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2010 Pearson Education Canada 13 Marine and Coastal Systems and Fisheries PowerPoint Slides prepared by Stephen Turnbul Copyright 2013 Pearson Canada Inc. 13-1 Slide 2 2010 Pearson Education Canada Copyright 2013 Pearson Canada Inc. Housekeeping Items For a short video on the role of plastic in relation to marine birds, see http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pUM58LIU2Lohttp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pUM58LIU2Lo. I will get the mid-term assignments back as soon as possible, but I am swamped with work at the moment. Some more tidbits related to what weve been talking about: Burrowing owls are becoming scarce on the prairies and one teacher is taking her high school students out to study their numbers, and even try to boost their population; Wild boars are becoming a huge pest in Texas and, now, starting on the prairies. Slide 3 2010 Pearson Education Canada Copyright 2013 Pearson Canada Inc. Housekeeping Items The federal government is importing an Asian wasp to try to kill of the ash borer, which in turn is killing millions of ash trees. This is an example of a bio-control (lets hope it goes OK); Bird numbers are drastically down in many parts of Canada, especially species such as bank swallows and purple martins (down by 95%). Scientists are trying to figure out why; Dogs are being trained to locate endangered species, such as frogs, which are otherwise almost impossible to detect; Imperial Mines, notorious for the Mt. Polley disaster has been authorized to open the Red Chris mine in the Stikine, despite protests from Alaskan fishers groups; I saw an item (will try to find more) about a mining company that is endangering an indigenous group in Mexico that still practices peyote rituals. Slide 4 2010 Pearson Education Canada Copyright 2013 Pearson Canada Inc. Upon successfully completing this chapter, you will be able to Identify physical, geographical, chemical, and biological aspects of the marine environment Describe major types of marine ecosystems Outline historic and current human uses of marine resources Assess human impacts on marine environments Review the current state of ocean fisheries and reasons for their decline Evaluate marine protected areas and reserves as innovative solutions If you get a chance, watch Blue Planet on your own, since we wont have time to watch it in class. 13-4 Slide 5 2010 Pearson Education Canada Copyright 2013 Pearson Canada Inc. Central Case: Lesson learned: The Collapse of the Cod Fisheries No fish has more impact on human civilization than the Atlantic cod Eastern Canadian and New England fishermen have fished for cod for generations Large ships and technology have destroyed the cod fishery Even protected stocks are not recovering or recovering only very slowly 13-5 Slide 6 2010 Pearson Education Canada Copyright 2013 Pearson Canada Inc. Cod are groundfish and inhabit the Grand and Georges Bank Groundfish = fish that live or feed along the bottom -Halibut, pollock, flounder Cod eat small fish and invertebrates They grow to 60-70 cm long and can live 20 years There are 24 stocks of cod Exclusive Economic Zone = legal right to waters 200 nautical miles from shore 13-6 Slide 7 2010 Pearson Education Canada Copyright 2013 Pearson Canada Inc. The Ocean 13-7 Slide 8 2010 Pearson Education Canada Copyright 2013 Pearson Canada Inc. Ocean cover most of Earths surface The oceans influence global climate, teem with biodiversity, facilitate transportation and commerce, and provide resources for us 13-8 Oceans influence the atmosphere, lithosphere, and biosphere Slide 9 2010 Pearson Education Canada Copyright 2013 Pearson Canada Inc. The oceans contain more than water 96.5% water Ions of dissolved salts Nutrients (e.g. nitrogen and phosphorus) Dissolved gas -Oxygen is added by plants, bacteria, and atmospheric diffusion 13-9 Slide 10 2010 Pearson Education Canada Copyright 2013 Pearson Canada Inc. Ocean water is vertically structured Temperature declines with depth Heavier (colder saltier) water sinks Temperatures are more stable than land temperatures -Waters high heat capacity -It takes much more heat to warm water than air Oceans regulate the earths climate -They absorb and release heat -Oceans surface circulation 13-10 Slide 11 2010 Pearson Education Canada Copyright 2013 Pearson Canada Inc. Ocean water is vertically structured (contd) Thermocline = below surface water, temperature decreases rapidly with depth Halocline = salinity changes with increasing depth Pycnocline = below the surface zone -Density increases rapidly with depth Deep Zone = below the pycnocline -Dense, sluggish water -Unaffected by winds, storms, sunlight, and temperature 13-11 Slide 12 2010 Pearson Education Canada Copyright 2013 Pearson Canada Inc. Ocean water flows vertically and horizontally, influencing climate Upwelling = the vertical flow of cold, deep water towards the surface -High primary productivity and lucrative fisheries -Where winds blow away from, or parallel to, coastlines Downwelling = oxygen-rich water sinks where surface currents come together 13-12 Slide 13 2010 Pearson Education Canada Copyright 2013 Pearson Canada Inc. Upwelling 13-13 Slide 14 2010 Pearson Education Canada Copyright 2013 Pearson Canada Inc. The upper waters of the oceans flow horizontally in currents (contd) Thermohaline circulation = global oceanic circulation system of upwelling and downwelling currents Ocean water flows horizontally wind systems and air pressure Gyre = an oceanic current that flows in a circular motion -Coriolis force = artifact of Earths rotation There is concern that climate change might disrupt both the thermohaline circulation and gyres/ currents (such as the Gulf Stream that keeps the UK temperate) 13-14 Slide 15 2010 Pearson Education Canada Copyright 2013 Pearson Canada Inc. The upper waters of the oceans flow horizontally in currents 13-15 Slide 16 2010 Pearson Education Canada Copyright 2013 Pearson Canada Inc. Great Pacific Garbage Continent Leah submitted some information about some new technology developed to start to process this plastic. Slide 17 2010 Pearson Education Canada Copyright 2013 Pearson Canada Inc. La Nia and El Nio demonstrate the atmosphere-ocean connection El Nio -Equatorial winds weaken -Warm water flows eastward and suppresses upwellings -Alter weather worldwide -Canada abnormally warm and dry La Nia -Opposite to El Nio -Weather: Canada abnormally cool and wet 13-17 Slide 18 2010 Pearson Education Canada Copyright 2013 Pearson Canada Inc. Seafloor topography can be rugged and complex The seafloor consists of: -Volcanoes -Steep canyons -Mountain range -The planets longest range is under water -Mounds of debris -Trenches -Some flat areas -And fault lines! 13-18 Slide 19 2010 Pearson Education Canada Copyright 2013 Pearson Canada Inc. Seafloor topography can be rugged and complex (contd) Bathymetry = the measurement of ocean depths Topography = the physical geography or the shape and arrangement of landforms Continental shelves = gently sloping areas that underlie the shallow waters bordering continents Continental slope = connects the continental shelf to the ocean floor Abyssal plain = flat bottom of the deep ocean 13-19 Slide 20 2010 Pearson Education Canada Copyright 2013 Pearson Canada Inc. A stylized bathymetric profile of the ocean 13-20 Slide 21 2010 Pearson Education Canada Copyright 2013 Pearson Canada Inc. Marine and Coastal Ecosystems 13-21 Slide 22 2010 Pearson Education Canada Copyright 2013 Pearson Canada Inc. Marine and coastal ecosystems Some zones support more life than others Photic zone = well-lit top layer that supports high primary productivity Pelagic = habitats and ecosystems occurring between the oceans surface and floor Benthic = habitats and ecosystems occurring on the ocean floor 13-22 Slide 23 2010 Pearson Education Canada Copyright 2013 Pearson Canada Inc. Open-ocean systems vary in their biological diversity Phytoplankton constitute the base of the marine food chain in the pelagic zone; they are being affected by increasing ocean acidity Zooplankton feed on them Fish, jellyfish, whales, feed on zooplankton Predators at higher trophic levels include larger fish, sea turtles, sharks, and fish- eating birds 13-23 Slide 24 2010 Pearson Education Canada Copyright 2013 Pearson Canada Inc. Open-ocean systems vary in their biological diversity (contd) Animals adapt to extreme water pressure and the absence of light -Scavenge carcasses or organic detritus -Some are predators, others have mutualistic relationships with bacteria -Some carry bacteria that produce light chemically by bioluminescence Hydrothermal vents support chemosynthetic species 13-24 Slide 25 2010 Pearson Education Canada Copyright 2013 Pearson Canada Inc. Shallow-water systems are highly productive Kelp = large, dense, brown algae growing from the floor of continental shelves Dense strands provide shelter and food for organisms Underwater forests Absorbs wave energy and protects shorelines from erosion Alginates serve as thickeners in cosmetics, paints, paper, and soaps 13-25 Slide 26 2010 Pearson Education Canada Copyright 2013 Pearson Canada Inc. Shallow-water systems are highly productive (contd) Coral reef = a mass of calcium carbonate composed of the skeletons of corals Located in shallow subtropical and tropical waters -Consists of millions of densely packed individuals -Protect shorelines by absorbing waves -Innumerable invertebrates and fish species find food and shelter in reef nooks and crannies -Are in real trouble because of climate change 13-26 Slide 27 2010 Pearson Education Canada Copyright 2013 Pearson Canada Inc. Shallow-water systems are highly productive (contd) Corals = tiny colonial marine organisms -Related to sea anemones and jellyfish -Remain attached to rock or existing reef -Capture passing food with stinging tentacles -Derive nourishment from symbiotic algae, zooxanthallae 13-27 Slide 28 2010 Pearson Education Canada Copyright 2013 Pearson Canada Inc. Shallow-water systems are highly productive (contd) Coral bleaching = occurs when zooxanthellae leave the coral -Coral die, leaving white patches Nutrient pollution causes algal growth, which covers coral Divers damage reefs by using cyanide to capture fish Acidification of oceans deprives corals of carbonate ions 13-28 Slide 29 2010 Pearson Education Canada Copyright 2013 Pearson Canada Inc. Intertidal zones undergo constant change Intertidal (littoral) ecosystems = where the ocean meets the land -between the uppermost reach of the high tide and the lowest limit of the low tide Tides = periodic rising and falling of the oceans height due to the gravitational pull of the sun and moon -Intertidal organisms spend part of their time submerged in water and part of their time exposed to sun and wind 13-29 Slide 30 2010 Pearson Education Canada Copyright 2013 Pearson Canada Inc. A typical intertidal zone 13-30 Some of you included in your mid- term assignment. Slide 31 2010 Pearson Education Canada Copyright 2013 Pearson Canada Inc. Coastal ecosystems protect shorelines Salt marsh = occur along coasts at temperate latitude (small vestiges remain in Victoria and Esquimalt) -Tides wash over gently sloping, sandy, silty substrates -High primary productivity -Critical habitat for birds and commercial fish and shellfish species -Filter pollution -Stabilize shorelines against storm surges 13-31 Slide 32 2010 Pearson Education Canada Copyright 2013 Pearson Canada Inc. Coastal ecosystems protect shorelines (contd) Mangroves = trees with unique roots -Curve up for oxygen -Curve down for support Nurseries for commercial fish and shellfish Nesting areas for birds Food, medicine, tools, construction materials 13-32 Slide 33 2010 Pearson Education Canada Copyright 2013 Pearson Canada Inc. Coastal ecosystems protect shorelines (contd) Mangroves are threatened: -Threatened by development and shrimp farming -Half the worlds mangrove forests are gone -Once destroyed, coastal areas no longer -Slow runoff -Filter pollutants -Retain soil -Protect communities against storm surges We are protecting only 1% of remaining mangroves 13-33 Slide 34 2010 Pearson Education Canada Copyright 2013 Pearson Canada Inc. Freshwater meets saltwater in estuaries Estuaries = water bodies where rivers flow into the ocean -Wide fluctuations in salinity Critical habitat for shorebirds and shellfish Transitional zone for anadromous (spawn in freshwater, mature in salt water) fishes e.g. salmon Affected by development, pollution, habitat alteration, and overfishing Anyone know what has compromised the health of the Nanaimo Estuary? 13-34 Slide 35 2010 Pearson Education Canada Copyright 2013 Pearson Canada Inc. Human Use and Impact 13-35 Slide 36 2010 Pearson Education Canada Copyright 2013 Pearson Canada Inc. Oceans provide transportation routes Humans have interacted with oceans for thousands of years -Moving people and products over vast distances -Accelerated global reach of cultures Has substantial impact on the environment -Moves resources around the world -Ballast water transplants organisms, which may become invasive 13-36 Slide 37 2010 Pearson Education Canada Copyright 2013 Pearson Canada Inc. We extract energy and minerals Crude oil and natural gas -Oil spills damage fisheries Methane hydrate = a potential energy source -Ice-like solid methane embedded in water crystals -A vast supply, but research needs to be done Renewable energy sources, such as waves, tides, heat 13-37 Slide 38 2010 Pearson Education Canada Copyright 2013 Pearson Canada Inc. We extract energy and minerals (contd) Minerals such as sand, gravel, sulfur, calcium carbonate, and silica Rich deposits of copper, zinc, silver, and gold Manganese nodules are scattered along the oceans floor -But, they are too hard to currently mine 13-38 Slide 39 2010 Pearson Education Canada Copyright 2013 Pearson Canada Inc. Marine pollution threatens resources and marine life Even into the mid-20th century, coastal U.S. cities dumped trash and untreated sewage along their shores Oil, plastic, chemicals, excess nutrients make their way from land into oceans Raw sewage and trash from cruise ships Abandoned fishing gear from fishing boats In their 25 th annual cleanup, Ocean Conservancys International Coastal Cleanup, almost 500,000 volunteers from more than 100 nations, picked up 16 million kg of trash 13-39 Slide 40 2010 Pearson Education Canada Copyright 2013 Pearson Canada Inc. Marine pollution threatens resources and marine life (contd) Plastic dumped into the sea harms wildlife -Mistake floating plastic debris for food Most plastic is non- biodegradable -Drifts for decades Marine debris affects people -Equipment damage 13-40 See Chris Jordans trailer for his new film, Midway, at http://www.midwayfilm.com/.http://www.midwayfilm.com/ Slide 41 2010 Pearson Education Canada Copyright 2013 Pearson Canada Inc. Marine pollution threatens resources and marine life (contd) Ocean acidification -Decrease in acidity (pH) of ocean water -Caused by uptake of atmospheric carbon dioxide -Corals and other marine organisms that build their shells are at risk 13-41 Slide 42 2010 Pearson Education Canada Copyright 2013 Pearson Canada Inc. Oil pollution comes from many sources Major oils spills (i.e., the Exxon Valdez, BP Deepwater Horizon) make headlines and cause serious environmental problems Most pollution comes from small sources -Boat leakage and runoff from land -Naturally occurring leaks from the seabed Oil spills coat and poison wildlife 13-42 Slide 43 2010 Pearson Education Canada Copyright 2013 Pearson Canada Inc. Pollutants can contaminate seafood Mercury contamination -From coal combustion and other sources -Bioaccumulates and biomagnifies -Dangerous to young children and pregnant or nursing mothers -Avoid eating fish and shellfish at high trophic levels -Avoid seafood from areas where health advisories have been issued 13-43 Slide 44 2010 Pearson Education Canada Copyright 2013 Pearson Canada Inc. Excess nutrients cause algal blooms Algal blooms = nutrients increase populations of algae that produce powerful toxins Red tide = blooms of algal species that produce reddish pigments and discolor water -Illness and death to wildlife and humans -Economic losses to fishing industries and beach tourism Reduce runoff and prevent consumption of affected organisms 13-44 Slide 45 2010 Pearson Education Canada Copyright 2013 Pearson Canada Inc. Emptying the Ocean 13-45 Slide 46 2010 Pearson Education Canada Copyright 2013 Pearson Canada Inc. Emptying the oceans We are placing unprecedented pressure on marine resources -Half the worlds marine fish populations are fully exploited -25% of fish population are overexploited and heading to extinction 2006 study in Science: -Predicted that populations of all ocean species we fish for today will collapse by the year 2048 13-46 Slide 47 2010 Pearson Education Canada Copyright 2013 Pearson Canada Inc. We have long overfished Some species hunted to extinction: Stellers sea cow, Atlantic gray whale, Caribbean monk seal Overharvesting of Chesapeake Bay oyster beds led to the collapse of its fishery. Currently, numbers stand at less than 1% of historic numbers. People never imagined that groundfish could be depleted -New approaches or technologies increased catch rates 13-47 Slide 48 2010 Pearson Education Canada Copyright 2013 Pearson Canada Inc. Fishing has become industrialized Driftnets for schools of herring, sardines, mackerel, sharks Longline fishing for tuna and swordfish Bottom-trawling for pelagic fish and groundfish 13-48 Slide 49 2010 Pearson Education Canada Copyright 2013 Pearson Canada Inc. Some fishing practices kill nontarget animals and damage ecosystems By-catch = the accidental capture of animals Driftnetting drowns dolphins, turtles, and seals -Banned or restricted by many nations Longline fishing kills turtles, sharks, and albatrosses -300,000 seabirds die each year Bottom-trawling destroys communities -Likened to clear-cutting and strip mining 13-49 Slide 50 2010 Pearson Education Canada Copyright 2013 Pearson Canada Inc. Modern fishing fleets deplete marine life 13-50 Slide 51 2010 Pearson Education Canada Copyright 2013 Pearson Canada Inc. Some fishing practices kill non-target animals and damage ecosystems (contd) Catch rates drop precipitously with industrialized fishing -90% of large-bodied fish and sharks are eliminated within 10 years -Populations stabilize at 10% of their former levels Marine communities may have been very different before industrial fishing -Removing animals at higher trophic levels allows prey to proliferate and change communities 13-51 Slide 52 2010 Pearson Education Canada Copyright 2013 Pearson Canada Inc. 13-52 Oceans today contain only one-tenth of the large-bodied animals Slide 53 2010 Pearson Education Canada Copyright 2013 Pearson Canada Inc. Several factors mask declines Industrialized fishing has depleted stocks, global catch has remained stable for the past 20 years -Fishing fleets travel longer distances to reach less- fished portions of the ocean -Fleets spend more time fishing -Fishing in deeper water -Improved technologies: faster ships, sonar mapping, satellite navigation, thermal sensing, aerial spotting -Data supplied to international monitoring agencies may be false 13-53 Slide 54 2010 Pearson Education Canada Copyright 2013 Pearson Canada Inc. We are fishing down the food chain Figures on total global catch do not relate the species, age, and size of fish harvested As fishing increases, the size and age of fish caught decline -10-year-old cod, once common, are now rare As species become too rare to fish, fleets target other species -Shifting from large, desirable species to smaller, less desirable ones -Entails catching species at lower trophic levels 13-54 Slide 55 2010 Pearson Education Canada Copyright 2013 Pearson Canada Inc. Aquaculture has benefits and drawbacks Aquaculture = farm fisheries -30% of the worlds fish production -Canada is fourth-largest producer of farmed salmon in the world -Freshwater fish and shellfish (clams, oysters, mussels) -Canada is now authorizing the production of GM salmon 13-55 Slide 56 2010 Pearson Education Canada Copyright 2013 Pearson Canada Inc. Aquaculture has benefits and drawbacks (contd) Benefits -Improves food security, though still uses wild fish -Reduces pressure on wild stocks -10 to 1000 times more energy-efficient Drawbacks -Increased disease causes antibiotic use -High-density fishery causes more waste -Can damage landscape -Can spread sea lice to wild populations 13-56 Slide 57 2010 Pearson Education Canada Copyright 2013 Pearson Canada Inc. Consumer choice can influence marine harvest practices Buy eco-labeled seafood -Dolphin-safe or, better yet, pole and line, tuna Use consumer guides -SeaChoice or Seafood Watch seafood guides -Some best choices: farmed catfish and caviar, sardines, Canadian snow crab, Pacific halibut, trap-caught shrimp -Some to avoid: Atlantic cod and halibut, wild caviar, imported King crab, shark, farmed shrimp -See also http://www.davidsuzuki.org/what-you-can- do/food-and-our-planet/suzukis-top-10-sustainable- seafood-picks/ 13-57 Slide 58 2010 Pearson Education Canada Copyright 2013 Pearson Canada Inc. Eating Seafood After reading this chapter, Do you plan to alter your decisions about eating seafood in any way? If so, how? If not, why not? Do you think consumer buying choices can exert an influence on fishing practices? On mercury contamination in seafood? weighing the issues 13-58 Slide 59 2010 Pearson Education Canada Copyright 2013 Pearson Canada Inc. Marine biodiversity loss erodes ecosystem services 2006 study in Science, showed effects of biodiversity loss on ecosystems -Less primary and secondary production -Less able to withstand disturbance -Reduced habitats for fish and shellfish -Reduced filtering and detoxification 13-59 Slide 60 2010 Pearson Education Canada Copyright 2013 Pearson Canada Inc. Marine Conservation 13-60 Slide 61 2010 Pearson Education Canada Copyright 2013 Pearson Canada Inc. Fisheries management has been based on maximum sustainable yield Maximum sustainable yield = Maximal harvest while keeping fish available for the future Despite management, stocks have plummeted Ecosystem-based management -Shift away from species and toward the larger ecosystem -Consider the impacts of fishing on habitat and species interactions -Set aside areas of oceans free from human interference 13-61 Slide 62 2010 Pearson Education Canada Copyright 2013 Pearson Canada Inc. We can protect areas in the ocean Marine protected areas (MPAs) = established along the coastlines of developed countries -Still allow fishing or other extractive activities Marine reserves = areas where fishing is prohibited -Leave ecosystems intact, without human interference -Improve fisheries, because young fish will disperse into surrounding areas Many commercial, recreation fishers, and businesses do not support reserves 13-62 Slide 63 2010 Pearson Education Canada Copyright 2013 Pearson Canada Inc. Reserves can work for both fish and fishers Found that reserves do work as win-win solutions In 2001 census by marine scientists stated, that in addition to boosting fish biomass, total catch, and record-sized fish, marine reserves: -Within reserve boundaries -Produce rapid and long-term abundance, diversity, and productivity -Decrease mortality and habitat destruction -Lessen the likelihood of extirpation 13-63 Slide 64 2010 Pearson Education Canada Copyright 2013 Pearson Canada Inc. Reserves can work for both fish and fishers (contd) Marine reserves: -Outside reserve boundaries -Spillover effect = protected species spread outside reserve -Larvae of protected species seed the sea outside the reserve -Improved fishing and ecotourism 13-64 Slide 65 2010 Pearson Education Canada Copyright 2013 Pearson Canada Inc. How should reserves be designed? 20-50% of the ocean should be protected in no-take reserves -How large? -How many? -Where? Involving fishers is crucial fisheries in coming with these answers 13-65 Slide 66 2010 Pearson Education Canada Copyright 2013 Pearson Canada Inc. Pre-statehood, the US government managed the Alaskan fishery. In 1938: there was a harvest of 120 million fish. In 1958, a harvest of 20 million. A year later, Alaska became a state. For a variety of reasons, by 1972 the harvest was even lower. It was decided to take action in the form of limiting the entry of new fishing vessels; rebuilding wild stocks; constructing hatcheries; improving stock enhancement, and initiating ocean ranching. Another Model: Alaska Fisheries Slide 67 2010 Pearson Education Canada Copyright 2013 Pearson Canada Inc. With ocean ranching one strips the eggs from the brood stock, rears them in a hatchery, then places them in ocean nets for 3-4 weeks offshore away from wild stock migration routes, after which they are turned loose. Meanwhile, they have spent enough time to become imprinted on the area of the ocean nets to return and are thus easy to scoop up, rather than having to be chased. Alaska Fisheries Slide 68 2010 Pearson Education Canada Copyright 2013 Pearson Canada Inc. In Oregon, where ocean ranching was initiated, it was taken over by Weyerhauser. In Alaska, the key focus for debate was the hatcheries. There was strong pressure for them to be corporate-controlled on the argument that governments are inherently inefficient, but the fishers resisted. They didnt want to see the privatization of the commons. Alaska Fisheries Slide 69 2010 Pearson Education Canada Copyright 2013 Pearson Canada Inc. The state government responded by bringing all the players together to come up with a strategic plan, of which the ranching was a key component. Initially, government took over the hatchery program and made a hash of it (harvests declined to 4 million fish). All gear groups were united in the nature of their critique. By 1976, Regional Aquaculture Associations had been formed representing fishers and other stakeholders in partnership with the state. One particularly successful one has been the Northern Southeast Regional Aquaculture Association (NSRAA). Alaska Fisheries Slide 70 2010 Pearson Education Canada Copyright 2013 Pearson Canada Inc. Slide 71 2010 Pearson Education Canada Copyright 2013 Pearson Canada Inc. The organization has achieved its goal of having 85% of fish produced in the area being harvested as a common resource. The hatcheries, now operated by non-profit organizations, are costly to run, as are the rest of the management and decision-making activities. Conventional banks would not look at them, so Alaska set up a State Fisheries Enhancement Loan Fund to extend long-term loans with holidays on the interest and principal. However, this was inadequate, so the fishers demanded that they be subjected to a 2-3% tax on all landed fish to further contribute to the shared infrastructure. By 1980, the NSRAA had paid off its original loan. Alaska Fisheries Slide 72 2010 Pearson Education Canada Copyright 2013 Pearson Canada Inc. The benefits of the model: It seems to protect and enhance the fish stocks. The benefits stay mostly with fishers and their communities. It avoids the tragedy of the commons (actually open access systems that Garrett Hardin mistook for the commons), and It keeps control largely in the hands of those most affected. Alaska Fisheries Model Slide 73 2010 Pearson Education Canada Copyright 2013 Pearson Canada Inc. Conclusion Oceans cover most of our planet and contains diverse topography and ecosystems We are learning about the oceans and coastal environments, intensifying our use of their resources and causing more severe impacts Setting aside protected areas of the ocean can serve to maintain natural systems and enhance fisheries Look beyond simply making fisheries stable and instead consider restoring the ecological systems that once flourished in our waters 13-73