© 2007 mcgraw-hill higher education. all rights reserved. introduction to motor development chapter...
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© 2007 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved.
Introduction to Motor Development
Chapter 1
© 2007 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved.
Learning Objectives• Define human development and human motor
development• Explain why the study of human motor
development is important• Describe the four domains of human
development and explain how they interact• Explain the concepts of development,
maturation, and growth, and describe the elements of developmental change
• Define common terms in the study of human motor development
• Define the terms gross and fine movement, and explain how they are important in human motor development
• Describe the process–product controversy and how it relates to human motor development
• Define various terms for age periods throughout the lifespan
• Define various stages of human development• List the periods and describe the history of the
field of motor development• Explain the phrase interdisciplinary approach to
motor development
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Human behavior is notcompartmentalized; there
is a complex system of constant, reciprocal exchanges
among an individual’s cognitive, affective, motor, and physical
being
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What is Motor Development?
• Human Motor development is. . .– Process through which we pass
during the course of our life• Change that occurs in our ability to move
– A field of study
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Various Definitions
• “changes in motor behavior which reflect the interaction of the maturing organism and its environment” (Notes from Scholarly Directions Committee, 1974)
• “changes in movement competencies from infancy to adulthood and involves many aspects of human behavior, both as they affect movement development and as movement development affects them” (Keogh, 1977)
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Various Definitions
• “the change in motor behavior across the lifespan” (Clark & Whitehall, 1989)
• “the sequential, continuous age-related process whereby an individual progresses from simple, unorganized, and unskilled movement to the achievement of highly organized, complex motor skills and finally to the adjustment of skills that accompanies aging” (Haywood & Getchell, 2005)
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Working Definition for this text
“Motor development is the study of changes in human motor behavior over the
lifespan, the processes that underlie these changes, and the factors that affect them.”
(Payne & Isaacs, 2007)
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Why is the study of motor development important?
• To– Understand present motor behavior
• What is happening and why it is happening
– Understand what this behavior was like in the past and why
– Understand what the behavior will be like in the future and why
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Why is the study of motor development important? Because……
Human development is multifaceted. As movement changes, so do the intellectual, social, and emotional domains
Understanding the process of motor development allows us to diagnose cases of abnormal development and to provide intervention and remediation
Developmentally appropriate activities can be selected for an optimal teaching/learning environment
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Domains of Human Development
• The four domains are useful for categorizing the study of human and motor development
• Domains are not discrete
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Domains
• Cognitive domain– Concerns human intellectual development
• Affective domain– Concerned with the social and emotional
aspects of human development
• Motor domain– Development of human movement and
factors that affect that development
• Physical domain– All types of physical/bodily change
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A Definition of the term Human Development
“…changes that all human beings face across their lifespan. Such changes
result from increasing age as well as one’s experiences in life, one’s genetic
potential, and the interactions of all three factors at any given time.
Therefore, development is an interactional process that leads to
changes in behavior over the lifespan.” (Motor Development Task Force, 1995)
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Elements of Developmental Change
• Six components of developmental change– Qualitative– Sequential– Cumulative– Directional– Multifactorial– Individual
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Elements of Developmental Change
Qualitative Not “just more of something”
Sequential Certain motor patterns precede others
Cumulative Behaviors are additive
Directional Development has an ultimate goal
Multifactorial No single factor directs change
Individual Rate of change varies for all people
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Definitions of Development, Maturation, and Growth
• Development is a term referring to the progressions and regressions that occur throughout the lifespan
• Growth is the structural aspect of development
• Maturation deals with the functional changes in human development.
Development
Growth Maturation
Development includes both growth and maturation
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Maturation and Growth
• Growth is quantitative – increase in size
• Maturation is qualitative – functions of organs and tissues
• Growth and maturation are interrelated– As the body grows, functions improve
• As we age, growth slows, but maturation continues throughout the lifespan
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Terms
• Developmental directions
– Cephalocaudal• From head to tail• Can be applied developmentally through the study
of walking
– Proximodistal• From those points close to the body’s center to
those points close to the periphery• Prenatal growth and acquisition of motor skill
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Terms
• Differentiation– Progression from gross, immature movement to
precise, well-controlled, intentional movement
• Integration– Motor systems are able to function together as
ability progresses
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How does the child in this picture demonstrate the concept of integration?
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Terms
• Gross movement– Movement controlled by the large muscles or
muscle groups• Legs
• Fine movement– Movement controlled by the small muscles
or muscle groups• Hands
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Terms
Two controversial views on measurement in
motor development • Process Approach
– Emphasizes the movement without consideration for the outcome
• How a child catches a ball
• Product Approach– Emphasizes the outcome of a movement
• How much control did the child have while catching the ball?
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Terms
• Age periods throughout the lifespan
• Accepted age periods are helpful in discussions concerning development throughout the lifespan
• The term “stages” is often substituted for the term “age periods”
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More on Age Periods (Stages)
Period Significant Events•Prenatal
-Embryonic
-Fetal
•Conception to birth•Very important period•Embryo •Fetus - at eight weeks post-gestation•Organogenesis
•Infancy
-Neonatal
-Toddlerhood
Birth to year 1
0-22 days after birth
Walking alone
Early Childhood Ages 4-7 yr
Middle Childhood Ages 7-9 yr
Late Childhood Lasts 3 years
Adolescence Landmark period
Puberty
Girls - 11 yr
Boys - 13 yr
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More on Age Periods (Stages)
Period Significant Events
Early Adulthood
•Begins when adolescence reaches maximum height
•Girls –age 20 yr
•Boys – age 22 yr
•Lasts until age 40 yr
Middle Adulthood •Ages 40-60 yrs
Late Adulthood •Age 60 until death
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Stages of Development
• Stages of development– Phase, time, levels, periods– Provides manageable portions of behavior
• Controversy over whether the stages of development actually exist– Does life proceed smoothly and
continuously?– Is life discontinuous with abrupt behavior
changes?
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Periods in the History of Motor Development
• Precursor Period (1787-1928)
– Descriptive observation of human movement
• Maturational Period (1928-1946)
– Biological processes shape human development
– Bayle’s scale of motor development
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Periods in the History of Motor Development
• Normative/Descriptive Period (1946-1970)
– Dormant period (1946-1960)– Norm referenced standards for
motor performance measurement (1960’s)
– Kephart’s Slow Learner in the Classroom
• Kephart maintained that certain movement activities enhanced academic performance
• Not supported by research, still influences professional practice today
– Biomechanical analysis
• Process-Oriented Period (1970-present)
– Describe the process, not just the change in movement
– Dynamical systems theory
– Psychologist return to the study of motor behavior via processing information
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Interdisciplinary Approach in the Study of Motor Development• Today, there is interaction among the 3
subareas of motor behavior (motor learning, motor control, motor development), with biomechanics and exercise physiology
• Working together, experts are able to discern more accurately subtle movement changes and differences
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Research Designs
Cross-sectional Comparison of two or more persons or groups at one point in time
Longitudinal A study over a long period of time
Time-lag Different cohorts are compared at different times
Sequential-Cohort
Integrates the cross-sectional, longitudinal, and time-lag designs within one study
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Research Designs ~ Pros
Cross-sectional Administratively efficient
Quickly completed
Age differences can be observed
Longitudinal Change can be observed across ages
Sequential-Cohort
Accounts for generational (cohort) effect
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Research Designs - Cons
Cross-sectional
Cannot observe change
Cannot determine accurate age of groups
Age and cohort are confounded
Longitudinal Administratively inefficient
Age and time of measurements are confounded
Subjects may be influenced by repeated testing
Subjects may drop out
Sequential-Cohort
Administratively inefficient
Costly
Subjects may drop out
Difficult to analyze statistically
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Research
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