irrigation techniques on their fields. They realize that the use of petrol pumps by means of furrow
irrigation is the best alternative they have. In short this farmer summarizes the key advantages and disadvantages
of the petrol pump in relation to manual irrigation as follows.
[F4] Manual irrigation is tiresome and cheap, the petrol pump is easy and expensive.
In short this chapter has provided insight in what ways farmers in different FS have appropriated and used petrol
pumps. Pump specific characteristics are key aspects in these decisions, but also the capacity of farmers regarding
finance and knowledge play a role. Social and material aspects are both determinants in this process of co-
construction of petrol pumps and its practices of use. Many factors influence choices on the use of petrol pumps,
and its underlying logics do not always adhere to the rationale of choosing the best possible pump. In this way
concessions have to be made, and this can lead to a different strategy concerning the utilization of a petrol pump.
Farmers have different capacities in fine-tuning and re-designing a petrol pumps and its practices of use. This
also results in different negotiating capacities of farmers on a petrol pump. Farmers adhere different sets of
meanings to a petrol pump and they incorporate this in their farming activities in multiple ways. In line with
heterogeneity in farming practices, also heterogeneity in appropriation and utilization of petrol pumps is
recognized.
Chapter 7 Conclusion
57
CHAPTER 7 CONCLUSION
On the picture a farmer’s boy is overlooking a farm, will he also be doing horticulture production when he is
older. And, can a petrol pump also assist him in the future or will he prefer an alternative way of farming and/or
irrigation?
The focus in this research is on how farmers experience petrol pumps and its practices of use, framed in multiple
configurations of farming styles. How farmers appropriate and utilize petrol pumps is interrelated with different
strategies in farming. This analysis provides insight in this co-construction, and it investigates how petrol pumps
as a means for irrigation are incorporated in the context of smallholder horticulture production. Furthermore it
sheds light on how farmers adhere meaning to petrol pumps and how they fine-tune and re-design a petrol pump
and its practices of use. Therefore the main research question is answered, which is as follows:
In what ways do farmers appropriate and use petrol pumps for irrigation in a horticulture production
process in West-Uyoma, Kenya?
Chapter 7 Conclusion
58
At first it is recognized that the development of commercialized horticulture and irrigation development
happened in the same timeframe. And they triggered each other in a context of diminishing fisheries and
subsistence rain-fed agriculture. Commercialized irrigated horticulture has great socio-economic potential,
mainly by increasing smallholders’ income. In the same time span as the development of commercialized
horticulture, also technology has developed, and small motorized pumps became available and accessible to
farmers. Irrigated horticulture development is therefore recognized as a process of co-construction in this
research. In irrigation development mainly pioneers in farming and businessmen from the area introduced petrol
pumps. Organizations have only marginally contributed to the introduction of petrol pumps due to their fixation
on group support. Moreover farmers are the ones who have initiated this development, which therefore is
characterized as farmer-led irrigation. Farmers have taken their own ‘strategy’ in appropriating and using petrol
pumps based on individualistic ways of working. They have incorporated the use of petrol pumps in their farming
strategies.
Individual small scale horticulture farmers aim to acquire ownership of petrol pumps and deploy a pump in a
multi-functional manner. In this research a petrol pump is seen as a composition, as a set of elements which also
includes pipes, petrol and its practices of use. For petrol pumps are not only material, but a social dimension is
internally linked to technology and therefore the use of petrol pumps is also a co-construction. In this case-study
research it is found that farmers all seek a different balance in appropriation and use of petrol pumps. In other
words heterogeneous engineering is done by farmers in relation to heterogeneous farming practices. Farmers
have different capacities and challenges, and moreover they experience and value characteristics of petrol
pumps differently. Where heterogeneity is identified in farming strategies, this is also the case for the
appropriation and use of petrol pumps. A difference in appropriation and utilization of petrol pumps is
recognized in the four farming styles.
Farmers decide on which pump to buy based on their experience with pumps, knowledge on what type of pump
they need, and on their financial capacity. Farmers can choose for a famous and expensive brand, others for a
cheap ‘China type’ and others do a thorough research to see which pump complies with what is needed. All
farmers express their preference for individual ownership, but especially starting farmers often do not have the
capacity buy a petrol pump. Therefore access can also be obtained through hiring, which brings them in a
dependent position, which can undermine their individualistic farming strategies. In the use of pumps farmers
also make different decisions. Petrol pumps that are used in the case-study area share many characteristics
concerning capacity, discharge, and operation and maintenance. Although the pumps resemble each other in
their features, multi-functionality is recognized in the use of pumps. Farmers have different ways to apply a type
of craftsmanship, in this way they can fine-tune and re-design technology. Because of financial limitations
farmers can adjust the use of petrol pumps to save costs. They can also fine-tune technology to improve methods
of application. For example pipes can be customized, speed of operation can be adjusted, and the application on
the field itself can be fine-tuned.
The thread is that farmers have a wide variety of how they see farming and how they want to practice this. And
this leads to a situation in which they ‘make’ the pumps useful to them in different ways. They want to make
most benefit out of pump characteristics for their farming business and incorporate this in their strategies.
Important benefits derived from using a petrol pump are reducing time and labour, and increasing production
and income. Farmers are less concerned about external support, and not willing to comply with organizational
standards. Petrol pumps have come up due to a genuine demand in a context of commercialized horticulture
development. Moreover farmers are the key drivers in this process of irrigation development. Farmers integrate
irrigation mechanisms in their farming strategy, and both influence each other. In this sense a co-construction
can be recognized between technology and the ways in which farmers practice agriculture. They are strategic
agents who have interest to use petrol pumps and shape this technology in order to achieve improved production
and income. In this case-study research the appropriation and use of petrol pumps moreover appears a matter
Chapter 7 Conclusion
59
of supply and demand. Farmers have gained interest and saw the benefits of petrol pumps, this has driven
appropriation and utilization of petrol pumps. They have chosen to use different types of pumps and try to adjust
and fine-tune technology within its network of possibilities.
Finally it is important to acknowledge that ongoing change and process in horticulture and irrigation
development is often not following a rationale, but depends on a wide range of factors. Farmers are the strategic
agents who have different experiences, lifestyles, opinions, logics, traditions and more on which they base their
choice. This research has found that while the technology of petrol pumps is merely uniform in its function to lift
up water, farmers experience, use and adjust it differently. Farming strategies and use of petrol pumps are
interconnected and co- construct each other, the interwoven social and technical nature of these developments
are essential for the findings in this research. Heterogeneity and multi-functionality, both in farming styles and
irrigation technology, are therefore two key principles that proved inevitable in this research.
Chapter 8 Discussion & recommendations
60
CHAPTER 8 DISCUSSION & RECOMMENDATIONS
In the picture a group of farmers have gathered for the opening of the Likungu Irrigation project. Also a discussion
took place on the working of this collective system in which different opinions prevailed.
This last chapter provides a discussion that aims to place the findings in perspective of a wider context and future
development. Therefore the theories and concepts used are critically reflected upon, followed by a discussion
on the findings. (A discussion on the methodology can be found in chapter three.) The theories and concepts in
this research have served as a guidance for the analysis in order to establish relevant findings in a structured
manner. The use and suitability of the theories and concepts are discussed regarding the objectives and findings
in this research. Furthermore the findings of this research are discussed, and the findings are placed in the wider
scientific debate on farmer-led irrigation. Moreover the implications of the findings are discussed in their
contribution to improved understanding of farmer-led irrigation and how this can inform future policy in
sustainable irrigation development for smallholder horticulture. In addition to this recommendations are
presented for further research and for development purposes.
Chapter 8 Discussion & recommendations
61
8.1 THEORIES & CONCEPTS
Theories and concepts are used to structure the research, to embed it in an academic context, and moreover
aims to valorise the findings. In this section the value of the theories and concepts with regard to its objectives
in this research are discussed. The socio-technical approach is the umbrella concept taking an agency centred
approach, and moreover focussing on a co-construction of social and technical systems. This principle of co-
construction is the underpinning for both the FSA and the SCOT that are used in this analysis.
FARMING STYLES APPROACH
The farming styles approach (FSA) is used to show heterogeneity in farming strategies which are co-constructed
through social and technical systems. Farmers are considered as strategic agents who set specific strategies in
farming, based on differing logics and notions. This approach proved valuable in identifying and analysing a
heterogeneous reality of farming, and contrasts a linear and homogeneous agricultural development. Especially
the perspective of farmers as strategic agents is valuable in order to gain insight in how different farming styles
are constructed, and interact with each other.
In total 27 farmers are interviewed which are categorized in four farming styles. This is a rather small amount of
cases in order to establish a FSC, and therefore a particular individual way of working was highly decisive for a
farming style. Although a small amount of farmers also enabled the researcher to gain deeper understanding in
the underlying logics and notions of each farmer. In addition also overlap exists between farming styles, and
farmers have characteristics that can fit multiple farming styles. The categorization implies a generalization and
therefore evades complexity in farming strategies to some extent. The heterogeneity and multiple realities are
illuminated, but at the same time framed. It should be acknowledged that there is ongoing change, and it is not
a hierarchical order. Therefore it is important to consider that the FSC is merely a means, and not an end in itself.
It has functioned in showing heterogeneity and multi-functionality in farming strategies, and in providing a frame
for further analysis.
Another aspect is that the terminology used in the FSC suggests a certain meaning to farming styles and a possible
line of development. Despite this suggestion, it is rather uncertain whether this transformation in farming styles
is taking place. A farming style is a complex set of internal logics and notions, and choices are not only based on
a strategic rationale. Many other factors, like socio-economic status, cultural and traditional values and capacity
play a role in this process. Besides this a lack of background information on the livelihood and household situation
made it difficult to grasp the full picture from where a farming strategy stems from. Without a detailed notion
on historic events from farmers, a possible transformation in farming styles was difficult to say. Hence the
farming styles are moreover showing how farming can be practiced, and it moreover deals with farmers’
experiences. Heterogeneity in irrigated horticulture is identified and analysed showing how different farming
styles happen simultaneously in similar conditions.
SOCIAL CONSTRUCTION OF TECHNOLOGY
The SCOT concept uses the FSC as a frame in which the appropriation and utilization of petrol pumps are
discussed based on farmers experiences. This concept focusses on the social shaping of technology in which both
actors, acting as strategic agents, and technology together construct a technical artefact. The concept gives room
for multiple interpretations and different outcomes, and emphasises on social construction as an open process.
With this concept appropriation and utilization of petrol pumps are both seen as input and output of social
interrelations. This concept has enabled the researcher to identify a co-construction of irrigation technology and
horticulture farming. Although a drawback is encountered in the sense that the SCOT focusses on the
interconnectedness of social and technical systems in the process of construction. This process is considered a
‘seamless web’, in which it is difficult to recognize a structure to understand what constructs what, and
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62
furthermore what it is that is constructed. In this seamless web everything relates to each other and complicates
a deconstruction of what is taking place (Klein and Kleinman, 2002). Therefore a more intuitive approach is taken
in this research in order to remain flexible and let the actors ‘speak’. This enabled the researcher to analyse this
co-construction not in a determinant way, but acknowledge the multiple realities.
The aspects of closure and stabilization and the wider context are less explicitly taken into account. Due to the
organic and autonomous spread of petrol pumps, it was difficult to find out whether petrol pump technology has
stabilized and in what institutional context. An important limitation of this analysis is the exclusion of other
relevant actors than farmers. This has been a deliberate choice in order to illuminate farmers’ experiences of
irrigation technology. Although it has also restricted a more complete analysis of the social construction of
technology. Because imposed meaning of designers, manufacturers, retailers and other relevant actors were not
taken into account. A petrol pump therefore is considered in this research as a ‘black box’ on which the farmers
have little influence, and therefore could not be ‘unpacked’.
8.2 RESULTS
In this section the research findings are discussed and placed in a wider scientific debate on farmer-led irrigation.
It is discussed how this case-study research contributes in improved understanding of farmer-led irrigation in a
small scale horticulture production process. And moreover it aims to inform future policy and development as a
response to recognized potential and dynamics of individual small scale irrigation.
Farmers are seen as strategic agents, this forms the foundation of this research and acknowledges how they
‘make’ petrol pumps useful. The results have shown that farmers use a pump in certain ways which gives meaning
to a petrol pump. They do this coming from different backgrounds, with different knowledge and financial
capacity, and with different experience and opinions. Organizations were only marginally involved in the spread
of petrol pumps. In fact its spread can be attributed to farmers who recognized the economic potential of
irrigated commercial horticulture, and therefore appropriated and utilized petrol pumps in their own way.
The results of this research stress the importance of recognizing heterogeneity in agriculture and irrigation
dynamics dealing with change, disorder and process. Farmer-led irrigation has developed on the initiative of
farmers based on their strategies in farming, the drivers of farmers are the basic tenet in this process. In a context
of economic potential, abundant water, scarcity of labour, Luo culture, unstable markets and supply of
technology farmers have set to shape their farming strategies. It is important to consider that irrigation
technology is one element of a wider set of elements that co-constructs this heterogeneous farming
environment. Irrigation development and policy should therefore recognize this dynamic interplay, and not only
focus on promoting an isolated irrigation technology. Moreover technology development is a dynamic process
and the landscapes of smallholder irrigation are continuously changing. Therefore the farmers, those who
benefit, should get the support that is needed in order to develop smallholder irrigation and not just the
promoters. In this case-study area farmers have started irrigation on their initiative, for their benefit, and there
is much potential in irrigated horticulture. This research has contributed in understanding the context and drivers
in which this development is taking place. Now it is important to translate these findings into supportive policies
for irrigation development.
Bottlenecks for farmer-led irrigation are also identified in this research. Challenges and difficulties, involving the
costs of mechanized irrigation, lack of knowledge on technical functioning, and unstable markets are common
among smallholder farmers. Currently there is no institutional and policy support for development of farmer-led
irrigation. Despite the great potential of farmer-led irrigation in contributing to an alleviation of poverty by
increasing smallholder incomes. A challenge now is how to make individual small scale irrigation which is farmer
led, attractive for future irrigation investment. This can for instance happen through involving farmers in this
development and recognize their drivers and strategies. In combination a co-construction of farmers and
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63
organizations in investment, design, operation and management can contribute to a joint effort of irrigation
development. This joint effort can combine capacities and challenges of both farmers and organizations in a
positive and cooperative manner. However, further research is needed to develop policy aimed at effecting the
potential of farmer-led irrigation in a sustainable and cost-effective manner.
Moreover one must also take future implications of extended farmer-led irrigation and intensified horticulture
production into account. As the private irrigation sector expands, this can also lead to environmental, and socio-
economic impacts. An expansion of irrigated horticulture related to increased land competition and
commoditisation of labour in the case-study area also impacts the social relations of the Luo people. Irrigated
horticulture is part of, and influencing this wider development. Also environmental impacts such as nutrient
leaching, soil erosion, decrease in soil fertility and the impact of fertilizers and pesticides on the soil and water
quality are important to take into account. Considering a possible expansion of irrigated horticulture along the
banks of Lake Victoria, this can have enormous impact on the environmental and ecological conditions in this
wider area.
In sum the constraining and supporting factors of this individual smallholder farmer-led irrigation development
should be recognized, and these at the same time need further analysis. Development organizations and
institutions should have an open and flexible attitude, in order to account for informal farmer-led irrigation which
is highly flexible and responsive to the needs of farmers. Through this farmers can be assisted in a way that keeps
them the strategic agents and drivers of change.
8.3 RECOMMENDATIONS
In this section a number of recommendations are made focussing on opportunities for future research and
irrigation development. Petrol pumps have emerged quickly and in a rather organic and autonomous manner,
therefore there are still many ambiguities regarding this process of development. This section highlights what
aspects need further investigation, in order to improve understanding of irrigation development for smallholder
horticulture farming. And related to this recommendations are given for irrigation development for smallholder
horticulture farmers.
FUTURE RESEARCH
- More investigation is needed on the design and production process of petrol pumps. Who are the
designers, produces, manufacturers, and retailers and how and why did they construct a particular
technology. Their perspectives and ideas on petrol pumps can increase understanding of the process of
social construction of petrol pumps, and can possibly open up the ‘black box’.
- Further analysis is needed in order to gain understanding in the supporting and constraining factors for
farmers in the appropriation and utilization of petrol pumps in smallholder horticulture. The spread of
petrol pumps happened quickly and in an organic manner, responding to a situation of supply and
demand. The role of farmers, businessmen and other organizations can be investigated upon in order
to gain more understanding in how this development has taken place and is still ongoing. An analysis is
needed on the mechanisms and dynamics of this process in relation to its institutional context.
Moreover irrigation technology should be considered in a wider context considering its potential to
increase smallholders’ income and poverty alleviation. This context also includes access to financial
means, market mechanisms, technical insight in cultivation, and supply of technology. Identifying the
main triggers and drivers can give hands and feet in assisting farmers in the development of irrigated
horticulture production.
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64
IRRIGATION DEVELOPME NT
- Establishing a platform can contribute in sharing experience and knowledge. A combined effort of
knowledge provided by local engineers and mechanics, farmers, Agrovet owners and extension officers
can provide farmers with more knowledge and technical insight. By cooperating and sharing ideas
farmers can learn from each other and from other experts in the field. Through this farmers can improve
their farming business and increase production and profit. There is much potential in knowledge and
capacity building, and in such a platform the farmers are the initiators and beneficiaries.
o A local engineer for instance can provide more insight in petrol pump characteristics and
mechanics can give workshops on maintenance and operation. In this way farmers can be
assisted in determining what pump is needed for their specific farm, and how they should
handle a pump in a good way. Moreover information on different types of pipes, alternative
pipe sizes and dimensions can help farmers in choosing pipes that can function well in their
situation.
- Organizations can investigate whether it is possible to support farmers in a different way than through
groups. A search for methods to support individual farmers can contribute to the overall development
of horticulture in the case-study area. Starting farmers e.g. can be helped through loans so they can
purchase their preferred petrol pump which fits their farming style. In this way they don’t have to
involuntarily comply with a group organization which in general causes conflicts, and does not improve
their production standards.
Chapter 9 Bibliography
65
CHAPTER 9 BIBLIOGRAPHY
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ANNEXES
ANNEX 1: FARMING AREAS
The first figure shows the five farming areas in West-Uyoma. And the following figures each give an impression
of the five different farming areas, their situation, scale and amount of farming activity.
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ANNEX 2: INTERVIEW GUIDE
This interview guide serves as a practical instruction for the interviewer and endorses the interviewer with a
guidance in order to get grip on the interview. This guideline also serves as a means to standardize the
interview data and results in order to achieve reliability, comparability and internal validity (Lecture Tamás,
2014).
Introduction:
- Introduce myself
o Student from Netherlands
o I am here to learn from their farming/irrigation
o Learn from their experience with small scale irrigation technologies
- How much time do you have available?
- Possible to have a look at the field and the irrigation technology?
To start with a few opening questions:
Personal information:
- What is your age?
- What is your household situation? (Family, position in homestead, wage earner)
- What education did you attend?
Farming information:
- What is your job? (Main occupancy)
- When did you start farming? (What did you do before?)
- What was the reason for you to start farming? (Passion, heritage, money, subsistence, opportunity)
- Do you like farming? What do you like? (What not)
Bridge: Thank you for sharing this information. Nice to hear about your farm and your experience. Now I would
like to learn more about your agricultural activities and how you use irrigation.
Main and follow-up questions:
Main 1: How do you cultivate your land?
Follow-up:
- How much land do you own/rent?
o Acreage (ha)
o Ownership
o How did you get your piece of land?
o Is it individual or shared? (Household?)
o Do you have land rights? (private)
What is the legislation? (Laws, policies, customary law?)
Institutions involved?
Culture?
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- What type of cultivation do you practice?
o Type of crop?
Cash/food
Price of crop?
Combination of different crops?
subsistence/market
Why this crop?
What is the yield?
Ton/ha
o Cropping schedule?
Seasons
Intercropping
Crop rotation
o What is the cropping intensity?
2 rain periods 2 cropping seasons?
Soil fertility?
- Do you combine other types of farming?
o Animal husbandry
o Vegetable cultivation
o Maize/millet etc.
Main 2: How do you organise your agricultural production?
Follow-up:
- How do you organise labour?
o What are the labour requirements?
How many hours a day?
How many days a week?
Per month/seasonal
o Enough labour available?
o Household labour?
o Man/women?
o Intra-household labour division?
Working together? (Exchange of labour?
o Renting labour/pay for labour?
Price of labour?
Availability of labourers in region?
o What labour activities done by who?
Sowing
Harvesting
Applying fertilizers/pesticides
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- What decisions do you make concerning the organisation of your farm production?
o How would you describe your farm?
Economic business
Family farm
Life destination (successor of father)
o Can you make a living out of farming?
What is your investment capacity?
Credit?
What resources do you have?
Knowledge
Money
Labour
Arable land/soil
Social (position in community)
o Do you have market access?
Do you sell your products? (market, local)
Do you exchange products?
Or is it for own consumption?
Main 3: What strategies do you take in farming?
Follow-up:
- What is your state of farming? (reasons and aim)
o What is your aim of farming?
o What knowledge do you have of farming?
Level of education
Teached by others? (father)
Advice from other farmers?
Advice from consultancy agencies?
Advice from project organisations?
o What choices did/do you make in farming?
What type of labour?
What instruments?
What type of crops? (value)
Where do you buy seeds?
Irrigation yes/no? (come back to this later)
Do you take risks?
How do you handle diseases/pests/droughts?
What did you do in the past, what did you change?
o On what factors do you base your decisions?
More income
Intensify production
Specialise (high value crops)
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up scaling
Well-being?
Vulnerability?
Food security?
Sustainability? (Use of soil/nature conservation)
Bridge: Now you have been telling about how you operate your farm and what are the reasons to do so, I am
most curious to find out whether and how you use irrigation techniques?
Main 4: How and why do you use irrigation technologies?
Follow-up:
- How would you describe the availability of water in the area?
o Climate and rainfall conditions?
Hot/tropical (what type of crops work best?)
Amount of rain?
Frequent rains, or erratic?
Floods, run-off, problems?
o What is the water source?
Where do you take your water from?
o Quantity/quality of water?
Sufficient?
How is the quality? (contaminated/clean/nutrients)
o Access to water?
How?
Management?
Collaboration?
Rules/institutions?
Individual/shared?
- What is the irrigation requirement of your field?
o How much water do you apply?
Type of crop?
Type of land?
Season?
Idea rainfall/evaporation?
- How do you use irrigation on your field?
o Do you have experience with irrigation?
How did you irrigate in the past?
Why?
Did you change from technique? And why?
o What technology do you currently use?
Treadle pump/diesel pump/watering cans/other?
Specifics?
Power?
Pump capacity?
Diesel needed? How much?
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What material?
Main 5: How and why is current irrigation technology used? (Development)
Follow-up:
- Why do you use this type of irrigation?
o Technical aspects?
Labour reduction
Costs
Increased production/yields
o Social aspects?
Traditional
Community
o Management?
Easy operation?
Efficiency?
o Economical?
Low cost?
Increase yield?
Intensify/up scaling?
o What are the costs?
Purchase investment
Ongoing costs (diesel)
Repair
Gain expertise (taking courses)
o How did you purchase this irrigation technology?
Producer?
Supplier?
Project? Organisation?
Introduced by?
- What is needed for the operation of the irrigation technology?
o Labour
Hours? (per day/week)
Heavy?
Done by who?
o Expertise
Knowledge needed?
How to use?
Easy to manage?
- Who is responsible for development and uptake of irrigation technology?
o By who is it developed?
Company?
Project involvement?
Government?
- What is your opinion of irrigation technology?
o Positive development
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Why? Or why not?
What did it change?
How do farmers often use it?
Do you adapt the technology to your own situation? Or vice versa?
Do you know the ideas behind Low cost irrigation technologies?
- Did irrigation technology change agriculture?
o How?
Role of irrigation?
Community?
Social relations?
Economic situation?
o What is your opinion on this change?
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ANNEX 3: INTERVIEW TRANSCRIPTION FORMAT
Farmer characteristics
Name:
Location in area
Land
Type of crop
Irrigation
Other jobs?
Age
Farming since
Pump? Ownership?
Collaboration/group?
Observation
Interpretation
Relevance
Interview transcript:
Date
Duration
Time
Location
Interviewer Luwieke
Interviewee
Translator
Other attendants
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ANNEX 4: OVERVIEW OF INTERVIEWS CONDUCTED AND CODING FOR FARMER REFERENCING
Farmer code Area Amount of
interviews
Other details
Established farmers (4)
F1 Obenge 1
F2 Obenge 1 Chair KaCoHo group Obenge
F3 Likungu 1
F4 Osindo 2
Innovators (8)
F5 Kochilo 2 Chair Kochilo group
F6 Kamariga 3 Function in KaCoHo group Kamariga
F7 Kamariga 2
F8 Obenge 2 Secretary in KaCoHo Group Obenge
F9 Obenge 1
F10 Likungu 2
F11 Likungu 2
F12 Osindo 2
Diversifiers (5)
F13 Kochilo 2
F14 Kochilo 2
F15 Kamariga 1
F16 Kamariga 1
F17 Likungu 1
Starters (10)
F18 Kochilo 2 Secretary Kochilo group
F19 Kochilo 1
F20 Kochilo 2
F21 Kamariga 2
F22 Obenge 1
F23 Obenge 2
F24 Obenge 1
F25 Obenge 2
F26 Likungu 1
F27 Osindo 1
Total 43
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F28 Kamariga 1 Chair of KaCoHo group Kagwa, not in FSC
F29 Obenge 1 Caretaker of petrol pump KaCoHo group
Obenge, not in FSC
F30 Likungu 1 Showed the Likungu irrigation system, not in
FSC
F31-34 Other 4 Excluded from analysis
Total interviews 50
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ANNEX 5: OVERVIEW OF KEY INFORMANTS, INCLUDING CODING, AND SOME CHARACTERISTICS
Coding Function Since Experience Place
K1 Agricultural officer 2010 Before he was based as agricultural
officer in Kisumu
Madiany (Uyoma)
K2 Agricultural officer 2013 Education in agriculture Bondo
K3 Agrovet owner 2009 Education in agriculture Manyuanda (Uyoma)
K4 Agrovet employee 2011 Bondo
K5 Irrigation Officer 2011 Before based near Kisumu as
irrigation officer
Bondo
K6 Professor in soil, land
and water management
1996 Teaching in soil, water and plant
relations
Maseno University
K7 Professor agricultural
engineering
2012 Irrigation engineer from 1997-2012,
now professor in agricultural
engineering
JOOUST, Bondo
University
K8 Professor in horticulture 2013 Before teaching in flower-culture
for 25 years at Kenyatta university
Nairobi.
JOOUST, Bondo
University
K9 PLAN-employee
livelihood
2006 Bachelor in agribusiness, student in
project planning at Egerton
University.
Bondo
K10 Project manager
Western Kenya
2008 Involved as health manager in 8
year program
Bondo
K11 Kickstart 2000 Salesman for Kickstart organization Kisumu
K12 Employee Rift Valley
Machineries
2010 Selling petrol pumps and other
mechanical devices in the shop
Kisumu
K13 Owner of business in
mechanical devices
1975 Father started business, also selling
petrol pumps
Kisumu
K14 Employee Mitha
Electricals
Technician and salesman in petrol
pumps and other mechanical
devices in the shop
Kisumu
K15 Employee Powerlite Technician and salesman in petrol
pumps and other mechanical
devices in the shop
Kisumu
K16 Agricultural teacher and
student
Teacher in agriculture and master
student
Bondo
K17 Engineer, owner
workshop
1998 Education in agricultural
engineering at Egerton University
Rageng’ni (Uyoma)
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ANNEX 6: LOCAL AND URBAN MARKETS
In the following figures the geographical spread of respectively local and urban markets can be seen.
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ANNEX 7: CHARACTERISTICS OF PETROL PUMPS AND PIPES IN USE BY FARMERS IN THE CASE-STUDY AREA
Name Ownership petrol pump
Renting Make Capacity (hp)
Cost (Kes) Bought when?
Bought where? Pipes (own, share, borrow, hire)
Further details
Established Farmers (4)
F1 Own Rent out Honda 5,5 40.000 2002 30 owned
F2 Own - Honda 5,5 32.000 1995 Kisumu 30 owned, borrowed
F3 Own Borrow out Honda 5,5 45.000 2004 Kisumu Owned
F4 Own Rent out Brigs & Stratton
6,5 40.000 2011 Kisumu Owned 3rd pump in ownership
Innovators (8)
F5 Own Rent out Briggs & Stratton
2,5 18.000 2010 Kisumu, Ukwala supermarket
10 owned, borrowed
F6 Own - Honda 5,5 37.000 2012 Kisumu, Meta and Sons Electronics
Borrowed group?
F7 Own - Huawei 7,0 18.000 2014 Nairobi Owned, borrowed
F8 Group pump (2)
Borrow/hire Honda 5,5 45.000 2011
F9 Shared (partner)
- Honda, Koshin
5,5 35.000 2011 Kisumu Owned, shared?
F10 Own Borrow out Robin (Japan)
5,5 36.000 2013 Bondo 26 owned, borrowed
F11 Own Borrow out Honda 5,5 30.000 2011 Nairobi 42 owned
F12 Own - Tiger 5,5 26.000 2014 Kisumu 20 owned, borrowed Newest pump, older Honda from father also at home
Shared - Fujimax 6,5 57.000 2012 Shared pump with friend
Diversifiers (5)
F13 Own - Tiger 6,5 12.000 2007 Kisumu 17 owned, borrowed
F14 Own - Honda 35.000 2012 Kisumu, Tuskys supermarket
7 owned pump bought by father
F15 Group? Group Honda 3,5 45.000 2014 Kisumu, Meta and Sons Electronics
Annexes
82
F16 Caretaker Rent out 3,5 Kisumu Owned, shared Petrol pump is not owned by him, but he rents out
F17 Shared - Honda Dashin
5,5 35.000 2012 Kisumu Shared with neighbour farmer
Starters (10)
F18 Shared - Shano 6,5 20.000 2010 Kisumu 20 owned, borrowed Pump shared with other farmer
F19 Shared - Honda, Koshin
5,5 45.000 2008 Kisumu, Indian shops Owned, shared Pump shared with partner farmers
F20 Shared - Shano 6,5 20.000 2010 Kisumu 15 owned, borrowed Pump shared with other farmer
F21 - Hire 3,5 10 owned, borrowed Pump is hired from F16, not the group pump
F22 Own Rent out Honda, Koshin
4,0 28.000 2013 Aram Pipes owned by partner
Second-hand petrol pump
F23 - Hire Honda, Koshin
4,0 (W. thinks 5,5)
28.000 (W. thinks it is 35.000)
2013 Aram Hired from F22
F24 - Hire Honda (China?)
5,5 35.000 Kisumu Hire Hired from father F25
F25 Own Rent out Honda (China)
5,5 35.000 Kisumu 40 owned Owned by father
F26 - Borrow Honda 5 35-40.000 Borrowed Borrowed from farmers in Likungu group
F27 - Hire Honda ? 35.000 Hire