© 2013 Cengage Learning

OutlineOutline

Culture and Temperament What is Temperament? The Goodness of Fit between Temperament and

Culture Cross-Cultural Studies on Temperament Temperament and Learning Culture Dimensions of Temperament: A Focus on Behavioral

Inhibition Sources behind Temperament Differences

Outline (cont’d.)Outline (cont’d.)

Culture and Attachment Bowlby's Theory of Attachment Bowlby and Ainsworth's Classification System of

Attachment Cross-Cultural Studies on Attachment Is Secure Attachment a Universal Ideal?

Temperament and Attachment: A Summary

Outline (cont’d.)Outline (cont’d.)

Cognitive Development Piaget's Theory Piaget's Theory in Cross-Cultural Perspective Piaget's Theory: Summary and Discussion Other Theories of Cognitive Development

Outline (cont’d.)Outline (cont’d.)

Moral Reasoning What is Moral? Kohlberg's Theory of Morality Cross-Cultural Studies of Moral Reasoning Three Ethics Approach to Moral Reasoning

Other Developmental Processes Conclusion

CULTURE AND CULTURE AND TEMPERAMENTTEMPERAMENT

Culture and TemperamentCulture and Temperament

Process of socialization starts from very first day of life

Characteristics we are born with determine how our caregivers react and interact with us, initiating lifelong process of socialization

Children of different cultures are born with different biological predispositions to learn certain cultural practices

What is Temperament?What is Temperament?

Temperament: biologically based style of interacting with world that exists from birth

Easy temperament: adaptable, mild Difficult temperament: intense, irregular Slow-to-warm-up: needs time to make

transitions

The Goodness of Fit between The Goodness of Fit between Temperament and CultureTemperament and Culture

How well does a child’s temperament match the expectations and values of the parent? Mismatch: more negative child outcomes are

expected Good match: better child outcomes are expected

Dispositions and behaviors must be considered in relation to specific culture

Same dispositions and behaviors may have different meanings in different cultures

Cross-Cultural Studies on Cross-Cultural Studies on TemperamentTemperament

If different temperaments at birth, children of different cultures will respond to environment differently

Children of different cultures will also evoke different responses from caregivers and environment

Consequence: fundamental differences in learning, social experiences, worldview, and culture of children as they grow

Temperament and Learning CultureTemperament and Learning Culture

Differences in infant temperament help parents reinforce cultural practices

Temperament serves as baseline biological predisposition

Cultural differences evident early in life indicate personalities and behaviors valued in adults

Child's temperament and environmental response results in differences in learning, social experiences, behaviors, personalities, and worldviews

Dimensions of Temperament: A Dimensions of Temperament: A Focus on Behavioral InhibitionFocus on Behavioral Inhibition

Activity level Smiling and laughter Fear Distress to limitations Soothability Duration of orienting

Sources Behind Sources Behind Temperament DifferencesTemperament Differences

Developmental contextualism perspective: genetics, reproductive histories, and environmental and cultural pressures over generations

Cultural experiences of mother during pregnancy

Complex interplay between multiple factors such as temperamental styles valued in each culture, specific environmental demands, and physiological aspects of mother

CULTURE AND CULTURE AND ATTACHMENTATTACHMENT

Culture and AttachmentCulture and Attachment

Attachment: special bond that develops between infant and caregiver

Quality of attachment has lifelong effects on relationships with loved ones

Attachment provides child with emotional security

Once attached, babies are distressed by separation from caregiver

Bowlby's Theory of AttachmentBowlby's Theory of Attachment

Infants must have a preprogrammed, biological basis for becoming attached to their caregivers

Smiling and cooing elicits physical attachment behaviors on part of caregiver

Attachment relationship between caregiver and child is survival strategy

Bowlby and Ainsworth's Bowlby and Ainsworth's Classification System of AttachmentClassification System of Attachment Tripartite classification system of attachment

relationships Secure: infant distressed when mother leaves but

easily comforted when she returns Ambivalent: infant is distressed when mother leaves

but sends mixed signals upon return Avoidant: not distressed when mother leaves and

upon return, avoids reuniting with mother

Cross-Cultural Studies on Cross-Cultural Studies on AttachmentAttachment

Strange Situation study: infants separated from mothers for a brief period of time

Meaning of separation may differ across cultures Researchers have questioned appropriateness

of different categories of attachment Maternal sensitivity has not been consistently

linked to secure attachment

Is Secure Attachment a Is Secure Attachment a Universal Ideal?Universal Ideal?

Cultures may differ in notion of "ideal" attachment

Attachment relationships in childhood may have long-term consequences into adolescence and adulthood

Early attachment relationships affect quality of peer relationships, ability to develop intimate adult relationships, and how one parents

Attachment between infants and caregivers is universal phenomenon

TEMPERAMENT AND TEMPERAMENT AND ATTACHMENT: A ATTACHMENT: A

SUMMARYSUMMARY

Temperament and Attachment: Temperament and Attachment: A SummaryA Summary

Optimal style of attachment in one culture may not necessarily be optimal across all cultures

Examining attachment "network" instead of focusing solely on dyads is of crucial importance

Close interaction between infant’s temperament, attachment with caregiver, and broader environment that contributes to development

COGNITIVE COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENTDEVELOPMENT

Piaget's TheoryPiaget's Theory

Sensorimotor stage: (birth to 2 years) Children understand by perceiving and doing

Preoperational stage: (2 to 6 or 7 years) Conservation, centration, irreversibility, egocentrism,

and animism

Concrete operations stage: (6 or 7 years to 11) Thinking skills to work with actual objects and events

Formal operations stage: (11 years through adulthood) Think logically about abstract concepts

Piaget's Theory in Cross-Cultural Piaget's Theory in Cross-Cultural PerspectivePerspective

Piaget's stages occur in same fixed order in other cultures

Variations in ages at which children in different societies reach third and fourth Piagetian stages

Considerable variation in order in which children acquire specific skills within Piaget's stages

Different societies value and reward different skills and behaviors

Piaget's Theory: Summary and Piaget's Theory: Summary and DiscussionDiscussion

In some cultures, very few people complete fourth-stage Piagetian tasks

Are Piagetian tasks culturally appropriate? Do Piagetian tasks depend on previous

knowledge and cultural values? Within-culture differences hinder inferences

about differences in cognitive development between cultures

Universality of fourth stage of Piaget's theory of cognitive development is questionable

Other Theories of Cognitive Other Theories of Cognitive DevelopmentDevelopment

Great divide theory: separates thoughts of Westerners from people in primitive societies

Stage theories judge people from other cultures based on how closely they resemble westerners

People from many cultures prefer own groups and rate them more positively than outsiders

Piaget theory emphasized several concepts important for cognitive development today

“Everyday cognition”: cognition in the context of daily activities within cultural community

MORAL REASONINGMORAL REASONING

Moral ReasoningMoral Reasoning

Moral principles and ethics provide guidelines for people's behaviors with regard to what is appropriate and what is not

Morality is heavily influenced by underlying, subjective, and implicit culture

Morality serves as basis of laws, and thus culture also affects laws of society

What is Moral?What is Moral?

Types of rules children as young as three can differentiate: Moral: applies to everyone; cannot be changed;

based on values Conventional: applies to certain groups; changeable;

based on agreed-upon norms Personal: applies to individuals; changeable; based

on preferences of specific person

Kohlberg's Theory of MoralityKohlberg's Theory of Morality

Preconventional morality: compliance with rules to avoid punishment and gain rewards

Conventional morality: conformity to rules defined by others' approval or society's rules

Postconventional morality: moral reasoning on basis of individual principles and conscience

Cross-Cultural Studies of Moral Cross-Cultural Studies of Moral ReasoningReasoning

Some aspects of Kohlberg's theory of morality are universal

Many studies on moral reasoning raise questions about universal generalizability of Kohlberg's highest stage (postconventional)

Cross-cultural studies have shown that people from different cultures do reason differently about moral dilemmas

Three Ethics Approach to Moral Three Ethics Approach to Moral ReasoningReasoning

Ethic of autonomy: emphasizes individual rights and justice

Ethic of community: emphasizes interpersonal relationships and community

Ethic of divinity: centrality of religious beliefs and spirituality in moral reasoning

OTHER DEVELOPMENTAL OTHER DEVELOPMENTAL PROCESSESPROCESSES

Other Developmental ProcessesOther Developmental Processes

Cross-cultural research offers important insights into how differences observed in adults have come to be

Renewed interest in cross-cultural developmental research due to increased interest in culture in all areas of psychology

Cross-cultural studies highlight similarities and differences in development across cultures

CONCLUSIONCONCLUSION

ConclusionConclusion

Two key issues concerning human development: Whether developmental pathways are universal or

culture specific How development occurs

All people are born into specific cultures with unique set of characteristics and predispositions

Each culture exerts influence, and in combination with each unique cultural member, produces specific tendencies, trends, and differences in members