© 2013 the mcgraw-hill companies, inc. all rights reserved. developmentdevelopment chapter 8

© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

DevelopmentDevelopmentDevelopmentDevelopment

Chapter 8Chapter 8

© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.2

Nature, Nurture, & Prenatal DevelopmentNature, Nurture, & Prenatal DevelopmentNature, Nurture, & Prenatal DevelopmentNature, Nurture, & Prenatal Development

• Learning Outcomes– Compare and contrast the influence of nature

versus nurture– Describe developmental research techniques– Discuss prenatal development

• Learning Outcomes– Compare and contrast the influence of nature

versus nurture– Describe developmental research techniques– Discuss prenatal development


Nature, Nurture, & Prenatal DevelopmentNature, Nurture, & Prenatal DevelopmentNature, Nurture, & Prenatal DevelopmentNature, Nurture, & Prenatal Development

• Nature-nurture issue: the issue of the degree to which environment (nurture) and heredity (nature) influence behavior– No longer a question of nature versus nurture

because both factors interact to produce developmental patterns and outcomes

– Now we ask, how and to what degree do nature and nurture produce their effects?

• Nature-nurture issue: the issue of the degree to which environment (nurture) and heredity (nature) influence behavior– No longer a question of nature versus nurture

because both factors interact to produce developmental patterns and outcomes

– Now we ask, how and to what degree do nature and nurture produce their effects?


Nature vs. NurtureNature vs. NurtureNature vs. NurtureNature vs. Nurture

• Experimentally control genetic makeup of laboratory animals, then study environmental influences• Identical twins (share 100% of their genetic

makeup) and non-twin siblings raised apart: similarities as adults show importance of heredity

• Adopted children: similarities with biological children in same family show importance of environment

• Experimentally control genetic makeup of laboratory animals, then study environmental influences• Identical twins (share 100% of their genetic

makeup) and non-twin siblings raised apart: similarities as adults show importance of heredity

• Adopted children: similarities with biological children in same family show importance of environment


Developmental Research TechniquesDevelopmental Research TechniquesDevelopmental Research TechniquesDevelopmental Research Techniques

• Cross-sectional research: comparing people of different ages at the same point in time

• Longitudinal research: studying the same people as they age

• Sequential research: combination of cross-sectional and longitudinal; considers different age groups, examined at several points in time

• Cross-sectional research: comparing people of different ages at the same point in time

• Longitudinal research: studying the same people as they age

• Sequential research: combination of cross-sectional and longitudinal; considers different age groups, examined at several points in time


Prenatal DevelopmentPrenatal DevelopmentPrenatal DevelopmentPrenatal Development

• Basics of genetics– Chromosomes: rod-shaped structures that contain

all basic hereditary information; 23 pairs, one chromosome of each pair from the mother and one from the father

• Genes

• Zygote: the new cell formed by the union of an egg and sperm

• Basics of genetics– Chromosomes: rod-shaped structures that contain

all basic hereditary information; 23 pairs, one chromosome of each pair from the mother and one from the father

• Genes

• Zygote: the new cell formed by the union of an egg and sperm



• Embryo: a developed zygote that has a heart, a brain, and other organs

• Fetus: a developing individual, from eight weeks after conception until birth

• Age of viability: the point at which a fetus can survive if born prematurely (about 22 weeks)

• Embryo: a developed zygote that has a heart, a brain, and other organs

• Fetus: a developing individual, from eight weeks after conception until birth

• Age of viability: the point at which a fetus can survive if born prematurely (about 22 weeks)



• Sensitive/critical periods: during prenatal development, time when the fetus is particularly susceptible to certain kinds of stimuli

• Sensitive/critical periods: during prenatal development, time when the fetus is particularly susceptible to certain kinds of stimuli


Genetic Influences on the FetusGenetic Influences on the FetusGenetic Influences on the FetusGenetic Influences on the Fetus

• Phenylketonuria (PKU): child cannot produce enzyme needed for normal development; causes intellectual disabilities

• Sickle-cell anemia: causes abnormally shaped red blood cells

• Down syndrome: zygote receives extra chromosome at moment of conception; one of the causes of mental retardation

• Phenylketonuria (PKU): child cannot produce enzyme needed for normal development; causes intellectual disabilities

• Sickle-cell anemia: causes abnormally shaped red blood cells

• Down syndrome: zygote receives extra chromosome at moment of conception; one of the causes of mental retardation


Prenatal Environment InfluencesPrenatal Environment InfluencesPrenatal Environment InfluencesPrenatal Environment Influences

• Teratogens: environmental agents (drugs, chemicals, etc.) that produce a birth defect

• Mother’s nutrition• Mother’s illness• Alcohol & nicotine use

– Fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS)/fetal alcohol effects (FAE)

• Teratogens: environmental agents (drugs, chemicals, etc.) that produce a birth defect

• Mother’s nutrition• Mother’s illness• Alcohol & nicotine use

– Fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS)/fetal alcohol effects (FAE)


Infancy and ChildhoodInfancy and ChildhoodInfancy and ChildhoodInfancy and Childhood

• Learning Outcomes– Describe the major competencies of newborns– Explain the milestones of physical, social, and

cognitive development during childhood

• Learning Outcomes– Describe the major competencies of newborns– Explain the milestones of physical, social, and

cognitive development during childhood


The Extraordinary NewbornThe Extraordinary NewbornThe Extraordinary NewbornThe Extraordinary Newborn

• Reflexes: automatic, involuntary responses to incoming stimuli – Neonate born with rooting, sucking, gag, startle, &

Babinski reflexes

• Sensory development: neonates can follow moving objects within their field of vision, show some depth perception, discriminate facial expressions, recognize their mothers’ voices at 3 days old, and recognize different tastes and smells

• Reflexes: automatic, involuntary responses to incoming stimuli – Neonate born with rooting, sucking, gag, startle, &

Babinski reflexes

• Sensory development: neonates can follow moving objects within their field of vision, show some depth perception, discriminate facial expressions, recognize their mothers’ voices at 3 days old, and recognize different tastes and smells


Infancy through Middle ChildhoodInfancy through Middle ChildhoodInfancy through Middle ChildhoodInfancy through Middle Childhood

• Attachment: positive emotional bond that develops between a child and a particular individual, usually a caregiver (Harlow’s research with monkeys)– Classified as secure, avoidant, ambivalent, or

disorganized-disoriented– Father’s role: nature of attachment is similar to

mother’s, but type of play/interaction may be different (fathers engage in more physical activities, while mothers are more verbal)

• Attachment: positive emotional bond that develops between a child and a particular individual, usually a caregiver (Harlow’s research with monkeys)– Classified as secure, avoidant, ambivalent, or

disorganized-disoriented– Father’s role: nature of attachment is similar to

mother’s, but type of play/interaction may be different (fathers engage in more physical activities, while mothers are more verbal)



• Child care outside the home can be beneficial, especially for children from disadvantaged homes, if it is a high-quality program

• Parenting styles– Authoritarian: rigid, punitive, demand obedience,

require a lot from their children– Permissive: relaxed or inconsistent direction,

require little from their children

• Child care outside the home can be beneficial, especially for children from disadvantaged homes, if it is a high-quality program

• Parenting styles– Authoritarian: rigid, punitive, demand obedience,

require a lot from their children– Permissive: relaxed or inconsistent direction,

require little from their children



• Parenting Styles (cont’d)– Authoritative: firm, set limits, use reasoning,

explain things, encourage independence– Uninvolved: show little interest, emotionally

detached, believe parenting is only providing food, clothing, and shelter

• Specific kinds of parenting styles may, in part, be brought about by the child’s temperament (basic, innate disposition with which the child is born)

• Parenting Styles (cont’d)– Authoritative: firm, set limits, use reasoning,

explain things, encourage independence– Uninvolved: show little interest, emotionally

detached, believe parenting is only providing food, clothing, and shelter

• Specific kinds of parenting styles may, in part, be brought about by the child’s temperament (basic, innate disposition with which the child is born)



• Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development: change in our interactions and understanding of each other and our knowledge and understanding of ourselves as members of society; passing through each stage necessitates resolution of a crisis or conflict– Trust vs. mistrust (birth – 1 ½): develop trust if physical

and psychological needs are met– Autonomy vs. shame-and-doubt (1 – 3): develop

autonomy if exploration and freedom are encouraged

• Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development: change in our interactions and understanding of each other and our knowledge and understanding of ourselves as members of society; passing through each stage necessitates resolution of a crisis or conflict– Trust vs. mistrust (birth – 1 ½): develop trust if physical

and psychological needs are met– Autonomy vs. shame-and-doubt (1 – 3): develop

autonomy if exploration and freedom are encouraged


Figure 3Figure 3Figure 3Figure 3


• Erikson’s Theory (cont’d)– Initiative vs. guilt (3 – 6): resolved positively if parents

react positively to children’s attempts at independence– Industry vs. inferiority (6 – 12): resolved positively if child

shows increased competency in social interactions and academic skills

• Cognitive development: the process by which a child’s understanding of the world changes as a function of age and experience; intellectual development

• Erikson’s Theory (cont’d)– Initiative vs. guilt (3 – 6): resolved positively if parents

react positively to children’s attempts at independence– Industry vs. inferiority (6 – 12): resolved positively if child

shows increased competency in social interactions and academic skills

• Cognitive development: the process by which a child’s understanding of the world changes as a function of age and experience; intellectual development



• Piaget’s theory of cognitive development– Sensorimotor stage (birth – 2): understanding comes from

touching, sucking, chewing, and manipulating objects; around 9 months, develop object permanence (the awareness that objects and people continue to exist even if they are out of sight)

– Preoperational stage (2 – 7): development of language and use of symbols; still use egocentric thought (views the world entirely from his or her own perspective)

• Piaget’s theory of cognitive development– Sensorimotor stage (birth – 2): understanding comes from

touching, sucking, chewing, and manipulating objects; around 9 months, develop object permanence (the awareness that objects and people continue to exist even if they are out of sight)

– Preoperational stage (2 – 7): development of language and use of symbols; still use egocentric thought (views the world entirely from his or her own perspective)



• Piaget’s theory (cont’d)– Concrete operational stage (7 – 12): loss of egocentric

thinking, logical thought develops, but difficulty understanding abstract, hypothetical questions; beginning marked by understanding of conservation (amount, volume, or length of an object doesn’t change when its shape changes; ex.: amount of liquid in short, fat glass = amount in tall, skinny glass)

– Formal operational stage (12 – adulthood): abstract, formal, logical thought

• Piaget’s theory (cont’d)– Concrete operational stage (7 – 12): loss of egocentric

thinking, logical thought develops, but difficulty understanding abstract, hypothetical questions; beginning marked by understanding of conservation (amount, volume, or length of an object doesn’t change when its shape changes; ex.: amount of liquid in short, fat glass = amount in tall, skinny glass)

– Formal operational stage (12 – adulthood): abstract, formal, logical thought



• Many psychologists believe changes in information processing (the way in which people take in, use, and store information) are how children develop their cognitive abilities– Metacognition: an awareness and understanding

of one’s own cognitive processes

• Many psychologists believe changes in information processing (the way in which people take in, use, and store information) are how children develop their cognitive abilities– Metacognition: an awareness and understanding

of one’s own cognitive processes



• Vygotsky’s view of cognitive development– Culture in which we are raised significantly affects

cognitive development– Zone of proximal development (ZPD): the level at

which a child can almost, but not fully, comprehend or perform a task on his or her own; if information falls within the ZPD, children can master it

• Vygotsky’s view of cognitive development– Culture in which we are raised significantly affects

cognitive development– Zone of proximal development (ZPD): the level at

which a child can almost, but not fully, comprehend or perform a task on his or her own; if information falls within the ZPD, children can master it


Adolescence: Becoming an AdultAdolescence: Becoming an AdultAdolescence: Becoming an AdultAdolescence: Becoming an Adult

• Learning Outcomes– Summarize the major physical transitions that

characterize adolescence– Explain moral and cognitive development in

adolescents– Discuss social development in adolescents

• Learning Outcomes– Summarize the major physical transitions that

characterize adolescence– Explain moral and cognitive development in

adolescents– Discuss social development in adolescents


Physical DevelopmentPhysical DevelopmentPhysical DevelopmentPhysical Development

• Puberty: the period at which maturation of the sexual organs occurs, beginning at about age 11 or 12 for girls (start of menstruation) and 13 or 14 for boys (spermarche: first ejaculation)

• Puberty: the period at which maturation of the sexual organs occurs, beginning at about age 11 or 12 for girls (start of menstruation) and 13 or 14 for boys (spermarche: first ejaculation)


Moral and Cognitive DevelopmentMoral and Cognitive DevelopmentMoral and Cognitive DevelopmentMoral and Cognitive Development


Social DevelopmentSocial DevelopmentSocial DevelopmentSocial Development

• Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development: the last four stages– Identity vs. role confusion (adolescence): a time of

major testing to determine one’s unique qualities; an attempt to discover their identity (who each of us is, what our roles are, and what we are capable of)

– Intimacy vs. isolation (early adulthood): resolved positively if the person develops intimate relationships on physical, intellectual, and emotional levels

• Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development: the last four stages– Identity vs. role confusion (adolescence): a time of

major testing to determine one’s unique qualities; an attempt to discover their identity (who each of us is, what our roles are, and what we are capable of)

– Intimacy vs. isolation (early adulthood): resolved positively if the person develops intimate relationships on physical, intellectual, and emotional levels



– Erikson’s theory (cont’d)– Generativity vs. stagnation (middle adulthood):

taking stock of one’s contributions to family and society; resolved successfully if the person feels positive about the continuity of life

– Ego-integrity vs. despair (later adulthood until death): reviewing life’s accomplishments and failures; resolved successfully if one feels a sense of accomplishment and has no regrets

• Most young people go through adolescence without the stereotypical turmoil

– Erikson’s theory (cont’d)– Generativity vs. stagnation (middle adulthood):

taking stock of one’s contributions to family and society; resolved successfully if the person feels positive about the continuity of life

– Ego-integrity vs. despair (later adulthood until death): reviewing life’s accomplishments and failures; resolved successfully if one feels a sense of accomplishment and has no regrets

• Most young people go through adolescence without the stereotypical turmoil



• Suicide is the third-leading cause of death for adolescents in the U.S.– Males are five times more likely to commit suicide

than females, but females attempt suicide more often

– Rate higher among whites than nonwhites– Possible causes: depression, social anxiety, family

background, adjustment difficulties, parental conflict, alcohol and drug abuse

• Suicide is the third-leading cause of death for adolescents in the U.S.– Males are five times more likely to commit suicide

than females, but females attempt suicide more often

– Rate higher among whites than nonwhites– Possible causes: depression, social anxiety, family

background, adjustment difficulties, parental conflict, alcohol and drug abuse


AdulthoodAdulthoodAdulthoodAdulthood

• Learning Outcomes– Explain physical development in adulthood– Discuss social development in adulthood– State the impact of marriage, children, and

divorce on families– Discuss the later years of adulthood

• Learning Outcomes– Explain physical development in adulthood– Discuss social development in adulthood– State the impact of marriage, children, and

divorce on families– Discuss the later years of adulthood


AdulthoodAdulthoodAdulthoodAdulthood

• Learning Outcomes (cont’d)– Explain the physical changes that occur in late

adulthood– Identify the cognitive changes that occur in late

adulthood– Discuss the social aspects of late adulthood– Describe how people can adjust to death

• Learning Outcomes (cont’d)– Explain the physical changes that occur in late

adulthood– Identify the cognitive changes that occur in late

adulthood– Discuss the social aspects of late adulthood– Describe how people can adjust to death


Physical DevelopmentPhysical DevelopmentPhysical DevelopmentPhysical Development

• Menopause: usually occurring in late 40s or early 50s, the period during which women stop menstruating and are no longer fertile– Symptoms can be treated through hormone

therapy (HT), replacing estrogen and progesterone, but it can be dangerous: increased risk of breast cancer, blood clots, and coronary heart disease

• Menopause: usually occurring in late 40s or early 50s, the period during which women stop menstruating and are no longer fertile– Symptoms can be treated through hormone

therapy (HT), replacing estrogen and progesterone, but it can be dangerous: increased risk of breast cancer, blood clots, and coronary heart disease



• Midlife transition: for some, a time of questioning their lives, they are influenced by the idea that life will end & question past accomplishments; generally happens in early 40s

• Some experience a midlife crisis (dissatisfaction with life), but most go through middle age relatively smoothly

• Midlife transition: for some, a time of questioning their lives, they are influenced by the idea that life will end & question past accomplishments; generally happens in early 40s

• Some experience a midlife crisis (dissatisfaction with life), but most go through middle age relatively smoothly


Marriage, Children, and DivorceMarriage, Children, and DivorceMarriage, Children, and DivorceMarriage, Children, and Divorce

• Average age of marriage is higher; more cohabitation before marriage

• About half of all first marriages end in divorce• Almost 75% of married women with school-

age children are employed outside the home; 55% of those with children under age 6

• Average age of marriage is higher; more cohabitation before marriage

• About half of all first marriages end in divorce• Almost 75% of married women with school-

age children are employed outside the home; 55% of those with children under age 6


The Later Years: Growing OldThe Later Years: Growing OldThe Later Years: Growing OldThe Later Years: Growing Old

• Gerontology: the study of older adults & aging• Gerontology: the study of older adults & aging


Physical Changes in Late AdulthoodPhysical Changes in Late AdulthoodPhysical Changes in Late AdulthoodPhysical Changes in Late Adulthood

• Genetic preprogramming theories of aging: human cells have a built-in time limit to their reproduction; after a certain time they are no longer able to divide

• Wear-and-tear theories of aging: mechanical functions of the body stop working efficiently as you age

• Genetic preprogramming theories of aging: human cells have a built-in time limit to their reproduction; after a certain time they are no longer able to divide

• Wear-and-tear theories of aging: mechanical functions of the body stop working efficiently as you age


Cognitive ChangesCognitive ChangesCognitive ChangesCognitive Changes

• Fluid intelligence (information-processing skills such as memory, calculations, and analogy solving) shows decline in late adulthood, but crystallized intelligence (accumulation of information, skills, and strategies learned through experience) remain steady

• Memory loss is not inevitable with aging

• Fluid intelligence (information-processing skills such as memory, calculations, and analogy solving) shows decline in late adulthood, but crystallized intelligence (accumulation of information, skills, and strategies learned through experience) remain steady

• Memory loss is not inevitable with aging


Cognitive ChangesCognitive ChangesCognitive ChangesCognitive Changes

• Alzheimer’s disease: progressive brain disorder that leads to gradual and irreversible decline in cognitive abilities

• Alzheimer’s disease: progressive brain disorder that leads to gradual and irreversible decline in cognitive abilities


The Social World of Late AdulthoodThe Social World of Late AdulthoodThe Social World of Late AdulthoodThe Social World of Late Adulthood

• Disengagement theory of aging: aging produces a gradual withdrawal from the world on physical, psychological, and social levels

• Activity theory of aging: successful aging means maintaining the interests and activities you had during middle age

• Life review: process by which people examine and evaluate their lives

• Disengagement theory of aging: aging produces a gradual withdrawal from the world on physical, psychological, and social levels

• Activity theory of aging: successful aging means maintaining the interests and activities you had during middle age

• Life review: process by which people examine and evaluate their lives


Adjusting to DeathAdjusting to DeathAdjusting to DeathAdjusting to Death

• Elisabeth Kubler-Ross’s five stages of dealing with one’s own impending death– Denial: resist the idea they are dying– Anger: angry at people in good health around them, at

medical professionals, at God– Bargaining: trying to postpone death– Depression: bargaining will not work; “preparatory grief”

for their own death– Acceptance: made peace with themselves; usually

unemotional and uncommunicative

• Elisabeth Kubler-Ross’s five stages of dealing with one’s own impending death– Denial: resist the idea they are dying– Anger: angry at people in good health around them, at

medical professionals, at God– Bargaining: trying to postpone death– Depression: bargaining will not work; “preparatory grief”

for their own death– Acceptance: made peace with themselves; usually

unemotional and uncommunicative

© 2013 the mcgraw-hill companies, inc. all rights reserved. developmentdevelopment chapter 8

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